Geosciences

20 pages, 1249 KB

Open AccessArticle

Turning Warnings into Territorial Competence: Data-Driven Flood Communication and Risk Education After the 2024 Valencia (Spain) Cut-Off Low

by Álvaro-Francisco Morote, Daniel López-Rodríguez, Bàrbara Micó-Vicent, Jorge Jordán-Núñez, Jorge Olcina and Antonio Belda

Geosciences 2026, 16(7), 295; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences16070295 - 20 Jul 2026

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Abstract

The floods triggered by the 29 October 2024 cut-off low in Valencia (Spain) expose a persistent challenge in disaster risk reduction: extensive meteorological and territorial data do not automatically become timely, trusted or actionable public guidance. This conceptual synthesis uses the Valencia event [...] Read more.

The floods triggered by the 29 October 2024 cut-off low in Valencia (Spain) expose a persistent challenge in disaster risk reduction: extensive meteorological and territorial data do not automatically become timely, trusted or actionable public guidance. This conceptual synthesis uses the Valencia event as a diagnostic case and reconstructs selected evidence on rainfall, hydrological escalation and alert timing to develop a data-driven framework spanning observation, modelling, impact assessment, communication, decision-making and post-event learning. Here, “data-driven” denotes an end-to-end governance and translation process, not the development of a new forecasting model. The framework integrates four dimensions: data governance, user-centred visualization, uncertainty communication and school-based education. It also introduces territorial translation as the link between impact forecasts and place-specific infrastructures, routines, vulnerabilities and responsibilities. Its novelty lies in connecting the Early Warnings for All pillars and impact-based, people-centred warning approaches with an explicit educational and territorial learning loop. Its practical contribution is a responsibility matrix, a minimum governance package and an implementation roadmap with indicators for latency, reach, comprehension and protective action. The framework is intended for adaptation, rather than statistical generalization, across Mediterranean and other fast-onset flood contexts. Improved forecasts remain necessary but insufficient: loss reduction requires interoperable records, accessible impact-based messages and inclusive educational programmes that convert scientific information into situated collective competence. Full article

(This article belongs to the Collection Education in Geosciences)

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17 pages, 38695 KB

Open AccessArticle

Numerical Study of Mechanical Behavior and Fracture Characteristics of Dolomitic Limestone with Densely Distributed Small Holes

by Shuai Yuan, Xianfeng Wang, Qinghai Sun, Zhiguo Wang, Guantao Tai, Guangyao Zhang and Shuai Liu

Geosciences 2026, 16(7), 294; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences16070294 - 19 Jul 2026

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Abstract

Densely distributed small holes significantly affect the mechanical behavior and fracture characteristics of rock masses. In this study, the two-dimensional particle flow code was employed to establish a series of numerical models of dolomitic limestone, with the number of small circular holes increasing [...] Read more.

Densely distributed small holes significantly affect the mechanical behavior and fracture characteristics of rock masses. In this study, the two-dimensional particle flow code was employed to establish a series of numerical models of dolomitic limestone, with the number of small circular holes increasing according to the sequence (2n − 1)² (n = 1–6). Comparative models with equivalent area and variable spacing were additionally designed to explore their regulatory effects. The strength, crack evolution, and contact force chain distribution of each model were systematically analyzed. The results reveal that the number of small holes exhibits an approximately linear negative correlation with the rock strength. The number of holes dominates the crack initiation location and propagation path. The crack initiation stress gradually decreases with increasing hole number, while the ratio of crack initiation stress to peak stress exhibits a V-shaped trend. As the hole number increases, the distribution of compressive force chains shifts from the sides of holes to the vertical strips between holes, and tensile force chains become significantly enhanced in the areas above and below the holes. Hole spacing and equivalent area exert only local modulating effects; the number and spatial arrangement of holes remain the dominant controls on strength deterioration and fracture evolution. These findings offer a theoretical foundation for stability assessment in rock masses characterized by densely distributed hole defects. Full article

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26 pages, 35337 KB

Open AccessArticle

Synergistic Monitoring Framework for Mining Subsidence Under Thick Loose Layers by Integrating InSAR and UAV Photogrammetry

by Shu Li, Guangqing Hu, Tao Zhang, Chun Lan, Hetao Tang, Lei Peng, Shasha Hu, Qiwei Deng and Xiaojun Zhu

Geosciences 2026, 16(7), 293; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences16070293 - 18 Jul 2026

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Abstract

The surface subsidence caused by coal mining is a geological environmental disaster that restricts the sustainable development of mining areas. Traditional monitoring methods have limitations in long-term and high-precision observation. Therefore, this paper proposes a synergistic monitoring framework for mining subsidence under thick [...] Read more.

