Religions

20 pages, 449 KB

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Reconsidering the Relationship Between Sengzhao’s Things Do Not Shift and the Doctrine of Kṣaṇikavāda—With a Reassessment of Whether His Thought Reflects Vasubandhu’s Abhidharmakośabhāṣya Doctrinal Affiliation

by Benhua Yang

Religions 2025, 16(10), 1329; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16101329 - 21 Oct 2025

Viewed by 283

Abstract

International scholars have frequently interpreted Sengzhao’s 僧肇 Things Do Not Shift (wubuqianlun 物不遷論, hereafter TDNS) as reflecting the doctrinal positions of the Sarvāstivāda or Sautrāntika schools. This paper argues that the core issue lies in the relationship between Sengzhao’s concept of [...] Read more.

International scholars have frequently interpreted Sengzhao’s 僧肇 Things Do Not Shift (wubuqianlun 物不遷論, hereafter TDNS) as reflecting the doctrinal positions of the Sarvāstivāda or Sautrāntika schools. This paper argues that the core issue lies in the relationship between Sengzhao’s concept of “not shifting” and Kṣaṇikavāda (the theory of momentary arising and ceasing). A genealogical examination reveals that this interpretive view originated during the Tang dynasty—particularly in Chengguan’s 澄觀 citation of Vasubandhu’s Abhidharmakośabhāṣya (hereafter AKBh), which includes a dual-layered implication: both “not shifting based on Kṣaṇikavāda (cha’na shengmie buqian 剎那生滅不遷)” and “not shifting based on śūnyatā (xingkong buqian 性空不遷)”. However, Chengguan did not make a conclusive judgment. This dual implication was already clearly distinguished by Yanshou 延壽 in the late Tang period. Yanshou pointed out that “not shifting based on Kṣaṇikavāda” presupposes the real existence of dharmic entities, whereas Sengzhao’s view belongs to the Mahāyāna orientation of “not shifting based on śūnyatā”—thus marking a fundamental doctrinal distinction. In contrast, by the late Ming period, Zhencheng 镇澄 misinterpreted Chengguan’s argument out of context and reduced it to a heterodox doctrine of “not shifting based on the abide of inherent nature (xingzhu buqian 性住不遷)”. Later Ming masters such as Deqing 德清, Zhenjie 真界, and Huanyou 幻有 also emphasized the dual aspects in Chengguan’s explanation and directly refuted Zhencheng’s misreading. Therefore, the issue in equating Sengzhao’s TDNS with “not shifting based on Kṣaṇikavāda” does not lie in the difference between “not shifting based on Kṣaṇikavāda” and “not shifting based on śūnyatā” as this distinction was acknowledged on both sides. Rather, the key lies in identifying the doctrinal basis of Sengzhao’s argument: to which category does it properly belong? To answer this, the paper analyzes the conceptual structure of TDNS in contrast to the idea of “not shifting based on Kṣaṇikavāda”, and finds a fundamental divergence in their understanding of whether phenomena are subject to arising and ceasing. Sengzhao’s notion of TDNS is not the same as the concept of “not shifting based on Kṣaṇikavāda”. It will then analyze the differences between the two in their understandings of substance and time, revealing a fundamental divergence in their perspectives on whether phenomena undergo arising and cessation. Sengzhao’s concept in TDNS is not equivalent to the notion of “not shifting based on Kṣaṇikavāda”, nor are they congruent in terms of the consequent conceptions of entities, time, and the view of temporal flow that emerge from these respective frameworks. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Religions and Humanities/Philosophies)

10 pages, 220 KB

Open AccessArticle

Insights into Vatican II’s Reform of the Mass Lectionary from Heinz Schürmann’s Personal Files

by Felix P. Medina-Algaba

Religions 2025, 16(10), 1328; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16101328 - 21 Oct 2025

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Abstract

The personal documents of the biblical scholar Heinz Schürmann as a member of the commission charged with the elaboration of the Mass lectionary of Vatican II show that this was not an exegetical work which did away with the traditional way the Church [...] Read more.

The personal documents of the biblical scholar Heinz Schürmann as a member of the commission charged with the elaboration of the Mass lectionary of Vatican II show that this was not an exegetical work which did away with the traditional way the Church used the Bible in the Eucharist, as some critics have recently declared, but an ecclesial endeavor carried out in fidelity to the tradition and rigorous scholarship. My research of Schürmann’s files has shed a personal and original light on the entire process of organizing the new Mass readings. His contributions are multiple, but especially in producing a more biblically Christological lectionary, which would eventually lead to greater unity among the different Christian communities. Schürmann always lamented that biblical scholars were not heard by the overwhelming majority of liturgists. The question of time restrictions on the work of this commission has surfaced as a real concern. Renewed scholarship on figures like Schürmann, who contributed so positively to Vatican II’s liturgical reform, is much needed today to underline the validity and value of such a renewal of today’s Church. Full article

17 pages, 881 KB

Open AccessArticle

A Spatial Analysis of Shamans in South Korea’s Religious Market

by Jungsun Kim, Yuanfei Li and Fenggang Yang

Religions 2025, 16(10), 1327; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16101327 - 21 Oct 2025

Viewed by 1094

Abstract

This study examined the spatial distribution of shamanic practice in contemporary South Korea, focusing on its territorial relationship with institutional religions. Contrary to portrayals of shamanism as a rural remnant or as absorbed by Pentecostal Christianity, population-adjust maps and spatial models reveal substantial [...] Read more.

