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Vehicles, Volume 6, Issue 4 (December 2024) – 22 articles

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31 pages, 1368 KiB  
Systematic Review
Systematic Review of the Effective Integration of Storage Systems and Electric Vehicles in Microgrid Networks: Innovative Approaches for Energy Management
by Paul Arévalo, Danny Ochoa-Correa and Edisson Villa-Ávila
Vehicles 2024, 6(4), 2075-2105; https://doi.org/10.3390/vehicles6040102 - 3 Dec 2024
Viewed by 462
Abstract
The increasing demand for more efficient and sustainable power systems, driven by the integration of renewable energy, underscores the critical role of energy storage systems (ESS) and electric vehicles (EVs) in optimizing microgrid operations. This paper provides a systematic literature review, conducted in [...] Read more.
The increasing demand for more efficient and sustainable power systems, driven by the integration of renewable energy, underscores the critical role of energy storage systems (ESS) and electric vehicles (EVs) in optimizing microgrid operations. This paper provides a systematic literature review, conducted in accordance with the PRISMA 2020 Statement, focusing on studies published between 2014 and 2024 and sourced from Web of Science and Scopus, resulting in 97 selected works. The review highlights the potential of EVs, not only as sustainable transport solutions but also as mobile storage resources, enhancing microgrid flexibility and stability through vehicle-to-grid (V2G) systems. It also underscores the importance of advanced control strategies, such as Model Predictive Control (MPC) and hybrid AC/DC microgrids, for improving energy flow management and operational resilience. Despite these advancements, gaps remain in the comprehensive integration of ESS and EVs, particularly regarding interoperability between microgrid components and the lack of optimization frameworks that holistically address dynamic pricing, grid stability, and renewable energy integration. This paper synthesizes existing technologies and offers insights for future research aimed at advancing the sustainability, efficiency, and economic viability of microgrids. Full article
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31 pages, 2788 KiB  
Article
Depreciation in the Electric Vehicle Transition: Sustainability of the Second-Hand Electric Vehicle Market
by Patil Gautam, Gayatri Pode, Ramchandra Pode, Godwin Kafui Ayetor and Boucar Diouf
Vehicles 2024, 6(4), 2044-2074; https://doi.org/10.3390/vehicles6040101 - 30 Nov 2024
Viewed by 493
Abstract
Electric vehicles (EVs) are revolutionizing road transport. They represented the most reliable and realistic option to decarbonize road transport in the last 10 years and look to be holding a promising future. EVs are in competition with internal combustion engine (ICE) vehicles, but [...] Read more.
Electric vehicles (EVs) are revolutionizing road transport. They represented the most reliable and realistic option to decarbonize road transport in the last 10 years and look to be holding a promising future. EVs are in competition with internal combustion engine (ICE) vehicles, but they still have a lower performance, particularly in range, and they remain more expensive. To guarantee the EV development and make it a sustainable substitution to ICE vehicles, the EV industry and technology development had been mostly supported by governments’ subsidies. One of the main issues EVs are facing is that they depreciate much faster than ICE vehicles, principally due to rapid technological progress that drives the market on the one hand and, on the other, makes older EV models prematurely obsolete. The other variable that contributes to faster EV depreciation is subsidies. It is expected that the end of subsidies will bring the necessary leverage to slow down EVs fast depreciation due to the wider price gap between new and pre-owned EVs. Batteries, which make EVs a practical reality, play a major role in EV depreciation. Besides the possible degradation of EV batteries, the technology development and price drop give newer models better range at a lower cost. The second-hand EV market is a fair reflection of the fast depreciation of EVs; naturally, the two subjects should be studied correlatively. It may not be obvious to draw an obvious correlation, but it seems clear that the fast depreciation of EVs is one of the major reasons why the second-hand EV market is still minor. Depreciation is a major driver of the second-hand EV market. In this manuscript are presented the main aspects of EV depreciation, particularly those related to fast technological evolution, including batteries and subsidies, as well as the second-hand EV market. Full article
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13 pages, 10679 KiB  
Article
Work-in-Progress Report: Intelligent Traffic Road Weather and Safety Services for Heavy Vehicles
by Timo Sukuvaara, Kari Mäenpää, Hannu Honkanen, Ari Pikkarainen, Marjo Hippi and Virve Karsisto
Vehicles 2024, 6(4), 2031-2043; https://doi.org/10.3390/vehicles6040100 - 28 Nov 2024
Viewed by 370
Abstract
Accidents involving heavy road vehicles are often destructive, causing operational losses, human casualties, infrastructure losses, and negative environmental impacts. The risk is especially high in wintertime traffic. The Eureka Xecs SafeTrucks project (Heavy traffic safety improvements by advanced dynamics and road weather services) [...] Read more.
