Clean Technol., Volume 5, Issue 3 (September 2023) – 19 articles

This paper proposes a NCPM (Nano-composite coated permanent magnets)-based IPMSM (Interior Permanent Magnet Synchronous Motor) electric drive system, especially applicable for electric vehicles (EV). For an EV, an increase in the “T/A (torque per ampere)” condition is highly recommended, as it directly affects the maximum distance run by EV on a single charge. Due to NCPM, a substantial increase in magnetic flux intensity, resistance to corrosion and Curie temperature are observed. As a result, the proposed drive clearly exhibits a higher power to weight ratio. Also, it is capable of delivering higher T/A to the drive system without any considerable change in two important factors of EV: (1) mass and volume of the drive system (2) battery capacity of the drive system. Moreover, NCPM performance is less susceptible to temperature variation, which makes it an appropriate candidate for vehicular applications, where temperature inconsistency could be a common issue during working conditions. Also, NCPM-based IPMSM offers a quicker speed response than conventional IPMSM, thus providing higher acceleration, which is one of the important performance factors for vehicular applications. A vector controlled mathematical model of IPMSM and NCPM-based IPMSM is tested for various speed commands. Also, the NCPM-based IPMSM, in the proposed configuration, is fed from a three-level DCMLI (diode clamped multi-level inverter), as the drive system is considered for medium to high power applications. A comparative performance analysis is carried out between the proposed drive system and a conventional IPMSM-based drive system using MATLAB/SIMULINK to indicate the efficacy of the proposed configuration. Full article

Gas turbine power plants have important roles in the global power generation market. This paper, for the first time, thermodynamically examines the impact of steam injection for a combined cycle, including a gas turbine cycle with a two-stage turbine and carbon dioxide recompression. The combined cycle is compared with the simple case without steam injection. Steam injection’s impact was observed on important parameters such as energy efficiency, exergy efficiency, and output power. It is revealed that the steam injection reduced exergy destruction in components compared to the simple case. The efficiencies for both cases were obtained. The energy and exergy efficiencies, respectively, were found to be 30.4% and 29.4% for the simple case, and 35.3% and 34.1% for the case with steam injection. Also, incorporating steam injection reduced the emissions of carbon dioxide. Full article

A greenhouse is used to improve thermal comfort (TC) levels for its occupants in winter conditions using solar radiation, which involves low energy consumption. The aim of this research is the application of unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) in the evaluation of thermal comfort levels in buildings equipped with internal greenhouses. The new building design is developed numerically, and a building thermal simulator (BTS) numerical model calculates the indoor environmental variables. A new alternative and expeditious method to measure occupants’ comfort levels using UAV technology is applied using a UAV dynamic simulator (UAV DS). The evolution of the measured variables used for evaluating the predicted mean vote (PMV) is compared using the two numerical methodologies: BTS and UAV DS. In the second one, the mean radiant temperature (MRT) measuring methodology, the floor temperature, the lateral walls’ temperatures, the ceiling temperatures, and the air temperature are applied. In the method presented in this paper, a new building design is developed numerically, which includes a central greenhouse equipped with a semispherical dome, four auditoriums distributed around the central greenhouse, occupant distribution, and a ventilation methodology. The building geometry, the solar radiation on transparent surfaces, the TC, and the UAV mission methods are presented. The results show that, in general, the central greenhouse and the ventilation methodologies provide acceptable TC levels. The UAV monitoring mission, which includes two vehicles, provides good environmental variable replication, particularly when the environmental variables present greater variations. In the auditorium and greenhouse, the ceiling and lateral surface temperatures, respectively, can be used as an MRT approximation. The BTS numerical model is also important for developing buildings using renewable energy sources to improve the TC levels. Full article