This study examined the spatial distribution of shamanic practice in contemporary South Korea, focusing on its territorial relationship with institutional religions. Contrary to portrayals of shamanism as a rural remnant or as absorbed by Pentecostal Christianity, population-adjust maps and spatial models reveal substantial concentrations in urban and peri-urban districts. Drawing on a geocoded dataset of 15,639 shamanic sites and 78,323 religious facilities across 229 districts, we estimated the ordinary least squares (OLS), spatial error models, and geographically weighted regression (GWR) models to evaluate how Protestant, Buddhist, and Catholic infrastructures were associated with shamanic site density. Protestant church density showed a consistent negative association with shamanic presence, strongest in regions with concentrated Protestant institutions. Buddhist temples had no uniform national effect but showed positive local associations in certain areas, suggesting localized symbiosis. Catholic sites displayed limited and inconsistent spatial relationships. These results demonstrate two contrasting dynamics: expulsion in Protestant strongholds and symbiosis, where Buddhist institutions allow more accommodation. Shamanism’s contemporary geography reflects adaptation to the territorial politics of institutional religion rather than a cultural revival. Full article

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23 pages, 5394 KB

Open AccessArticle

Materializing the Buddha Land in Medieval China (3rd–10th Centuries): Liuli Qinglou and the Eurasian Circulation of Jeweled Paradise Motifs

by Yanyan Zheng and Guikun Guo

Religions 2025, 16(10), 1326; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16101326 - 21 Oct 2025

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Abstract

This article investigates liuli qinglou (琉璃青樓, blue–green glazed pavilions) of medieval China as architectural manifestations of the trans-Eurasian jeweled paradise ideal. Tracing developments from the Northern and Southern Dynasties (420–589 CE) through the Tang dynasty (618–907 CE), it outlines an evolutionary trajectory in [...] Read more.

This article investigates liuli qinglou (琉璃青樓, blue–green glazed pavilions) of medieval China as architectural manifestations of the trans-Eurasian jeweled paradise ideal. Tracing developments from the Northern and Southern Dynasties (420–589 CE) through the Tang dynasty (618–907 CE), it outlines an evolutionary trajectory in representing sacred space: from the use of genuine gemstones in West Asian traditions, through their imitation in glass and glazed ceramics, with applications before the Tang remaining selective and elite, to the ultimate abstraction into symbolic blue–green palettes in the cave murals of Kucha and Dunhuang, where chromatic choices may at times reflect pictorial convention. Integrating textual, archeological, and visual evidence, the study shows how Chinese rulers appropriated imported glazing technologies, together with painted or coated blue–green finishes that simulated liuli effects, not merely for ornamentation but to materially embody Buddhist cosmology and to legitimize imperial authority by creating a terrestrial Buddha land. The pervasive use of qing (青, blue–green) in religious art thus reflects a profound sensory-theological translation, illustrating how Eurasian flows of materials, techniques, and ideas were adapted to shape localized visions of paradise through innovative processes of material and visual transformation. Full article

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21 pages, 578 KB

Open AccessArticle

Unveiling the Interplay Between Religiosity, Faith-Based Tourism, and Social Attitudes: Examining Generation Z in a Postsecular Context

by Justyna Liro, Magdalena Kubal-Czerwińska, Aneta Pawłowska-Legwand, Elżbieta Bilska-Wodecka, Izabela Sołjan, Sabrina Meneghello and Anna Zielonka

Religions 2025, 16(10), 1325; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16101325 - 21 Oct 2025

Viewed by 1125

Abstract

Contemporary religiosity is undergoing profound transformation, shaped by postsecular and postmodern dynamics. Amid global declines in institutional affiliation, religious and spiritual tourism has emerged as a salient expression of evolving faith. Poland exemplifies this paradox: witnessing one of the world’s steepest declines in [...] Read more.

Contemporary religiosity is undergoing profound transformation, shaped by postsecular and postmodern dynamics. Amid global declines in institutional affiliation, religious and spiritual tourism has emerged as a salient expression of evolving faith. Poland exemplifies this paradox: witnessing one of the world’s steepest declines in youth religiosity, even as Catholicism retains symbolic centrality. Drawing on survey data from 510 Polish young adults (Generation Z), this study examines how religiosity, faith-based travel, and social attitudes intersect within a postsecular framework. Findings reveal a dual trajectory: while religious tourism reinforces institutional belonging and traditional values, spiritual tourism aligns with individualized, fluid religiosity and looser ties to religious institutions. The study introduces a novel conceptual model mapping the interdependencies between religiosity, mobility, and identity among youth in postsecular societies. This framework demonstrates how faith-based travel actively mediates social attitudes and reconfigures religious engagement, positioning mobility as a generative force in shaping contemporary belief. Rather than following a linear path of secularization, Generation Z selectively blends inherited Catholic traditions with personalized, experience-driven spirituality. These findings advance sociological debates on secularization, postsecularism, and the transformation of religious identity through mobility. Full article

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20 pages, 276 KB

Open AccessArticle

The Point of Wittgenstein’s Religious Point of View

by Camilla Kronqvist

Religions 2025, 16(10), 1324; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16101324 - 20 Oct 2025

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Abstract

It has become commonplace to mention that Wittgenstein’s philosophy has an ethical point, and to consider how this contributes to his conception of philosophical method. Less attention has been given to how his admission to not being able to “help seeing every problem [...] Read more.