Accidents involving heavy road vehicles are often destructive, causing operational losses, human casualties, infrastructure losses, and negative environmental impacts. The risk is especially high in wintertime traffic. The Eureka Xecs SafeTrucks project (Heavy traffic safety improvements by advanced dynamics and road weather services) develops real-time vehicle-specific weather and safety services tailored to each vehicle, based on the vehicle’s own sensor-based observations combined with data from weather service systems and an analysis of the vehicle’s own dynamics. The services will also be analyzed by Digital Twin modeling in Hardware-in-the-Loop (HIL) and Driver-In-the-Loop (DIL) scenarios, in order to evaluate and refine them in a controlled environment. This paper focuses on operative fleet piloting, while the Digital Twin approach will be presented in future work. The pilot services are ultimately tested in a pilot system within operative heavy traffic. This paper presents the concept and architecture of the platform, with preliminary results of pilot services operation, alternative communication analysis, and system evaluation. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Novel Solutions for Transportation Safety)
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20 pages, 6791 KiB  
Article
Influence of Coolant Additives and Core Geometry of Fin-Tube Automobile Engine Radiators on the Enhancement of Cooling Process Efficiency
by Marek Lipnický, Zuzana Brodnianská and Pavel Beňo
Vehicles 2024, 6(4), 2011-2030; https://doi.org/10.3390/vehicles6040099 - 27 Nov 2024
Viewed by 408
Abstract
The paper deals with the research on the influence of the shapes of tubes and fins of automobile engine radiators and ethylene glycol coolants of type G12 on the cooling process. This involves cross-flow without mixing of coolant and air. The circular tubes [...] Read more.
The paper deals with the research on the influence of the shapes of tubes and fins of automobile engine radiators and ethylene glycol coolants of type G12 on the cooling process. This involves cross-flow without mixing of coolant and air. The circular tubes with straight fins are compared with flat tubes with corrugated fins at identical external dimensions of the radiators. The new coolant is compared with the used coolant (10 years of usage) and further with a mixture of the used coolant and the additive (coolant enhancer). The goal is to reduce the heat dissipation time during the cooling process. Forced air convection is generated by three fan variants with diameters ϕ400 mm, ϕ345 mm, and a pair of fans ϕ345 mm and ϕ290 mm. The radiator core with flattened tubes and corrugated fins achieved lower outlet temperatures of 0.35 °C, 1.56 °C, and 2.43 °C compared to circular tubes and straight fins when using the ϕ400 mm diameter fan, the fan pair, and the ϕ345 mm diameter fan, respectively. The addition of the coolant enhancer to the used and new G12 coolant, depending on the fan variant, caused the outlet temperature to decrease in the range of 0.64 °C to 1.47 °C and 0.55 °C to 1.65 °C, respectively. The fan cover is also important for efficient cooling. Refilling of the coolant enhancer in the used coolant ensured that the heat transfer properties were recovered. Full article
(This article belongs to the Topic Advanced Engines Technologies)
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16 pages, 2724 KiB  
Article
An Innovative Technique for Fault Analysis of Electric Automated Vehicles
by Shiqing Li, Michael Frey and Frank Gauterin
Vehicles 2024, 6(4), 1995-2010; https://doi.org/10.3390/vehicles6040098 - 26 Nov 2024
Viewed by 436
Abstract
A serious accident might occur as a direct result of a defective component or system, especially at an automated vehicle. The objective of this study is to establish a fault analysis methodology that can effectively improve the reliability of electric and automated vehicles. [...] Read more.
A serious accident might occur as a direct result of a defective component or system, especially at an automated vehicle. The objective of this study is to establish a fault analysis methodology that can effectively improve the reliability of electric and automated vehicles. To achieve this, We proposed a method for identifying potential faults by combining Failure Modes and Effects Analysis (FMEA) with Fault Tree Analysis (FTA), creating a database of possible (example) faults that maps the causal relationship between causes, symptoms and faults, which enables more thorough fault analysis and serves as the foundation for further study. Using the fault database, we demonstrate a practical application involving fault injection and simulation, which can provide a more intuitive and practical representation of the effects of faults. The methodology is validated with the demonstrator vehicle from the joint project. This approach is scalable and can also be well applied to other electric automated vehicles with similar structure, providing a reliable tool to the system fault analysis for future work. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Reliability Analysis and Evaluation of Automotive Systems)
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20 pages, 3694 KiB  
Article
Prediction of Residual Wear Resources of Composite Brake Pads of a Modernized Brake System of Freight Wagons
by Sergii Panchenko, Juraj Gerlici, Alyona Lovska, Vasyl Ravlyuk and Ján Dižo
Vehicles 2024, 6(4), 1975-1994; https://doi.org/10.3390/vehicles6040097 - 25 Nov 2024
Viewed by 322
Abstract
This research highlights the results of a comprehensive study of the efficiency of modernized brake systems operation of freight wagons. The inspection of the modernized elements of the lever brake system of bogies and the measurement of the wear parameters of composite brake [...] Read more.