Due to the current high awareness and rising energy costs, the energy label of domestic appliances is an important indicator for consumers when buying a dishwasher. However, not all consumers use efficient Eco cycles on a regular basis. When investigating the use of domestic dishwashers and the chosen programs in a survey with 6090 participants from 11 countries in Europe, it turned out that only 25% used Eco cycles regularly while the vast majority of 48% prefer to use Normal/Auto cycles. We also assessed individual energy and water consumption as well as duration and temperature of the programs. Considering the fact that Eco programs are not well accepted due to their duration, our study shows that Short programs, which on average only last about 30 min and consume little energy and water, might be an economical and convenient alternative to the more time-consuming Eco programs. In fact, some Short programs considered in this study proved to consume less energy for a full dishwasher load (0.74 kWh on average) than the standard Eco programs (0.90 kWh on average), especially due to their shorter duration, but it is important to note that, according to the manufacturer, these programs are designed for rather lightly soiled dishes. Full article

The wide spread of the Diesel engine has been instrumental in the development of modern shipping. Marine Diesel engines dominate today as an option for the propulsion of commercial ships. While replacing Diesel engines with alternative propulsion engines is difficult to achieve, companies, in light of the new EEXI regulations, are turning to improvements, such as operating at lower rotational speeds, higher maximum combustion pressures, and more efficient overcrowding systems. Τhe purpose of this research paper is (i) to present the basic operating principles of marine Diesel engines, (ii) to study the main differences between electronically controlled Diesel engines and their mechanically controlled counterparts, and (iii) to evaluate their performance under newly introduced IMO’s EEXI regulations. Thus, after comparing Wärtsilä RTA and WinGD WX, the paper concluded that WinGD WX, being electronically controlled, will perform more effectively under new EEXI regulations, as it offers (i) reduced fuel consumption in low-load mode, (ii) zero-smoke emission at all operating speeds, (iii) very stable operation at low speed, (iv) more straightforward engine setup leading to less maintenance, (v) more extended periods between maintenance, mainly due to better load distribution between cylinders and more perfect combustion. From a regulatory perspective, the new limitations installed by the newly implemented EEXI and CII regulations will cause fewer implications in electronically controlled engines, while from an economic standpoint, the electronically controlled engines decrease OPEX and require fewer personnel, due to their efficiency at low loads and overall flexibility. Full article

Each year, the amount of residue generated from food production increases, caused by the continuous population growth. Banana is one of the most consumed fruits in the world, with an annual production of 116.78 million tonnes. However, just 12 wt% of the plant, corresponding to the bunch, is effectively used. After the bunch is harvested, the rest of the plant is disposed of as residue, the pseudostem (PS) being the main constituent. Aiming to give an added-value application to the PS, this work is focused on the extraction of cellulose from this waste. For this, three different fractions of PS particles—a non-classified fraction (milled but without sieving), a fine fraction (≤180 μm), and a coarse fraction (≥2000 μm)—and three extraction methods—alkaline-acid hydrolysis, enzymatic hydrolysis, and TEMPO oxidation—were studied to determine the most promising method for the cellulose extraction from the PS. The alkaline-acid hydrolysis samples presented a higher number of amorphous compounds, resulting in lower crystallinity (13.50% for the non-classified fraction). The TEMPO-oxidation process, despite allowing the highest cellulose extraction yield (25.25 ± 0.08% on a dried basis), resulted in samples with lower thermal stability (up to 200 °C). The most promising extraction method was enzymatic, allowing the extraction of 14.58 ± 0.30% of cellulose (dried basis) and obtaining extracts with the highest crystallinity (68.98% for the non-classified fraction) and thermal stability (until 250 °C). Full article