It has become commonplace to mention that Wittgenstein’s philosophy has an ethical point, and to consider how this contributes to his conception of philosophical method. Less attention has been given to how his admission to not being able to “help seeing every problem from a religious point of view” permeates his understanding of philosophy. Although there are ways in which the ethical and religious dimensions of Wittgenstein’s thought intersect, most notably in the way he illuminates absolute uses of ethical language by turning to religious experience in the “Lecture on Ethics”, I argue that the religious elements of his thought cannot be reduced to considering the ethical questions it raises. In the first part, I consider what it might mean to speak about, first, the point and, then, the ethical point of a practice, and how this shows in the importance, rather than the purpose, of what we see ourselves as doing. I then turn to the religious point of view and suggest that although it appears from a point, as it were, out of time, it should not be considered to reside outside of space. Rather, it involves a way of placing myself within the midst of my life, and considering my surrounding context, from a position from which I am able to think of myself as absolutely safe. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Work on Wittgenstein's Philosophy of Religion)

17 pages, 254 KB

Open AccessArticle

Simulating Agonism: How Anti-Gender Actors Represent Themselves as Legitimate Participants in Debates on Equality Politics

by Rok Smrdelj

Religions 2025, 16(10), 1323; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16101323 - 20 Oct 2025

Viewed by 280

Abstract

This study examines how anti-gender actors represent themselves as legitimate participants in debates on equality politics. Drawing on Mouffe’s distinction between agonism and antagonism, we argue that anti-gender actors foster conflict and exclusion through “moral panic” and the “politics of fear” regarding the [...] Read more.

This study examines how anti-gender actors represent themselves as legitimate participants in debates on equality politics. Drawing on Mouffe’s distinction between agonism and antagonism, we argue that anti-gender actors foster conflict and exclusion through “moral panic” and the “politics of fear” regarding the issues related to equality politics, while at the same time presenting themselves as neutral, rational, and pluralistic. This dual strategy allows them to insert themselves into democratic debate and present themselves as legitimate “adversaries” rather than “enemies” to those who genuinely advocate for equality politics. We contend that such efforts to simulate agonism are particularly evident in Slovenia, where anti-gender organisations operate as covert allies of the Roman Catholic Church. In a context where public trust in the Church is low and the separation of church and state is strongly valued, efforts to re-Catholicise society rely on secularised means. We argue that this renders strategies of simulating agonism and conforming to secular–democratic values especially salient in the Slovenian context. To identify these strategies, we conducted semi-structured interviews with Slovenian anti-gender actors. Our analysis revealed four interrelated tactics: “self-victimisation”, portraying themselves as excluded and marginalised; “call for dialogue,” stressing a purported willingness to engage with opponents; “depoliticisation”, framing their role as neutral and non-ideological; and “claim of public support”, invoking a “silenced majority” allegedly constrained by a prevailing climate of “leftist” fear and censorship. The significance of this study lies in the fact that, despite extensive scholarly work on anti-gender mobilisations, analyses drawing on interviews with anti-gender actors themselves remain rare. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Religious Changes and Challenges in the Wake of Increasing Global Migration)

24 pages, 376 KB

Open AccessArticle

Subjective Configurations in Cacao Ceremonies: A Theoretical Analysis from a Latin American Cultural–Historical Psychology Perspective

by Rodolfo Valle-Kendall and Carlos Piñones-Rivera

Religions 2025, 16(10), 1322; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16101322 - 20 Oct 2025

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Abstract

This article explores the heuristic potential of González-Rey’s theory of subjectivity and its use in theorizing neo-shamanic rituals, focusing on the case of the cacao ceremony. In the context of the growing popularity of contemporary spiritual practices, it examines how these rituals may [...] Read more.

This article explores the heuristic potential of González-Rey’s theory of subjectivity and its use in theorizing neo-shamanic rituals, focusing on the case of the cacao ceremony. In the context of the growing popularity of contemporary spiritual practices, it examines how these rituals may contribute to the well-being of participants, serving as spaces for subjective reconfiguration. Through a theoretical-interpretive analysis and a critical review of the existing literature, the concepts of subjective configuration and subjective sense are explored as analytical tools. It is argued that (1) cacao functions as a symbolic mediator that facilitates the production of new subjective senses; (2) ritual practices allow for both the emergence and the dynamic stabilization of subjective configurations; (3) shamans act as mediators of subjectivation through discursive, material, and emotional practices; and (4) these processes are not mechanically determined by the social context but rather emerge as singular productions, which are historically situated and liable to indetermination. Finally, the article reflects on the ambivalence of this ritual, which is capable of fostering subjective transformations as well as reproducing neoliberal logics. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Religions and Health/Psychology/Social Sciences)

18 pages, 289 KB

Open AccessArticle

“Doing the Work” Through Mockumentary: A Rhetoric of Irony in Daily Wire’s Am I Racist?

by G. Brandon Knight

Religions 2025, 16(10), 1321; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16101321 - 20 Oct 2025

Viewed by 1110

Abstract

In 2024, the conservative media outlet Daily Wire produced a documentary film entitled Am I Racist? Created by political commentator and author Matt Walsh and director Justin Folk, the film became one of the highest-grossing documentaries of the last decade. Unlike traditional documentaries, [...] Read more.

In 2024, the conservative media outlet Daily Wire produced a documentary film entitled Am I Racist? Created by political commentator and author Matt Walsh and director Justin Folk, the film became one of the highest-grossing documentaries of the last decade. Unlike traditional documentaries, Walsh employs a rhetoric of irony against anti-racist adherents to obstruct their influence and inoculate mostly conservative viewers. His method, however, is unusual and even questionable in conservative Christian circles. The film is analyzed using a Bakhtinian analysis of dialogic opposition wherein Walsh embodies three ironic characters—Rogue, Fool, and Clown—in order to expose the monologue of anti-racism. The analysis demonstrates the dialogization of the anti-racist monologue through rhetorical enactments of anacrisis and syncrisis. Through juxtapositions of anti-racist ideologists and their everyday racist opponents, Walsh obstructs the future effectiveness of the ideology. Even more, by becoming a DEI expert himself, he performatively distorts the monologue to victimize opponents and entertain viewers through the public spectacle. Ultimately, Am I Racist? demonstrates a unique modern turn and strategy in conservative and, more importantly, Christian rhetorical strategies that needs more attention in the future. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Religions and Humanities/Philosophies)

19 pages, 334 KB

Open AccessArticle

The Eclipse of the Common Good: How American Nationalism Overcame Catholic Social Teaching in the 20th Century and How the 21st Century Might Reclaim It

by Thomas M. Elbourn III

Religions 2025, 16(10), 1320; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16101320 - 18 Oct 2025

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Abstract

This paper examines the theological, historical, and sociopolitical contours of American nationalism through a comparative study of Roman Catholics and Native Americans—two groups historically positioned as outsiders to the United States’ national self-conception, but into which Catholicism has successfully entered. It enquires into [...] Read more.