This research highlights the results of a comprehensive study of the efficiency of modernized brake systems operation of freight wagons. The inspection of the modernized elements of the lever brake system of bogies and the measurement of the wear parameters of composite brake pads during each cycle of the experimental wagons in the interval of mileage from 2.1 to 197.8 thousand km were carried out. A statistical approach was used to study the wear parameters of brake pads of modernized bogies brake systems determined during operational studies. This allowed appropriate dependencies of brake pad wear to be obtained. Based on the research results, a regression model was developed. This makes it possible to predict the residual wear resource of composite brake pads with modernized braking systems of bogies for the entire inter-repair period of operation of freight wagons guaranteed by the wagon repair company. The peculiarity of the model is that it considers the total and additional mileage of the freight wagon. This makes it possible to more accurately predict the residual lifetime of composite brake pads. It was established that, under the condition of uniform wear of brake pads, the average mileage of a freight wagon during the use of modernized brake systems of bogies can reach up to 284.57 thousand km, which increases the resource of composite pads’ wear approximately by 2.59 times. The generated model was verified by the F-criterion. Approbation of experimental devices for uniform wear of composite pads in operation established that measures to modernize brake systems of freight wagons ensure the reliable and efficient operation of the brake lever system as a whole. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Vehicle Design Processes, 2nd Edition)
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12 pages, 1492 KiB  
Article
Are Safety Corridors Effective in Mitigating Safety? An Ohio-Based Case Study Evaluating Their Effectiveness
by Sudesh Ramesh Bhagat, Bernard Ndeogo Issifu, Devon Destocki, Bhaven Naik and Deogratias Eustace
Vehicles 2024, 6(4), 1963-1974; https://doi.org/10.3390/vehicles6040096 - 24 Nov 2024
Viewed by 440
Abstract
Distracted driving remains a major concern on highways, with it contributing to severe and fatal crashes, particularly on high-speed routes, prompting numerous states to implement targeted initiatives aimed at combating traffic violations that significantly contribute to fatal and injury-inducing crashes. Among these initiatives [...] Read more.
Distracted driving remains a major concern on highways, with it contributing to severe and fatal crashes, particularly on high-speed routes, prompting numerous states to implement targeted initiatives aimed at combating traffic violations that significantly contribute to fatal and injury-inducing crashes. Among these initiatives is the highway safety corridor program, a collaborative endeavor between the state departments of transportation and law enforcement agencies. Highway safety corridors employ a combination of engineering interventions and heightened law enforcement presence to address risky driver behavior and mitigate the occurrence of crashes. Despite the longstanding existence of safety corridors, research on their effectiveness remains relatively limited, with existing studies indicating only moderate success rates. This study is dedicated to evaluating the effectiveness of ten highway safety corridors in Ohio, where the state recently launched its inaugural highway safety corridor program targeting distracted driving. Utilizing 2023 crash data, this Empirical Bayes’ before-and-after study seeks to gauge the impact of these safety corridors on enhancing roadway transportation safety. Upon assessing all crash types within Ohio’s distracted driving safety corridors that provided sufficient data for a before–after study, it was determined that the adoption of safety corridors generally led to a reduction in crashes ranging from 2% to 49%. The significance and magnitude of crash reduction may vary if specific crash types or severity levels are considered. Full article
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21 pages, 9519 KiB  
Article
The Impact of Road Realignment on the Traffic Load in the Surrounding Area
by Peter Fabian, Kristián Čulík, Alica Kalašová and Ľubomír Černický
Vehicles 2024, 6(4), 1942-1962; https://doi.org/10.3390/vehicles6040095 - 22 Nov 2024
Viewed by 369
Abstract
This paper examines how the unidirectional alignment of a selected street affects traffic load at nearby signal-controlled intersections. Using the Aimsun 8 simulation model, the intersections in the city of Topoľčany were evaluated. A simulation model was created based on a traffic survey [...] Read more.
This paper examines how the unidirectional alignment of a selected street affects traffic load at nearby signal-controlled intersections. Using the Aimsun 8 simulation model, the intersections in the city of Topoľčany were evaluated. A simulation model was created based on a traffic survey conducted by video detection at selected signal-controlled intersections. Both the negative and positive impacts of this modification were analyzed. This study shows a significant deterioration in the traffic situation. This paper further investigates the improvement achieved through corrective measures such as implementing an actuated control plan, modifying signal plans, and coordinating traffic flows. The results show the effectiveness of these measures in reducing congestion and improving traffic flow. They also serve as a foundation for optimizing traffic systems and implementing measures to improve urban mobility. Full article
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20 pages, 9991 KiB  
Article
Required Field of View of a Sensor for an Advanced Driving Assistance System to Prevent Heavy-Goods-Vehicle to Bicycle Accidents
by Ernst Tomasch, Heinz Hoschopf, Karin Ausserer and Jannik Rieß
Vehicles 2024, 6(4), 1922-1941; https://doi.org/10.3390/vehicles6040094 - 19 Nov 2024
Viewed by 374
Abstract
Accidents involving cyclists and trucks are among the most severe road accidents. In 2021, 199 cyclists were killed in accidents involving a truck in the EU. The main accident situation is a truck turning right and a cyclist going straight ahead. A large [...] Read more.