Today, impingement cooling structures with dimples can effectively ease the burden of turbine blades. This paper investigates the effect of dimple diameter and depth on the heat transfer of the target surface on a laminar-cooled turbine blade with a cross-flow and dimple numerically to find the mechanism behind it so that the dimple can be better used in turbine cooling. The commercial software ANSYS 19.2 and a baseline (BSL) turbulence model is used during the numerical computation. In this paper, the cross-flow Reynolds number varies from 15,000 to 60,000, while the jet Reynolds number remains at 30,000. When the cross-flow Reynolds number changes, due to the location change in vortexes generated inside or around the dimple, the two dimple parameters affect heat transfer differently. When the cross-flow Reynolds number is lower than the jet Reynolds number, dimples with smaller diameters and depths lead to better heat transfer performance. When the cross-flow Reynolds number exceeds the jet Reynolds number, dimples with bigger diameters and depths result in better heat exchange performance. The results also indicate that, while the dimple diameters remain constant, the rise of the cross-flow Reynolds number enhances the heat transfer of the dimple structure. Full article

The per capita municipal solid waste (MSW) generation per day in Ghana is estimated to be 0.47 kg/person/day, which translates to over 14,000 tonnes of solid waste generation daily. The disposal and management of this amount of solid waste has been challenging worldwide, and in Ghana, this is evident with the creation of unsanitary dumping sites scattered across most communities in the country, especially urban communities. The indiscriminate disposal of solid waste in Ghana is known to cause flooding, the pollution of water bodies, and the spread of diseases. The purpose of this review is to highlight the prospects of waste incineration with energy recovery as a waste-to-energy (WtE) technology which has contributed immensely to the disposal and management of MSW in nations worldwide (especially developed ones). The review indicates that waste incineration with energy recovery is a matured waste-to-energy technology in developed nations, and there are currently about 492 waste incineration plants in operation in the EU, over 77 in operation in about 25 states in the USA, and about 1900 in operation in Japan. Waste incineration with energy recovery is also gradually gaining prominence in developing nations like China, Brazil, Bangladesh, Nigeria, Indonesia, and Pakistan. The adoption of waste incineration with energy technology can reduce Ghana’s overdependence on fossil fuels as primary sources of energy. It is, however, recommended that a techno-economic assessment of proposed waste incineration facilities is performed considering the MSW generated in Ghana. Additionally, it is also recommended that the possibility of incorporating the use of artificial intelligence technology into the management of MSW in Ghana be investigated. Full article

Fluoride is a concern for human health at high concentrations, but it is also a valuable compound with multiple applications. Thus, having a system that gives the opportunity to remove and recover this valuable element from water is highly interesting. Reverse osmosis (RO) is a promising technology in the removal of fluoride from water. Nevertheless, the residual retentate highly concentrated in fluoride is still a concern. The aim of this study was to evaluate the performance of an integrated process consisting of RO and membrane crystallization to remove fluoride from water and to recover it as a pure fluoride salt. Pure water permeability and fluoride rejection of a commercial RO membrane was tested under different conditions. In addition, the performance of an osmotic membrane crystallization setup was evaluated, considering the effect caused by the flow rates and the concentration of both the feed and the osmotic solution on the mass transfer coefficient. The crystallization process allowed the production of pure NaF crystals with octahedral morphology with a face-centered cubic crystal system. Full article

This study aimed to investigate the technical feasibility of replacing cement in mortar production with sludge generated in wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs), prepared using different treatments. The sludge used in the experiments was processed using four different methods to investigate the effect of processing on the mechanical strength of the specimens. The sludge was then mixed with mortar in different proportions, and samples were produced for flexural and compressive strength tests. The results showed that specimens with 7% sludge from the burned treatment exhibited the highest resistance, surpassing the standard. Specimens with sludge from the drying treatments showed similar results. This study found that using sludge in mortar production could lead to energy savings compared to traditional cement production methods. Moreover, the incorporation of sludge resulted in mortars that met the specifications of the EN 998-1:2018 standard, thereby indicating their technical feasibility. Therefore, this study demonstrated the potential of using sludge from WWTPs as a substitute for cement in mortar production, which could contribute to the reduction in the environmental impacts caused by civil construction and the development of sustainable alternatives for the disposal of sludge generated in WWTPs. Full article