This paper examines the theological, historical, and sociopolitical contours of American nationalism through a comparative study of Roman Catholics and Native Americans—two groups historically positioned as outsiders to the United States’ national self-conception, but into which Catholicism has successfully entered. It enquires into this success by establishing that American nationalism possesses a tripartite logic: (1) selective racial and religious superiority, (2) economic and military success read as divine blessing; and (3) advancing a teleological mission of global salvation. While white Roman Catholics were once viewed as anti-messianic threats, they eventually achieved integration by finding common enemies and warring to protect the American project and hierarchies, while Native Americans, by contrast, remain largely excluded, their presence disrupting foundational myths of nationalism. To evaluate this phenomena, Catholic Social Teaching (CST) is deployed, using the principles of human dignity, solidarity, and subsidiarity to critique nationalism’s pillars of race, wealth, and militarism with a vision of the universal common good. In doing so, CST challenges any theological justification for exceptionalism, reclaims a global moral horizon, and refuses the role that Catholicism might play in US—or any—nationalisms. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Catholic Social Thought in the Era of the Un-Common Good)

29 pages, 451 KB

Open AccessArticle

On Literary Miracles and Social Credibility: The Epistemology of an Islamic Argument

by Erkki V. R. Kojonen

Religions 2025, 16(10), 1319; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16101319 - 18 Oct 2025

Viewed by 1105

Abstract

The idea that the Qur’an is miraculous is common in Islamic apologetics, but has received little attention in Western philosophy of religion. Despite the common claim that the supposed miracle of the Qur’an is distinct in not requiring testimonial support, testimonial considerations are [...] Read more.

The idea that the Qur’an is miraculous is common in Islamic apologetics, but has received little attention in Western philosophy of religion. Despite the common claim that the supposed miracle of the Qur’an is distinct in not requiring testimonial support, testimonial considerations are central for many claims about Qur’anic inimitability. This article clarifies and evaluates the logic of such arguments for the purpose of fostering inter-religious understanding and raising the intellectual level of discourse. The analysis focuses on three different versions of the literary miracle claim: (1) arguments from early Muslim history, (2) arguments from Muslim aesthetic experience, and (3) arguments from Qur’anic literary features. Using recent advances in social epistemology and critical Islamic studies, the article explores how religious testimonial inferences can be evaluated and the difficulties involved in arguing for a literary miracle. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Islamic Colloquia of Edinburgh (ICE) Conference (7–9 July 2025): Miracles in Islam)

23 pages, 387 KB

Open AccessArticle

The Afterlife of Petrarch’s Liber sine nomine in Catholic and Protestant Contexts: The Case of Bernhard von Kraiburg’s Epistle on the Fall of Constantinople (1453)

by Péter Ertl

Religions 2025, 16(10), 1318; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16101318 - 17 Oct 2025

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Abstract

Petrarch’s Liber sine nomine is a collection of satirical letters against the Avignon Curia, remarkable for its stylistic refinement. It offered later readers multiple possibilities of interpretation and reuse, serving both as a rhetorical model and as a resource for anti-papal argumentation. While [...] Read more.

Petrarch’s Liber sine nomine is a collection of satirical letters against the Avignon Curia, remarkable for its stylistic refinement. It offered later readers multiple possibilities of interpretation and reuse, serving both as a rhetorical model and as a resource for anti-papal argumentation. While literary application predominated in the fifteenth century, the collection was later repurposed in religious debates between Protestants and Catholics. This paper examines a little-known episode in its afterlife, namely the epistle on the fall of Constantinople in 1453 by Bernhard von Kraiburg, chancellor of the Archbishop of Salzburg and later Bishop of Chiemsee. Close philological analysis shows that Bernhard adapted extensive passages from the Liber sine nomine and, along with a few other authors, established a distinct line of reception by reinterpreting selected letters as prayers. In the second half of the seventeenth century, however, Bernhard’s work met an analogous fate to that of its model. It was read and reframed from a Lutheran perspective by Johann Konrad Dieterich, professor of Greek and history at the University of Gießen, and was subsequently subjected to indirect censorship in the Index librorum prohibitorum. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Peccata Lectionis)

22 pages, 381 KB

Open AccessArticle

Beyond Belief: Understanding the Demographics and Dynamics of South Korea’s Religious “Nones”

by Andrew Eungi Kim, Wang Mo Seo and Gisun Kang

Religions 2025, 16(10), 1317; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16101317 - 17 Oct 2025

Viewed by 1272

Abstract

Religious “nones” is currently used in academia as a category referring to individuals who do not have a specific religious belief or do not belong to a specific religious organization. The increase in the number of religious nones is a distinct religious, cultural, [...] Read more.