The surface subsidence caused by coal mining is a geological environmental disaster that restricts the sustainable development of mining areas. Traditional monitoring methods have limitations in long-term and high-precision observation. Therefore, this paper proposes a synergistic monitoring framework for mining subsidence under thick loose layers by integrating Interferometric Synthetic Aperture Radar (InSAR) technology and Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV) photogrammetry. The research results show: (1) UAV photogrammetry can accurately obtain the large gradient deformation at the center of the subsidence basin, while InSAR has better accuracy at the basin edge. The proposed fusion method is significantly superior to a single method. (2) The parameters obtained by the probability integral method based on the fused data are in good agreement with the parameters obtained by leveling measurement data, and the relative error of the parameters is less than 4%. (3) The thick and loose-layered mining areas have the characteristics of larger subsidence, steeper gradient at the center, slow convergence at the edge, and wide influence range. This study provides a new approach for precise subsidence monitoring, and the revealed subsidence characteristics provide a scientific basis for disaster assessment and mining optimization in similar areas. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue GIS, InSAR, and Deep Learning in Earth Hazard Monitoring)

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26 pages, 9860 KB

Open AccessArticle

ESR Dating of Silica Sinter and Travertine in Southern Tibet: Implications for Paleoclimate-Related Deposition

by Tongyan Lü, Sheng Wang, Zhonghai Wu, Kungang Wu and Minqiang Liang

Geosciences 2026, 16(7), 292; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences16070292 - 16 Jul 2026

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Abstract

In southern Tibet, tectonic extension has created north–south rift systems that host hydrothermal zones with episodic silica sinter and travertine deposition. Earlier researchers usually attributed these deposits to hydrothermal activity driven by regional tectonics. However, the timing of deposition and its possible climatic [...] Read more.

In southern Tibet, tectonic extension has created north–south rift systems that host hydrothermal zones with episodic silica sinter and travertine deposition. Earlier researchers usually attributed these deposits to hydrothermal activity driven by regional tectonics. However, the timing of deposition and its possible climatic controls remain poorly constrained. In this study, we dated six samples from the Targejia geothermal field and the Xiakangjian hot spring area using electron spin resonance (ESR), and evaluated ESR signal stability, dose response, and irradiation effects to assess age reliability. The new ages range from 209 to 49 kyr. When combined with 108 published ages, they indicate repeated sinter and travertine formation over the past 720 kyr. The dated deposits are concentrated in several intervals, especially during the last 100 kyr, and some age clusters occur near warm and humid stages. These patterns suggest that tectonics controlled where hydrothermal systems developed, whereas climate-related changes in recharge, meltwater supply, permafrost thaw, and water–rock interaction may have affected when deposition was more active. Because the compiled ages come from different methods and have uneven uncertainties, this climate link remains provisional and needs testing with additional samples dated by consistent protocols. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Perspectives on Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimate, Palaeobiology and Sedimentary Records)

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12 pages, 4463 KB

Open AccessArticle

The Influence of Magnetic Mineral Dissolution on PT2 Core Lacustrine Sediments from Southwestern China and Its Correlation with Indian Summer Monsoon Variability

by Xinwen Xu, Shenghui Wang, Wen Liu and Guohui Liu

Geosciences 2026, 16(7), 291; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences16070291 - 16 Jul 2026

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Abstract

The varying sensibilities of diverse proxies to Indian Summer Monsoon (ISM) variables lead to inconsistencies across individual studies. To attain a comprehensive understanding of the ISM driving mechanisms, it is essential to compile multi-proxy paleorecords from diverse monsoon-influenced areas. However, terrestrial ISM records [...] Read more.

The varying sensibilities of diverse proxies to Indian Summer Monsoon (ISM) variables lead to inconsistencies across individual studies. To attain a comprehensive understanding of the ISM driving mechanisms, it is essential to compile multi-proxy paleorecords from diverse monsoon-influenced areas. However, terrestrial ISM records spanning the last 200 ka remain sparse. Here, we performed a magnetic analysis of the PT2 core lacustrine sediments from the Heqing Basin, covering the past 184 ka, to reconstruct ISM variations from millennial to orbital timescales. According to the rock magnetic results, samples displaying strong magnetization are dominated by substantial amounts of magnetite and maghemite, accompanied by a broad grain-size distribution. Conversely, samples with weak magnetization show only limited quantities of fine-grained magnetite. The decrease in magnetic mineral concentration is attributed to the reduction in both coarse and fine-grained particles. Magnetic mineral dissolution intensity (MMDI) which combines magnetic susceptibility and frequency-dependent magnetic susceptibility, is highly sensitive to ISM changes. Consequently, we derived an ISM index from the MMDI and geochemical indicators of the PT2 core lacustrine sediments. This index exhibits pronounced “glacial–interglacial variations”, aligning with other regional ISM indicators from southwestern China and a variety of ISM-related proxies from a broader range of ISM-influenced areas. This suggests that ISM intensity is more sensitive to glacial boundary conditions in high-latitude ice sheets. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Studies in Quaternary Stratigraphy and Paleogeography)