This study aims to comprehensively investigate the current advances in water treatment technologies for the elimination of heavy metals using biomass-based adsorbents. The enhancement of adsorption capacity in biomass materials is achieved through surface modification, which increases their porosity and surface area. The study therefore focuses on the impact of different surface modification techniques on the adsorption capacity, as well as the evaluation of adsorptive removal techniques and the analysis of various isotherm and kinetics models applied to heavy metal contaminants. The utilization of kinetic and isotherm models in heavy metal sorption is crucial as it provides a theoretical background to understand and predict the removal efficiency of different adsorbent materials. In contrast to previous studies, this research examines a wide range of adsorbent materials, providing a comprehensive understanding of their efficacy in removing heavy metals from wastewater. The study also delves into the theoretical foundations of the isotherm and kinetics models, highlighting their strengths, limitations, and effectiveness in describing the performance of the adsorbents. Moreover, the study sheds light on the regenerability of adsorbents and the potential for their engineering applications. Valuable insights into the state-of-the-art methods for heavy metal wastewater cleanup and the resources required for future developments were discussed. Full article

The prediction of the terminal velocity of a single spherical particle is essential to realize mathematical modeling useful for the design and adjustment of separators used in wastewater treatment. For non-spherical and non-single particles, terminal velocity can be traced back to that of single spheres using coefficients and Kynch’s theory, respectively. Because separation processes can involve small or large particles and can be carried out using gravity, as with clarifiers/thickeners, or by centrifugation in centrifuges where the acceleration can exceed 10,000× g, the Reynolds number of the particle can be highly variable, ranging from 0.1 to 200,000. The terminal velocity depends on the drag coefficient, which depends, in turn, on the Reynolds number containing the terminal velocity. Because of this, to find the terminal velocity formula, it is preferable to look first for a relationship between the drag coefficient and the Archimedes number which does not contain the terminal velocity. Formulas already exist expressing the relationship between the drag coefficient and the Archimedes number, from which the relationship between the terminal velocity and the Archimedes number may be derived. To improve the accuracy obtained by these formulas, a new relationship was developed in this study, using dimensional analysis, which is valid for Reynolds number values between 0.1 and 200,000. The resulting mean relative difference, compared to the experimental standard drag curve, was only 1.44%. This formula was developed using the logarithms of dimensionless numbers, and the unprecedented accuracy obtained with this method suggested that an equally accurate formula for the drag coefficient could also be obtained with respect to the Reynolds number. Again, the resulting level of accuracy was unprecedentedly high, with a mean relative difference of 1.77% for Reynolds number values between 0.1 and 200,000. Full article

Cement has long been recognized as an energy- and emission-intensive construction material. Cement production has recently experienced significant growth despite its high energy consumption, resource usage, and carbon emissions. This study aims to assess and compare the life cycle assessment (LCA) of traditional Portland cement (CEM I) to those of three blended cement types (CEM II/B-L, CEM II/B-V, and CEM III/A), which assume mature technologies for reducing carbon emissions in South Africa, using LCA in compliance with ISO/TS 14071 and 14072. As its scope, the study employs the “cradle to gate” method, which considers the raw materials, fuel usage, electricity, transportation, and clinkering stages, using 1 kg of cement as the functional unit. The LCA analyses were performed using SimaPro 9.1.1.1 software developed by PRé Consultants, Amersfoort, Netherlands and impact assessments were conducted using the ReCiPe 2016 v1.04 midpoint method in order to compare all 18 impact categories of 1 kg of cement for each cement type. The assessment results show reductions in all impact categories, ranging from 7% in ozone depletion and ionizing radiation (CEM II/B-L) to a 41% reduction in mineral resource scarcity (CEM III/A). The impacts of global warming were reduced by 14% in the case of CEM II/B-L, 29% in the case of CEM II/B-V and 35% in the case of CEM III/A. The clinkering process was identified as the primary cause of atmospheric impacts, while resource depletion impacts were attributed to raw materials, fuels, and electricity processes, and toxicity impacts were primarily caused by raw materials. Alternative materials, like fly ash and ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBFS), can significantly help to reduce environmental impacts and resource consumption in the cement industry. Full article