Religious “nones” is currently used in academia as a category referring to individuals who do not have a specific religious belief or do not belong to a specific religious organization. The increase in the number of religious nones is a distinct religious, cultural, and social trend not only in the West but also around the world, and South Korea is no exception. The following questions arise: What are the trends of religious nones in South Korea? What are their characteristics? What are the historical, cultural and social factors for the large number of the irreligious in the country? This paper shows that South Korea boasts one of the highest percentages of the population with no religious affiliation in the world. The paper also finds that religious nones in the country tend to be “spiritual but not religious”, i.e., they have the characteristic of pursuing spirituality by practicing their faith in their own way outside of the institutional system. As for the factors for the high rate of religious nones, the paper argues that the phenomenon of irreligion in South Korea has a long history, e.g., suppression of shamanism and Buddhism during the Joseon dynasty (1392–1910), and that the popularity of shamanism and Confucianism, which are often seen more as spiritual practice and a philosophical system, respectively, has also been a contributing attribute. The rapid economic development, improved living standard, high education attainment level, and the rise of leisure culture are other factors for the rise in religious nones in Korea. The paper closes by reflecting on the implications of increasing religious nones for the concept of secularization. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Religions and Humanities/Philosophies)

16 pages, 282 KB

Open AccessArticle

Mosques and the Second Generation: Pathways of Demarginalization in Bologna, Italy

by Giammarco Mancinelli

Religions 2025, 16(10), 1316; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16101316 - 17 Oct 2025

Viewed by 517

Abstract

This article is based on ethnographic fieldwork conducted in Bologna between 2022 and 2023, including anonymized interviews and participant observation, and examines the role of Islamic religious spaces in fostering civic participation and identity among second-generation Muslims in Italy. Focusing on the experience [...] Read more.

This article is based on ethnographic fieldwork conducted in Bologna between 2022 and 2023, including anonymized interviews and participant observation, and examines the role of Islamic religious spaces in fostering civic participation and identity among second-generation Muslims in Italy. Focusing on the experience of the Islamic Community of Bologna—and particularly on the engagement of young Muslims born or raised in the city—the study addresses how mosques, often perceived as marginal or insular, can become spaces of urban integration. The analysis shows that the religiosity expressed by the youth diverges from that of the first generation and serves as a resource for building social capital and legitimising new forms of public citizenship. Particular attention is devoted to the collective experience of the Iftar street, which constitutes a moment of institutional recognition and symbolic co-construction of belonging: no longer “immigrant Muslims,” but “Muslims of Bologna.” In the absence of a national integration model, the article concludes that local dynamics can generate implicit forms of inclusion, enabling new generations to emerge as civic actors capable of redefining the boundaries of urban belonging and articulating a post-ethnic, citizen-oriented Islam. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Islam and Citizenship: Intersecting Experiences among Migrants and Their Descendants in Europe)

19 pages, 237 KB

Open AccessArticle

Wittgenstein and Christianity: 1914–1938

by Marie McGinn

Religions 2025, 16(10), 1315; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16101315 - 16 Oct 2025

Viewed by 406

Abstract

In “Notes on Talks with Wittgenstein”, Waismann reports Wittgenstein saying that in speaking about ethics “I can only appear as a person speaking for myself.” If we combine this with another remark, “What is Good is Divine too. That, strangely enough, sums up [...] Read more.

In “Notes on Talks with Wittgenstein”, Waismann reports Wittgenstein saying that in speaking about ethics “I can only appear as a person speaking for myself.” If we combine this with another remark, “What is Good is Divine too. That, strangely enough, sums up my ethics”, it suggests that an understanding of Wittgenstein’s personal involvement with the teachings of Christianity is fundamental for an interpretation of his “Lecture on Ethics” (1929) and “Lectures on Religious Belief” (1938). From the evidence of his personal writings, in particular the coded notebooks of 1914–16 and MS183, which record remarks made in 1930–32, 1936–37, Wittgenstein’s relationship to the teaching of Christianity is complex. During WW1, Wittgenstein found a form of Christian teaching immensely helpful, it seemed to him the only sure way to happiness. This influence is still apparent in “Lecture on Ethics”. Remarks made in 1936–37 show Wittgenstein’s relationship with Christianity becoming more troubled, as his critical self-consciousness arising from thoughts about the teaching of the New Testament become increasingly debilitating. He begins to find that the Christian teaching is becoming a source of madness rather than one of happiness. He accepts that a life of faith would require him to live a completely different life from the one that suits him. He begins to think that an ordinary life and his philosophical work might be the solution to his state of unhappiness. In “Lectures on Religious Belief”, Wittgenstein’s remarks are made from a position which is more personally disengaged. Wittgenstein is now investigating religious belief as a human phenomenon and not as something with which he is any longer personally involved, but his personal experience, particularly his experience of loss of faith, is still fundamental to how he understands the phenomenon. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Work on Wittgenstein's Philosophy of Religion)

10 pages, 237 KB

Open AccessArticle

Ecumenism of a Convert: John Henry Newman’s Desire for Unity and His View of Other Christian Communities

by Pavol Hrabovecký and Ján Kotlarčík

Religions 2025, 16(10), 1314; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16101314 - 15 Oct 2025

Viewed by 380

Abstract

Although St. John Henry Newman lived before the official birth of the ecumenical movement, he already carried, even as an Anglican, a deep desire for the unity of the Church, which he promoted through prayer and dialogue. After his conversion, he defended the [...] Read more.