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18 pages, 16782 KB

Open AccessArticle

Geological Setting and Hydrogeochemical Characteristics of Geothermal Waters in the Tectonically Active Shangri-La Area, Southwest China

by Changpei Zou, Zhenggong Pu, Linyang Zhuo, Huaying Wu, Hongwei Liao, Tengfang Li, Pengyu Liu, Kun Ren and Qibo Huang

Geosciences 2026, 16(7), 290; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences16070290 - 16 Jul 2026

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Abstract

The Shangri-La area lies within the Yunnan-Tibet geothermal belt, characterized by intense tectonic activity and abundant geothermal resource potential. However, existing studies have largely focused on individual hot springs, and a regional scale understanding of geothermal geology and fluid circulation mechanisms remains lacking. [...] Read more.

The Shangri-La area lies within the Yunnan-Tibet geothermal belt, characterized by intense tectonic activity and abundant geothermal resource potential. However, existing studies have largely focused on individual hot springs, and a regional scale understanding of geothermal geology and fluid circulation mechanisms remains lacking. This study systematically elucidates the geological setting, hydrogeological characteristics, circulation mechanisms, and resource potential of the geothermal systems by integrating hydrogeological surveys with hydro chemical and isotopic analyses. The results indicate that the Zhongxiao Fault Zone and its associated secondary structures are the primary controllers of geothermal water distribution, serving as both thermal conduits and hydrogeological boundaries. The primary heat source is attributed to the natural geothermal gradient, supplemented by additional contributions from magmatic activity. The geothermal waters are classified as Na-HCO₃ or Ca-HCO₃ types and are notably rich in fluoride. The mean values of δD and δ¹⁸O for geothermal water were −127.86‰ and −15.53‰, respectively, exhibiting isotopic depletion compared with non-thermal water. The geothermal water samples plot near both the Global and Local Meteoric Water Lines while exhibiting a distinct mean ¹⁸O shift of +1.24‰, indicating that the systems are recharged by atmospheric precipitation and have subsequently undergone intense water–rock interaction. Analysis using the Na-K-Mg triangle diagram reveals that most geothermal water samples are immature waters. Thus, the quartz geothermometer provides more reliable estimates of reservoir temperatures. Calculations yield reservoir temperatures ranging from 70 °C to 123 °C, characterizing the system as a medium-to-low temperature resource. With an annual exploitable energy of 5.9 × 10¹⁴ J and high fluoride content, these resources can offer substantial potential for clean energy and balneotherapy. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Hydrogeology)

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22 pages, 6252 KB

Open AccessArticle

Stability Assessment of Volcanic Lava Tubes Using Engineering Rock Mass Classifications and an Empirical Approach

by Abdelmadjid Benrabah, Salvador Senent Domínguez and Luis Jorda-Bordehore

Geosciences 2026, 16(7), 289; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences16070289 - 15 Jul 2026

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Abstract

Volcanic caves, commonly referred to as lava tubes, are typically shallow subsurface cavities formed by the cooling of a generally basaltic lava flow under a roof or crust that cools faster and acts as a thermal insulator. These cavities can serve as tourist [...] Read more.

Volcanic caves, commonly referred to as lava tubes, are typically shallow subsurface cavities formed by the cooling of a generally basaltic lava flow under a roof or crust that cools faster and acts as a thermal insulator. These cavities can serve as tourist attractions, in which case their stability must be analyzed and ensured. Empirical rock mass classification systems, in this case we have applied the Q-index have been employed to evaluate the stability of underground excavations: mines and tunnels, including natural caves. We have identified that these approaches have limitations, particularly incorporating key geometric parameters such as roof thickness and cave length. In this study we have analyzed applicability of the Scaled Span Method (SSM) to volcanics caves. This method was originally developed for the stability assessment of crown pillar stability in shallow mines. We have developed a dataset of lava tubes (caves) located in the Canary Islands (Spain), the Galápagos Islands (Ecuador), and Jordan. In this research we have conducted geomechanical characterization using the Q-system, and also the Scaled Span to evaluate stability based on cave geometry and rock mass properties. The results indicate that, in general, the SSM yields more conservative stability estimates compared to the Q-system, particularly for shallow caves with limited roof thickness. Nevertheless, discrepancies between the two approaches are observed in several cases, highlighting the limitations of directly transferring empirical methods developed for mining excavations to natural cave systems. These differences underscore the need for careful interpretation and, where appropriate, complementary stability analyses. The Scaled Span Method is useful for preliminary assessment of volcanic cave stability, especially in scenarios where potential interaction with the ground surface is expected: buildings or roads on top. However, its application requires adaptation and critical evaluation due to the fundamental differences between engineered mining excavations and natural subsurface cavities. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Geomechanics)