Accidents involving cyclists and trucks are among the most severe road accidents. In 2021, 199 cyclists were killed in accidents involving a truck in the EU. The main accident situation is a truck turning right and a cyclist going straight ahead. A large proportion of these accidents are caused by the inadequate visibility in an HGV (Heavy Goods Vehicle). The blind spot, in particular, is a significant contributor to these accidents. A BSD (Blind Spot Detection) system is expected to significantly reduce these accidents. There are only a few studies that estimate the potential of assistance systems, and these studies include a combined assessment of cyclists and pedestrians. In the present study, accident simulations are used to assess a warning and an autonomously intervening assistance system that could prevent truck to cyclist accidents. The main challenges are local sight obstructions such as fences, hedges, etc., rule violations by cyclists, and the complexity of correctly predicting the cyclist’s intentions, i.e., detecting the trajectory. Taking these accident circumstances into consideration, a BSD system could prevent between 26.3% and 65.8% of accidents involving HGVs and cyclists. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Emerging Transportation Safety and Operations: Practical Perspectives)
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20 pages, 1168 KiB  
Article
Model-Free Filter-Based Trajectory Tracking Controller for Two-Wheeled Vehicles Through Pole-Zero Cancellation Technique
by Hosik Lee, Sangyoon Oh, Kyung-Soo Kim, Yonghun Kim and Seok-Kyoon Kim
Vehicles 2024, 6(4), 1902-1921; https://doi.org/10.3390/vehicles6040093 - 11 Nov 2024
Viewed by 469
Abstract
Considering the nonlinear dynamics, this paper devises an advanced position trajectory tracking controller with a model-free filter for two-wheeled vehicle (TWV) applications. The proposed technique preserves a simple structure in the form of the proportional–integral (PI) controller involving the model-free filter and nonlinearly [...] Read more.
Considering the nonlinear dynamics, this paper devises an advanced position trajectory tracking controller with a model-free filter for two-wheeled vehicle (TWV) applications. The proposed technique preserves a simple structure in the form of the proportional–integral (PI) controller involving the model-free filter and nonlinearly structured feedback gains, which make the following contributions: (a) the proposed filter smooths the position and yaw angle measurements according to the first-order convergence rate without any model information; and (b) the PI control with the nonlinearly structured feedback gains robustly stabilizes the position and yaw angle errors along the desired first-order system to accomplish the trajectory tracking mission, which is obtained by the pole-zero cancellation (PZC) in the presence of modeling errors. MATLAB/Simulink was used to emulate the resulting feedback system and validate the effectiveness of the proposed technique. Full article
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16 pages, 3555 KiB  
Article
Analysis of 3k Experiments Applied to Railway Braking: Influence of Contaminants and Train Speed
by Tania Elizabeth Sandoval-Valencia, Gerardo Hurtado-Hurtado, Eric Leonardo Huerta-Manzanilla, Dante Ruiz-Robles, Luis Morales-Velázquez and Juan Carlos Jáuregui-Correa
Vehicles 2024, 6(4), 1886-1901; https://doi.org/10.3390/vehicles6040092 - 6 Nov 2024
Viewed by 587
Abstract
The presence of contaminants influences braking efficiency in the railway system because it alters the adhesion at the wheel–rail interface. It is essential to study this phenomenon, as contaminants reduce the friction between wheels and rails, which impacts braking and transport safety. In [...] Read more.
The presence of contaminants influences braking efficiency in the railway system because it alters the adhesion at the wheel–rail interface. It is essential to study this phenomenon, as contaminants reduce the friction between wheels and rails, which impacts braking and transport safety. In addition, these contaminants increase the risk of derailments. The objective of the research was to determine the impact of different contaminants and operating speeds on the critical braking system’s responses. Using the 3k full factorial experimental design methodology, with analysis of variance (ANOVA) and linear and quadratic regressions, visualized using surface graphs, the effects of three operating conditions were studied: clean rails, with sand and sawdust, and driving the train at three operating speeds. These conditions gave rise to variations in braking distances, maximum creep, wheel slip times, and maximum peaks of electric current when braking in each experiment. The tests were carried out on the straight section of a β-shaped track and a railway vehicle, designed at a scale of 1:20. The analysis reveals that the braking distance increases significantly with surface roughness (clean track < sawdust < sand). At 0.75 m/s, the sawdust track reduces braking distance by 21% compared with the clean track; at 1.00 m/s, the reduction is 19%; and at 1.30 m/s, it is 35%. Full article
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14 pages, 5596 KiB  
Article
A Hybrid Data-Driven Method for Main Circuit Gound Faults Diagnosis in Electrical Traction Drive Systems
by Xinyao Hou, Juntong Liu, Jinxin Zhang and Qiang Ni
Vehicles 2024, 6(4), 1872-1885; https://doi.org/10.3390/vehicles6040091 - 5 Nov 2024
Viewed by 562
Abstract
A main circuit ground fault (MCGF) is a typical system fault in an electrical traction drive system (ETDS). When two or more MCGFs occur, it will cause serious accidents. Therefore, it is particularly important to detect and handle MCGFs in a timely manner. [...] Read more.