Although St. John Henry Newman lived before the official birth of the ecumenical movement, he already carried, even as an Anglican, a deep desire for the unity of the Church, which he promoted through prayer and dialogue. After his conversion, he defended the authenticity of the Catholic Church but also recognized the work of God’s grace in other Christian communities. Based on his teaching on freedom of conscience, he did not press others to convert but instead called for better education and a more sincere life according to the Gospel. This article presents Newman’s legacy and the relevance of his ideas for contemporary ecumenism, not only within the Catholic Church. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Religions and Theologies)

18 pages, 444 KB

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Periodization, Functions and Impacts: Nineteenth-Century Chinese Periodicals by Protestant Missionaries

by Shuqin Han and Dongsheng Ren

Religions 2025, 16(10), 1313; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16101313 - 15 Oct 2025

Viewed by 616

Abstract

The 19th century witnessed an upsurge of periodicals in China, among which the Chinese newspapers and periodicals by Protestant missionaries were of profound impact. This paper begins with a chronological division of Protestant missionary Chinese periodicals, highlighting the most memorable and influential titles, [...] Read more.

The 19th century witnessed an upsurge of periodicals in China, among which the Chinese newspapers and periodicals by Protestant missionaries were of profound impact. This paper begins with a chronological division of Protestant missionary Chinese periodicals, highlighting the most memorable and influential titles, and analyzes the three-phase development of initiation, development and transformation within the broader sociohistorical context. Additionally, the study explores their evolutionary instrumental functions in terms of content and readership, ranging from the handmaid of religion, the bridge of eastern–western cultures to the carrier of diverse knowledge and the manipulator of politics. This shows that the knowledge selected and translated by Protestant missionaries functioned as a dynamic tool in adaptation to historicized requirements. Ultimately, the study argues that these periodicals served as an enlightener of Chinese minds, a promoter of Chinese press and a facilitator of China’s sociopolitical revolution, advancing religious communication, knowledge dissemination and political reform in China during the contemporary and subsequent eras. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Chinese Christianity and Knowledge Development)

19 pages, 619 KB

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Through the Face of the Dead: Constructing Totemic Identity in Early Neolithic Egypt and the Near East

by Antonio Muñoz Herrera

Religions 2025, 16(10), 1312; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16101312 - 15 Oct 2025

Viewed by 564

Abstract

This study examines the construction of individual and collective identity in pre-Neolithic Egypt and the Levant through the post mortem manipulation of human remains. Focusing on funerary rituals and skull reuse, interpreted using recent anthropological theory frameworks, we propose a totemic framework of [...] Read more.

This study examines the construction of individual and collective identity in pre-Neolithic Egypt and the Levant through the post mortem manipulation of human remains. Focusing on funerary rituals and skull reuse, interpreted using recent anthropological theory frameworks, we propose a totemic framework of ontological identity, in which clans associated with specific animals structured their ritual and spatial practices. Based on archaeological, taphonomic, and ethnohistorical evidence, it is possible to identify how these practices reflect clan-based social units, seasonal mobility, and a reciprocal relationship with the environment, integrating corporeal and mental continuity. Plastered skulls in the Levant acted as intergenerational anchors of communal memory, while early Egyptian dismemberment practices predate the standardization of mummification and reveal the function of some structures of pre-Neolithic sanctuaries. By interpreting these mortuary rituals, we argue that selective body treatment served as a deliberate mechanism to reinforce totemic identity, transmit ancestry, and mediate ontological transitions in response to sedentarization and environmental change. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Anthropology and Religion: Rethinking Identity in a Fragmented Cultural Landscape)

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6 pages, 183 KB

Open AccessEditorial

Editorial: Mysticism Reloaded

by Ali Qadir

Religions 2025, 16(10), 1311; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16101311 - 15 Oct 2025

Viewed by 285

Abstract

Studies of mysticism have been in a state of turmoil for years [...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mysticism Reloaded: Innovative Approaches, Methods, and Theories to Study Mysticism)

17 pages, 361 KB

Open AccessArticle

Celibacy, Chastity and Self-Cultivation in the Thought of Jesuits and Chinese Catholics in Late Ming and Early Qing China

by Biyun Dai

Religions 2025, 16(10), 1310; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16101310 - 15 Oct 2025

Viewed by 466

Abstract

This article examines Catholic celibacy from the late Ming to early Qing dynasty, revealing how Jesuit missionaries and Chinese Catholics interpreted and advocated for chastity. It highlights how missionaries such as Matteo Ricci and Giulio Aleni connected chastity with the ethical knowledge of [...] Read more.

This article examines Catholic celibacy from the late Ming to early Qing dynasty, revealing how Jesuit missionaries and Chinese Catholics interpreted and advocated for chastity. It highlights how missionaries such as Matteo Ricci and Giulio Aleni connected chastity with the ethical knowledge of self-cultivation and the doctrine of salvation, while adapting it to Chinese culture through Confucian concepts like subduing one’s self. The article also explores the conflicts and integrations of chastity ideals among different intellectual traditions, such as the critiques by Buddhist monk Yunqi Zhuhong and Confucian scholar Xu Dashou, as well as how supporters like Yang Tingyun and Zhu Zongyuan reconciled Christian chastity with Confucian ideals of self-restraint and virtuous conduct. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Chinese Christianity and Knowledge Development)

18 pages, 273 KB

Open AccessArticle

Kant on the Ontological Argument for the Existence of God: Why Conceivability Does Not Entail Real Possibility

by Lucas Thorpe and Zübeyde Karadağ Thorpe

Religions 2025, 16(10), 1309; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16101309 - 15 Oct 2025

Viewed by 426

Abstract

In the ontological argument for the existence of God, Descartes famously argues that the idea of God is the idea of a perfect being. As such, the idea of God must combine all of the perfections. Now, as (necessary) existence is a perfection, [...] Read more.