Sodium-ion batteries (SIBs) have demonstrated noticeable development since the 2010s, being complementary to the lithium-ion technology in predominantly large-scale application niches. The projected SIB market growth will inevitably lead to the generation of tons of spent cells, posing a notorious issue for proper battery lifecycle management, which requires both the establishment of a regulatory framework and development of technologies for recovery of valuable elements from battery waste. While lithium-ion batteries are mainly based on layered oxides and lithium iron phosphate chemistries, the variety of sodium-ion batteries is much more diverse, extended by a number of other polyanionic families (crystal types), such as NASICON (Na₃V₂(PO₄)₃), Na₃V₂(PO₄)₂F_3−yO_y, (0 ≤ y ≤ 2), KTiOPO₄-type AVPO₄X (A—alkali metal cation, X = O, F) and β-NaVP₂O₇, with all of them relying on vanadium and phosphorous—critical elements in a myriad of industrial processes and technologies. Overall, the greater chemical complexity of these vanadium-containing phosphate materials highlights the need for designing specific recycling approaches based on distinctive features of vanadium and phosphorus solution chemistry, fine-tuned for the particular electrodes used. In this paper, an overview of recycling methods is presented with a focus on emerging chemistries for SIBs. Full article

Elucidating physicochemical processes in the degradation of pollutants may optimize their removal from water sources. Although the photodegradation of carbamazepine (CBZ) in Advanced Oxidation Processes (AOPs) has been widely studied, there is no detailed report on the elementary steps of the kinetics. This study proposes a set of elementary steps for the AOP of CBZ, combining short-wave ultraviolet radiation (UVC), a homogeneous reagent (H₂O₂), and a heterogeneous catalyst (TiO₂), which includes the excitation of both reagents/catalysts by UVC photons, the adsorption of CBZ by the excited TiO₂, or its oxidation by hydroxyl radicals. Assuming the steady-state approximation on the intermediate products (excited TiO₂, CBZ-excited TiO₂ complex, and hydroxyl radicals) leads to rate laws for the degradation of CBZ, in which UVC radiation, TiO₂, and H₂O₂ are pseudo-first-order at all concentrations or intensities and have no direct influence on CBZ pseudo-order, whereas CBZ shifts from pseudo-first-order at low concentrations to pseudo-zero-order at high concentrations. Several experiments to test the mechanism were conducted by varying CBZ, H₂O₂, and TiO₂ concentrations and UVC radiation intensities. The measured results indeed fit the suggested mechanism for the first three, but the irradiation intensity appears to shift the CBZ influence from pseudo-second- to pseudo-first-order with increased intensities. Part of the elementary steps were changed to fit the results. Full article

The aim of the study was to investigate the application of photocatalytic advanced oxidation (PAO) for the treatment of water contaminated with dark humic material from fynbos biome plants, which cannot be treated by conventional methods. The study used a fynbos species (Aspalathus linearis) to create a model wastewater that was compared with a brew made from black tea (Camellia sinensis). Two photocatalysts (TiO₂ and ZnO) and three light sources (natural, halogen light, and UV light) were tested, with and without hydrogen peroxide. The treatment of the two teas by only photolysis was observed to be minimal. The study found that natural sunlight was not effective, but a combination of ZnO and halogen lamp exhibited the best performance, with a 60% degradation in 20 min under solar irradiation. The optimum catalyst concentration was identified as 10 g/L for both photocatalysts. The influence of some process parameters showed that a combination of an optimum dose of 5 mM H₂O₂ and solar radiation improved the performance of TiO₂ from 16 to 47%. The photocatalytic reaction data were fitted to the pseudo first and second-order kinetic models in order to exploit the kinetic process of the photo-destruction reaction. The kinetic fits showed that the degradation reaction better adhered to the second-order kinetic model when only ZnO and solar radiation were applied, regardless of the tea type employed. The application of PAO in this novel and cost-effective way has potential for the abatement of contaminated water to potable water. The use of heterojunction photocatalysts could be explored in future research to further improve the process. Full article