A main circuit ground fault (MCGF) is a typical system fault in an electrical traction drive system (ETDS). When two or more MCGFs occur, it will cause serious accidents. Therefore, it is particularly important to detect and handle MCGFs in a timely manner. To improve the efficiency of train operation and ensure driving safety, this paper proposes a hybrid data-driven MCGF diagnosis method. First, the voltage signals related to the fault are selected according to the mechanism analysis of the MCGF, and then the initial feature variables are constructed according to these voltage signals. Secondly, the initial feature variables of different types of MCGF are analyzed in the time and frequency domains by wavelet transform, and four feature indicators are calculated. Finally, the fault feature indicators are trained by random forest to obtain a model for subsequent fault diagnosis. After comparative experiments using various machine learning methods, it was found that the RF used in the proposed method has a better diagnostic effect, and the correct isolation rate exceeds 99%. Full article
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15 pages, 5371 KiB  
Article
Impact of In-Cab Alerts on Connected Truck Speed Reductions in Indiana
by Jairaj Desai, Enrique D. Saldivar-Carranza, Rahul Suryakant Sakhare, Jijo K. Mathew and Darcy M. Bullock
Vehicles 2024, 6(4), 1857-1871; https://doi.org/10.3390/vehicles6040090 - 31 Oct 2024
Viewed by 536
Abstract
Connected vehicle data have the potential to warn motorists of impending slowdowns and congestion in real time. Multiple data providers have recently begun providing in-cab alerts to commercial vehicle drivers. This study reports on one such deployment of in-cab alerts on 44 corridors [...] Read more.
Connected vehicle data have the potential to warn motorists of impending slowdowns and congestion in real time. Multiple data providers have recently begun providing in-cab alerts to commercial vehicle drivers. This study reports on one such deployment of in-cab alerts on 44 corridors in Indiana from April–June 2024. Approximately 20,000 alerts were analyzed, with 92% being Congestion alerts and 8% being Dangerous Slowdown alerts. Observations showed that 15% of trucks lowered their speeds by at least 5 mph 30 s after receiving a Congestion alert, while 21% of trucks reduced their speeds by at least 5 mph 30 s after receiving a Dangerous Slowdown alert. The analysis also showed that a majority of Congestion alerted trucks encountered slow-speed traffic about 3 min after receiving an alert, while a majority of Dangerous Slowdown alerted drivers had traveled through the zone of slow speeds 2 min after receiving the alert. Although these results are encouraging, the study also found that 8.1% of Congestion alerts and 8.3% of Dangerous Slowdown alerts were received by trucks when they were operating at speeds of less than or equal to 45 mph, indicating they were already in congested conditions. The study reports that 43% of trucks that received Dangerous Slowdown alerts never reduced their speed below 45 mph. The paper concludes that it is important to converge on a shared vision for these performance measures so that public agencies, in-cab alert providers, and trucking companies can agilely improve these systems and increase driver confidence in the alerts. Full article
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14 pages, 4669 KiB  
Article
Development of a Design Procedure Combining Topological Optimization and a Multibody Environment: Application to a Tram Motor Bogie Frame
by Alessio Cascino, Enrico Meli and Andrea Rindi
Vehicles 2024, 6(4), 1843-1856; https://doi.org/10.3390/vehicles6040089 - 29 Oct 2024
Viewed by 592
Abstract
Nowadays, it is essential to find increasingly rapid and efficient design strategies. This approach becomes crucial in the railway industry, where components must be verified according to multiple reference standards, both structurally and dynamically. In this context, the present research activity aims to [...] Read more.