In the ontological argument for the existence of God, Descartes famously argues that the idea of God is the idea of a perfect being. As such, the idea of God must combine all of the perfections. Now, as (necessary) existence is a perfection, God must exist. Leibniz criticized Descartes’ argument, pointing out that it rests upon the hidden assumption that God is possible. Leibniz argues, however, that God is really possible because realities cannot oppose one another, and so there could be no real opposition between the perfections. So, at least in the case of God, conceivability entails real possibility. Kant rejects this assumption and insists that the non-contradictoriness of an idea is not an adequate criterion for the real possibility of the object of the idea, for although predicates may be combined in thought to form a concept, this does not entail the properties they indicate may be so combined in reality. For this reason, Kant believes that it is impossible to prove the real possibility of God, and so the ontological argument is not sound. In this paper, I examine Kant’s reasons for reaching this conclusion. I pay particular attention to Kant’s argument in the Amphiboly, which deals with the concepts of agreement and opposition, and where Kant stresses the importance of the distinction between logical and real opposition. I will argue that this distinction plays a crucial role in Kant’s rejection of the ontological argument and rationalist Leibnizian–Wolffian metaphysics in general. I also show how Kant’s rejection of the possibility of what he calls the complete determination of a concept in the Ideal of Pure Reason, plays a role in his rejection of the conceivability entails real possibility principle. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Kant’s Critique of Rational Theology and His Project of Moral Religion)

18 pages, 492 KB

Open AccessArticle

Liquid Spirituality in Post-Secular Societies: A Mental Health Perspective on the Transformation of Faith

by Pavel Eder and Petr Činčala

Religions 2025, 16(10), 1308; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16101308 - 14 Oct 2025

Viewed by 690

Abstract

What happens when the church no longer speaks to the soul, yet the soul keeps searching? Across post-religious Europe, a new kind of spirituality is rising: fluid, fragmented, and deeply personal. It offers comfort where doctrine no longer resonates, and healing where institutions [...] Read more.

What happens when the church no longer speaks to the soul, yet the soul keeps searching? Across post-religious Europe, a new kind of spirituality is rising: fluid, fragmented, and deeply personal. It offers comfort where doctrine no longer resonates, and healing where institutions feel distant. As mental health struggles grow, these alternative spiritualities flourish, reflecting the emotional landscape of late modernity, while institutional religion struggles to respond in meaningful, preventive ways. This article first explores the philosophical and cultural shifts that have led from church pews to yoga mats and mindfulness apps. Then it presents new data from some of Europe’s most secular countries, examining the relationship between faith, spirituality, and psychological well-being. Finally, it proposes a renewed form of Christian spirituality—one that is emotionally attuned, Spirit-led, and culturally rooted in the liquid realities of our time. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Interdisciplinary Approaches to Spirituality and Mental Health in Secular Societies)

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31 pages, 350 KB

Open AccessEditorial

Diaconia and Christian Social Practice in a Global Perspective: Concluding Synthesis of Emerging Topical Issues and Themes

by Johannes Eurich and Ignatius Swart

Religions 2025, 16(10), 1307; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16101307 - 14 Oct 2025

Viewed by 533

Abstract

Trust in politics and institutions, as well as the upholding of social cohesion, is presently under pressure globally [...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Diaconia and Christian Social Practice in a Global Perspective)

18 pages, 301 KB

Open AccessArticle

The Institutionalization of Religious Minorities in Spain: The Recognition of the Bahá’í Community’s Notorio Arraigo

by Óscar Salguero Montaño

Religions 2025, 16(10), 1306; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16101306 - 14 Oct 2025

Viewed by 574

Abstract

On 18 September 2023, the Spanish State recognised the Notorio Arraigo (firmly established, or literally, notorious deep rootedness) of the Bahá’í Community of Spain through a Ministerial Order, integrating it into the group of recognised religious denominations, albeit without any signed cooperation agreements. [...] Read more.

On 18 September 2023, the Spanish State recognised the Notorio Arraigo (firmly established, or literally, notorious deep rootedness) of the Bahá’í Community of Spain through a Ministerial Order, integrating it into the group of recognised religious denominations, albeit without any signed cooperation agreements. This milestone reflects the evolving legal–political frameworks of religious freedom since the arrival of the Bahá’í Faith in Spain in the mid-20th century, as well as the strategies employed to consolidate and institutionalise itself as a religious denomination, influenced by Bahá’í principles. This paper examines how these principles have inspired the Community’s secular strategies throughout different historical phases: from a restrictive Catholic confessional framework to the current non-confessional state, which guarantees religious freedom. It also analyses the actions undertaken to obtain recognition of Notorio Arraigo and considers the challenges and needs faced by the Bahá’í Community at this new level of recognition. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Religions and Health/Psychology/Social Sciences)

7 pages, 143 KB

Open AccessEditorial

Christian Missions and the Environment

by David Onnekink

Religions 2025, 16(10), 1305; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16101305 - 14 Oct 2025

Viewed by 362

Abstract

The spiny babbler is a bird species that only lives in Nepal, mainly among scrubs and small trees [...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Christian Missions and the Environment)

14 pages, 289 KB

Open AccessArticle

Injustice in Contemporary Islamic Theology: Explanation, Punishment and the Hereafter

by Abdessamad Belhaj

Religions 2025, 16(10), 1304; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16101304 - 14 Oct 2025

Viewed by 599

Abstract

Since the 1980s, a theology of injustice has gained prominence in Islamic thought as a large body of literature has been written on the subject. One of the main tenets of this theology is the punishment of injustice in the afterlife, which emphasizes [...] Read more.