Mining wastewater (MWW) can contain mercury in high concentrations. In this study, four autochthonous aquatic plant species (Eichhornia Crassipes—EC, Marsilea Quadrifolia—MQ, Ludwigia Helminthorrhiza—LH, and Lemna Minor—LM) were identified and tested for phytoaccumulation of total mercury (THg). To better study the accumulation phenomenon and macrophyte responses, this work has been divided into three phases, and pilot-scale reactors have been used to simulate real conditions. The results highlighted that, in case of 15 µg_THg,fed, the bioconcentration factor (BCF) was significantly higher in EC (19.04) and LH (18.41) with respect to MQ and LM (almost six times and two times higher, respectively). EC granted the best results in terms of THg accumulation (50.90%) and lower evapotranspiration of THg phenomenon with respect to LH. A significant decrease of the BCF (from 23.45 to 21.98) and an increase of the TF (from 0.23 up to 0.73) after 42 d highlighted that a breaking-time in terms of THg accumulation was reached due to the deterioration of the roots. In terms of the kinetics of THg removal by bioaccumulation, an HLT of 69.31 d was found, which is more than the breaking-time of the EC system, proving that a periodic replacement of exhausted macrophytes is required to obtain a higher percentage of THg removal. Full article

The development of novel and active photocatalysts to industrialize photocatalysis technology is still a challenging task. In this work, a novel method is presented to prepare TiO₂/SiO₂ NSs by covering SiO₂ nanospheres (NSs) with titanate-nanodiscs (TNDs) followed by calcination. In this regard, SiO₂ NSs are first synthesized and then TNDs are deposited on the SiO₂ NSs using a layer-by-layer deposition technique. The morphology of the prepared samples is analyzed via SEM and TEM analyses before and after the deposition. The analysis of metal (Cu, Pt, and Ni) loading on calcined TNDs/SiO₂ NSs reveals the highest specific surface area (109 m²/g), absorption wavelength extension (up to 420 nm), and photocatalytic activity for the Cu-loaded sample. In addition, studying the effect of metal content shows that loading 3% Cu leads to the highest photocatalytic activity. Finally, it is demonstrated that H₂S treatment can improve the photocatalytic activity by around 15%. These findings suggest the calcined TNDs/SiO₂ NSs are a versatile photocatalyst with potential applications in other processes such as hydrogen production and CO₂ valorization. Full article

Electrical grid layout optimization should consider the placements of turbines and substations and include effects such as wake losses, power losses in cables, availability of different cable types, reliability-based power losses and operational/decommissioning cost besides the initial investment cost. Hence, optimizing the levelized cost of energy is beneficial capturing long-term effects. The main contribution of this review paper is to identify the current works and trends on electrical layout optimization for offshore wind farms as well as to analyze the applicability of the found optimization approaches to commercial-scale floating wind farms which have hardly been investigated so far. Considering multiple subproblems (i.e., micrositing and cabling), simultaneous or nested approaches are advantageous as they avoid sequential optimization of the individual problems. To cope with this combinatorial problem, metaheuristics seems to offer optimal or at least close-to-optimal results while being computationally much less expensive than deterministic methods. It is found that floating wind brings new challenges which have not (or only insufficiently) been considered in present optimization works. This will also be reflected in a higher complexity and thus influence the suitability of applicable optimization techniques. New aspects include the mobility of structures, the configurations and interactions of dynamic cables and station-keeping systems, the increased likelihood of prevailing heterogeneous seabeds introducing priority zones regarding anchor and riser installation, the increased importance of reliability and maintainability due to stricter weather limits, and new floating specific wind farm control methods to reduce power losses. All these facets are crucial to consider when thoroughly optimizing the levelized cost of energy of commercial-scale floating offshore wind farms. Full article