Nowadays, it is essential to find increasingly rapid and efficient design strategies. This approach becomes crucial in the railway industry, where components must be verified according to multiple reference standards, both structurally and dynamically. In this context, the present research activity aims to develop a fast and effective desin procedure based on European reference standards. The goal was to develop the geometry of a motor bogie frame for a tram vehicle, integrating three fundamental tools for development: finite element simulations and topological structural optimization, a Write Computer Aided Design (CAD) environment, and a multibody environment. Their integration could enhance design accuracy, streamline the traditional design workflow, and support innovation. The optimization process involved the introduction of complex technological constraints, directing the geometry toward production by casting. A tool was developed to automate running dynamics simulations and the output of results for immediate verification of the entire vehicle performance. Finally, the new geometry was tested both structurally and dynamically. The mass was reduced by approximately 7% while ensuring satisfactory mechanical performance. The maximum value of stress was reduced by about 16%. The dynamic performance showed negligible variation, confirming the encouraging outcomes to make this procedure increasingly effective and reliable. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Railway Vehicles and Infrastructure)
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33 pages, 6246 KiB  
Article
Multi-Depot Electric Vehicle–Drone Collaborative-Delivery Routing Optimization with Time-Varying Vehicle Travel Time
by Yong Peng, Wenjing Zhu, Dennis Z. Yu, Song Liu and Yali Zhang
Vehicles 2024, 6(4), 1812-1842; https://doi.org/10.3390/vehicles6040088 - 27 Oct 2024
Viewed by 876
Abstract
This paper presents an electric vehicle-drone (EV–drone) collaborative-delivery routing optimization model that leverages the time-varying characteristics of electric vehicles and drones across multiple distribution centers (i.e., central depots) to address the logistics industry’s low-carbon transformation in the last-mile delivery. The model aims to [...] Read more.
This paper presents an electric vehicle-drone (EV–drone) collaborative-delivery routing optimization model that leverages the time-varying characteristics of electric vehicles and drones across multiple distribution centers (i.e., central depots) to address the logistics industry’s low-carbon transformation in the last-mile delivery. The model aims to minimize total delivery costs by formulating a mixed-integer programming (MIP) model that accounts for essential constraints such as nonlinear charging time, time-varying EV travel time, delivery time window, payload capacity, and maximum range. An improved adaptive large-neighborhood search (ALNS) algorithm is developed to solve the model. Experimental results validate the effectiveness of the proposed algorithm and highlight the impact of EV and drone technology parameters, along with the time-varying EV travel times, on the economic efficiency of delivery distribution and route planning. Full article
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11 pages, 1688 KiB  
Article
Monte-Carlo Simulation of Reliability of System with Complex Interconnections
by László Pokorádi
Vehicles 2024, 6(4), 1801-1811; https://doi.org/10.3390/vehicles6040087 - 11 Oct 2024
Viewed by 663
Abstract
Modern automotive systems must satisfy strict reliability requirements. Most real vehicle systems and safety-critical networks have complex interconnections. The sensitivities and probabilistic uncertainties of the reliability of systems with complex interconnections (SwCIs) can be investigated by Monte-Carlo Simulation (MCS). This paper focuses on [...] Read more.
Modern automotive systems must satisfy strict reliability requirements. Most real vehicle systems and safety-critical networks have complex interconnections. The sensitivities and probabilistic uncertainties of the reliability of systems with complex interconnections (SwCIs) can be investigated by Monte-Carlo Simulation (MCS). This paper focuses on the sensitivities and parametrical uncertainties of SwCIs’ reliability. The proposed method can be implemented in the investigation of the uncertainties of SwCI reliability, i.e., in the determination of critical system elements and the estimation of the required number of spare parts (RNSP) of the system, which depends on the probability of allowable spare equipment shortage. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Reliability Analysis and Evaluation of Automotive Systems)
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32 pages, 536 KiB  
Review
Utilizing UAVs in Wireless Networks: Advantages, Challenges, Objectives, and Solution Methods
by Mohammad Javad Sobouti, Amirhossein Mohajerzadeh, Haitham Y. Adarbah, Zahra Rahimi and Hamed Ahmadi
Vehicles 2024, 6(4), 1769-1800; https://doi.org/10.3390/vehicles6040086 - 4 Oct 2024
Viewed by 1162
Abstract
Unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) have emerged as a promising technology to enhance the performance and functionality of mobile networks. UAVs can act as flying base stations, relays, or users to provide wireless services to ground users or devices. However, the optimal placement and [...] Read more.
Unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) have emerged as a promising technology to enhance the performance and functionality of mobile networks. UAVs can act as flying base stations, relays, or users to provide wireless services to ground users or devices. However, the optimal placement and trajectory design of UAVs in mobile networks is a challenging problem, as it involves multiple objectives, constraints, and uncertainties. In this paper, we provide a comprehensive survey of the state-of-the-art research on UAV placement and trajectory optimization in cellular networks. We first introduce the main objectives and challenges of UAV placement and trajectory optimization, such as maximizing coverage, throughput, energy efficiency, or reliability, while minimizing interference, delay, or cost. We also examine the primary models and assumptions employed for UAV placement and trajectory optimization, including channel models, mobility models, network architectures, and constraints. Additionally, we discuss the main methods and algorithms employed for UAV placement and trajectory optimization. These include optimization techniques, heuristic algorithms, machine learning approaches, and distributed solutions. Analytical results, numerical simulations, or experimental tests are further discussed as the main performance metrics and evaluation methods used for UAV placement and trajectory optimization. We also highlight the main applications and scenarios of UAV placement and trajectory optimization, such as cellular offloading, emergency communications, or aerial base stations. Finally, we identify some open problems and future research directions on UAV placement and trajectory optimization in cellular networks. Full article
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17 pages, 10659 KiB  
Article
The Study of the Balancing Process for Starting Rotors in Heavy-Duty Vehicles: An Industrial Application
by Gabriel de Jesús Davila-Alfaro, Antonio Enrique Salas-Reyes, Jan Mayén Chaires, Hugo Arcos-Gutiérrez, Isaías E. Garduño, Adriana Gallegos-Melgar, Maricruz Hernández-Hernández and Víctor Hugo Mercado-Lemus
Vehicles 2024, 6(4), 1752-1768; https://doi.org/10.3390/vehicles6040085 - 3 Oct 2024
Viewed by 940
Abstract
In the heavy-duty vehicle industry, unbalance in the armature is one of the most common problems affecting starters’ performance and durability. This research presents a comprehensive study to improve the balancing process for starting rotors in heavy-duty vehicles. The complete manufacturing process of [...] Read more.
In the heavy-duty vehicle industry, unbalance in the armature is one of the most common problems affecting starters’ performance and durability. This research presents a comprehensive study to improve the balancing process for starting rotors in heavy-duty vehicles. The complete manufacturing process of armatures was analyzed to understand the contribution of assembly processes to unbalancing. The analysis revealed that the primary factor leading to high unbalance in these parts is the misalignment of conductors within the armature winding. During assembly, these conductors experience axial movements, resulting in non-uniform mass distribution and causing unbalanced values ranging from 150 to 350 g·mm. These values surpass the permissible limit, making rectification during the balancing process at the end of the assembly impossible. Consequently, a novel alignment tool was designed to address this issue, significantly reducing the effect and achieving the maximum allowable unbalance of 100 g·mm. This allowed the balancing machine used in the process to correct the initial unbalance of the reinforcements in a single work cycle, improving operation efficiency by about 15%. Full article
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22 pages, 1246 KiB  
Article
SROR: A Secure and Reliable Opportunistic Routing for VANETs
by Huibin Xu and Ying Wang
Vehicles 2024, 6(4), 1730-1751; https://doi.org/10.3390/vehicles6040084 - 30 Sep 2024
Viewed by 897
Abstract
In Vehicular Ad Hoc Networks (VANETs), high mobility of vehicles issues a huge challenge to the reliability and security of transmitting packets. Therefore, a Secure and Reliable Opportunistic Routing (SROR) is proposed in this paper. During construction of Candidate Forwarding Nodes (CFNs) set, [...] Read more.
In Vehicular Ad Hoc Networks (VANETs), high mobility of vehicles issues a huge challenge to the reliability and security of transmitting packets. Therefore, a Secure and Reliable Opportunistic Routing (SROR) is proposed in this paper. During construction of Candidate Forwarding Nodes (CFNs) set, the relative velocity, connectivity probability, and packet forwarding ratio are taken into consideration. The aim of SROR is to maximally improve the packet delivery ratio as well as reduce the end-to-end delay. The selection of a relay node from CFNs is formalized as a Markov Decision Process (MDP) optimization. The SROR algorithm extracts useful knowledge from historical behavior of nodes by interacting with the environment. This useful knowledge are utilized to select the relay node as well as to prevent the malicious nodes from forwarding packets. In addition, the influence of different learning rate and exploratory factor policy on rewards of agents are analyzed. The experimental results show that the performance of SROR outperforms the benchmarks in terms of the packet delivery ratio, end-to-end delay, and attack success ratio. As vehicle density ranges from 10 to 50 and percentage of malicious vehicles is fixed at 10%, the average of packet delivery ratio, end-to-end delay, and attack success ratio are 0.82, 0.26s, and 0.37, respectively, outperforming benchmark protocols. Full article
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13 pages, 4821 KiB  
Article
Marking-Based Perpendicular Parking Slot Detection Algorithm Using LiDAR Sensors
by Jing Gong, Amod Raut, Marcel Pelzer and Felix Huening
Vehicles 2024, 6(4), 1717-1729; https://doi.org/10.3390/vehicles6040083 - 29 Sep 2024
Viewed by 894
Abstract
The emergence of automotive-grade LiDARs has given rise to new potential methods to develop novel advanced driver assistance systems (ADAS). However, accurate and reliable parking slot detection (PSD) remains a challenge, especially in the low-light conditions typical of indoor car parks. Existing camera-based [...] Read more.