Since the 1980s, a theology of injustice has gained prominence in Islamic thought as a large body of literature has been written on the subject. One of the main tenets of this theology is the punishment of injustice in the afterlife, which emphasizes how unjust individuals will endure different punishments, including suffering in darkness on the Day of Resurrection. Some theologians use the divine punishment of unjust individuals in the hereafter as a rhetorical method of dissuasion from injustice in conjunction with warnings against the injustices that Muslims are currently facing or committing. Taking an ethical and normative stand, other theologians prohibit injustice, including violence against innocent people. Other Muslim theologians adopt an analytical perspective, developing concepts to understand the causes, effects, and ways to prevent injustice, including via God’s love. All theologians agree that God will punish the unjust on Earth and in the hereafter. This article discusses how injustice is explained in modern Muslim theology and closely examines and critically analyzes twelve contemporary theological Muslim texts in Arabic that have been produced in recent decades. In addition, I will place these modern theological discussions within the context of the development of modern Islamic thought and in relation to the ongoing discussions about theodicy, ethics, and the imagery of (after) death in modern society. This article argues that the theology of injustice has two purposes: it calls the unjust to accept responsibility and promises the victim delayed justice and retribution. I conclude that the punitive stance on injustice can be explained by the ongoing political and social struggles in the Muslim world as well as the spreading of traditionalist Islamic theology. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Question of “Theodicy” in Contemporary Society: The Imagery of (after) Death in Religion and New Forms of Spirituality)

42 pages, 13705 KB

Open AccessArticle

Mechanisms of Creativity: Interpretive Malleability in Guan Di Worship on the West Coast of Peninsular Malaysia

by Xiang Li, Siew Kian Ong and Danny Tze Ken Wong

Religions 2025, 16(10), 1303; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16101303 - 14 Oct 2025

Viewed by 973

Abstract

This multidisciplinary study investigates the enduring vitality of Guan Di worship on Peninsular Malaysia’s West Coast by proposing and systematically testing ‘Interpretive Malleability’ as a core explanatory mechanism. This is achieved through an integrated methodology combining historical anthropology, GIS spatial data, and a [...] Read more.

This multidisciplinary study investigates the enduring vitality of Guan Di worship on Peninsular Malaysia’s West Coast by proposing and systematically testing ‘Interpretive Malleability’ as a core explanatory mechanism. This is achieved through an integrated methodology combining historical anthropology, GIS spatial data, and a dual comparative analysis. By examining cases across different regions and historical periods, this analysis, both synchronic and diachronic, assesses how the mechanism operates in varied contexts. The study defines ‘Interpretive Malleability’ as a two-part process: an ‘Inherent Potential’ within the symbol, rooted in the ‘Persistence of the Human Prototype’, and a ‘Local Generative Process’ activated by local actors. Findings reveal that the uniqueness and vitality of Guan Di’s cult are forged in practice-oriented domains through the creative agency of its followers. Ultimately, this study offers a mechanism-based, agency-centered framework for understanding religious resilience, highlighting the dynamic interplay between a symbol’s intrinsic structure and local creative engagement. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Religion and Creativity)

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2 pages, 124 KB

Open AccessEditorial

Epilogue: After Sixty Years—An Eastern Catholic “Pope Leo Moment”

by Ines Angeli Murzaku and Ana Victoria Sima

Religions 2025, 16(10), 1302; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16101302 - 14 Oct 2025

Viewed by 260

Abstract

When Dr [...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Light from the East: The Catholic Eastern Churches Sixty Years After Vatican II)

33 pages, 1303 KB

Open AccessArticle

Doomed Power and Eternal Wisdom in Late Antiquity: Intertwining Representations of Luqmān in Light of the Qurʾānic Tradition

by Maxim Yosefi

Religions 2025, 16(10), 1301; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16101301 - 13 Oct 2025

Viewed by 355

Abstract

This article explores the underlying ideas conveyed by the literary representations associated with Luqmān b. ʿĀd and Luqmān the Sage in classical Arabic sources. It avoids conflating them or collapsing all portrayals of Luqmān b. ʿĀd into a single composite figure. At the [...] Read more.

This article explores the underlying ideas conveyed by the literary representations associated with Luqmān b. ʿĀd and Luqmān the Sage in classical Arabic sources. It avoids conflating them or collapsing all portrayals of Luqmān b. ʿĀd into a single composite figure. At the same time, it resists imposing a rigid dichotomy between these representations, instead examining possible mutual influences and conceptual continuities. To assess the range of divergent Luqmān images in light of the Qurʾānic tradition, the article treats them as manifestations of diverse local and regional narrative currents, woven together within a broader pan-Arabic reservoir of motifs. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Classical Arabic Texts and the Pre-Modern Islamic Rhetorical Tradition: Rethinking the Qur’an and Early Arabic Poetry as Cultural Foundations)

19 pages, 279 KB

Open AccessArticle

A Journey into African Spirituality: An Exploration of Its Key Values, Traditions, and Healing Methodologies

by Nokwanda Mthethwa and Raisuyah Bhagwan

Religions 2025, 16(10), 1300; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16101300 - 13 Oct 2025

Viewed by 992

Abstract

This paper explores African spirituality by examining its core values, traditions, and healing methodologies. Employing a qualitative research design and ethnographic method, data were collected through individual interviews with twelve parents (Sample 1) and a focus group discussion with fifteen community members and [...] Read more.

This paper explores African spirituality by examining its core values, traditions, and healing methodologies. Employing a qualitative research design and ethnographic method, data were collected through individual interviews with twelve parents (Sample 1) and a focus group discussion with fifteen community members and traditional leaders (Sample 2) in a deeply rural African community in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. Participants were recruited with the assistance of community elders for their in-depth knowledge of this faith tradition. Thematic analysis generated three overarching themes: understanding African spirituality; spiritual beliefs and practices within African spirituality; and healing methodologies. The findings reveal a complex system of interconnected beliefs and practices that shape African communal life, highlighting the role of spiritual rituals in sustaining the well-being of families and communities. Full article

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Religions, Volume 16, Issue 10 (October 2025) – 113 articles

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