The emergence of automotive-grade LiDARs has given rise to new potential methods to develop novel advanced driver assistance systems (ADAS). However, accurate and reliable parking slot detection (PSD) remains a challenge, especially in the low-light conditions typical of indoor car parks. Existing camera-based approaches struggle with these conditions and require sensor fusion to determine parking slot occupancy. This paper proposes a parking slot detection (PSD) algorithm which utilizes the intensity of a LiDAR point cloud to detect the markings of perpendicular parking slots. LiDAR-based approaches offer robustness in low-light environments and can directly determine occupancy status using 3D information. The proposed PSD algorithm first segments the ground plane from the LiDAR point cloud and detects the main axis along the driving direction using a random sample consensus algorithm (RANSAC). The remaining ground point cloud is filtered by a dynamic Otsu’s threshold, and the markings of parking slots are detected in multiple windows along the driving direction separately. Hypotheses of parking slots are generated between the markings, which are cross-checked with a non-ground point cloud to determine the occupancy status. Test results showed that the proposed algorithm is robust in detecting perpendicular parking slots in well-marked car parks with high precision, low width error, and low variance. The proposed algorithm is designed in such a way that future adoption for parallel parking slots and combination with free-space-based detection approaches is possible. This solution addresses the limitations of camera-based systems and enhances PSD accuracy and reliability in challenging lighting conditions. Full article
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13 pages, 503 KiB  
Article
Assessing Autonomous Emergency Braking: A Robust Approach Using Phenomenological Sensor Models
by Jan Enno Maschke, Victor Preu, Malte Plenter and Stefan Schoenawa
Vehicles 2024, 6(4), 1704-1716; https://doi.org/10.3390/vehicles6040082 - 24 Sep 2024
Viewed by 861
Abstract
The assessment of driver assistance system effectiveness in crash scenarios can be conducted through simulations. This approach allows for system improvements and contributes to overall road safety. However, it is important to recognize that simulations are an approximation of reality. Specifically, simulation models [...] Read more.
The assessment of driver assistance system effectiveness in crash scenarios can be conducted through simulations. This approach allows for system improvements and contributes to overall road safety. However, it is important to recognize that simulations are an approximation of reality. Specifically, simulation models can significantly impact the results. In our work, we focus on sensor models that provide environmental information to driver assistance systems. Real-world sensor data differ from idealized simulation data due to measurement errors and environmental influences. We evaluate various sensor models for their applicability in simulating effectiveness assessments. Our research is implemented using the open-source platform openPASS. We investigate the impact of inaccurate sensor data on the effectiveness of an autonomous emergency braking system based on longitudinal traffic crashes from the German In-Depth Accident Study database. To achieve this, we compare stochastic phenomenological models with ideal sensor models. In the evaluation of the modeled autonomous emergency braking, we observed a major influence on the effectiveness due to the less accurate, more realistic sensor data. This evaluation approach enables early optimization of the considered driver assistance system’s robustness against inaccuracies. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Feature Papers on Advanced Vehicle Technologies)
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14 pages, 3706 KiB  
Article
Influence of Tire Parameters on Contact Patch and Axle Force Generation against Short Obstacles Using DOE Approach
by Vikas Birajdar, Seyed Jamaleddin Mostafavi Yazdi, Madhu Kandampadath, Mohammad Behroozi and Javad Baqersad
Vehicles 2024, 6(4), 1690-1703; https://doi.org/10.3390/vehicles6040081 - 24 Sep 2024
Viewed by 746
Abstract
Understanding the behavior of tires on uneven and varied road surfaces poses a substantial challenge for vehicle ride engineers. To accurately predict road load forces on the axle, various numerical ride models must be utilized to incorporate a realistic road enveloping algorithm. This [...] Read more.
Understanding the behavior of tires on uneven and varied road surfaces poses a substantial challenge for vehicle ride engineers. To accurately predict road load forces on the axle, various numerical ride models must be utilized to incorporate a realistic road enveloping algorithm. This algorithm filters the geometries of uneven surfaces and must be seamlessly integrated with a rigid ring model. The complexity of predicting and calculating dynamic tire response increases with varying obstacle dimensions. A two-dimensional, five-degree-of-freedom rigid ring ride model based on Short Wavelength Intermediate Frequency (SWIFT) has been developed, employing a tandem cam enveloping algorithm to filter short wavelength road obstacles. Selecting generalized cam parameters to ensure high accuracy and an enhanced runtime performance poses a challenge in specific ride simulations. A design of experiments (DOE) approach is used to identify key control factors related to the quasi-static tandem cam enveloping model and dynamic rigid ring model, which significantly affect the enveloping response. DOE findings suggest optimization strategies for selecting tire parameters to achieve a high test-to-simulation correlation with improved computational efficiency. Additionally, the study confirms the robustness of these predictions against external noise factors, including variations in tires and road conditions. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Feature Papers on Advanced Vehicle Technologies)
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