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35 pages, 32107 KB

Open AccessArticle

Provenance and Tectonic Evolution of Lower Ediacaran Siliciclastics Along the Northern Gondwana Margin: Geochemical and Isotopic Evidence from the Saghro Group (Anti-Atlas, Morocco)

by Mohamed Hamouyahia, Nasrrddine Youbi, Brian Cousens, Abderrahmane Soulaimani, Hassane Oubaassine, Hicheme Houane, Youssef Atif, El Hassane Chellai, Moulay Ahmed Boumehdi, Lhou Maacha, Mohamed Zouhair and Lahcen Rakhiss

Geosciences 2026, 16(7), 288; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences16070288 - 13 Jul 2026

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Abstract

This study investigates the provenance, weathering history, and tectono-sedimentary evolution of lower Ediacaran siliciclastic rocks of the Imiter Formation (Saghro Group, Imiter Sub-inlier, Anti-Atlas, Morocco) deposited along the northern margin of Gondwana. An integrated approach combining petrography, whole-rock major and trace element geochemistry, [...] Read more.

This study investigates the provenance, weathering history, and tectono-sedimentary evolution of lower Ediacaran siliciclastic rocks of the Imiter Formation (Saghro Group, Imiter Sub-inlier, Anti-Atlas, Morocco) deposited along the northern margin of Gondwana. An integrated approach combining petrography, whole-rock major and trace element geochemistry, rare earth elements (REEs), Sm–Nd isotopes, and organic geochemistry (TOC and δ¹³C_org) was used to constrain sediment sources and depositional conditions. Geochemical proxies, including Th/Sc, La/Sc, and Zr/Sc ratios, together with REE distribution patterns, indicate that the sediments were mainly derived from felsic-to-intermediate rocks of the upper continental crust, with only minor sediment recycling. The negative εNd(t) values (−8.5 to −6.2) and Paleoproterozoic Nd model ages (1.6–2.1 Ga) further suggest the erosion of evolved crustal sources related to the West African Craton. Weathering indices (CIA, CIW, PIA) suggest weak-to-moderate chemical weathering under predominantly arid conditions. Redox-sensitive proxies (V–Ni, V/Cr, V/(V + Ni)) and low TOC content (0.1–0.3 wt.%) indicate deposition under mainly oxic-to-dysoxic conditions, with only transient reducing episodes. Tectonic discrimination diagrams, supported by regional magmatism, point to sedimentation within an extensional basin evolving from active-margin to continental rift conditions during the late Pan-African orogeny. The Imiter Formation records a system dominated by crustal recycling, syn-rift tectonics, and dynamic redox conditions in a shallow marine environment. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Isotope Geochemistry: New Techniques and Applications)

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17 pages, 9959 KB

Open AccessArticle

Kerogen-Bound Maleimides Associated with Photosynthetic Pigment Inputs in 2.1 Ga Sedimentary Rocks

by Ryosuke Saito, Airi Takano, Yusuke Sawaki, Mathieu Moussavou and Amboise Edou-Minko

Geosciences 2026, 16(7), 287; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences16070287 - 13 Jul 2026

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Abstract

Direct molecular evidence for ancient photosynthetic pigment inputs in early Proterozoic sedimentary rocks remains scarce, partly because of long-standing concerns about contamination in Precambrian biomarker studies. Here, we report maleimide and phthalimide compounds released by chromic-acid oxidation of bitumen-free kerogen from ca. 2.1 [...] Read more.

Direct molecular evidence for ancient photosynthetic pigment inputs in early Proterozoic sedimentary rocks remains scarce, partly because of long-standing concerns about contamination in Precambrian biomarker studies. Here, we report maleimide and phthalimide compounds released by chromic-acid oxidation of bitumen-free kerogen from ca. 2.1 Ga black shales of the Franceville Basin, Gabon. The detected assemblage includes 2-methylmaleimide, 2,3-dimethylmaleimide, 2-methyl-3-ethylmaleimide, and phthalimide, whereas higher-alkyl maleimides commonly associated with bacteriochlorophyll c-, d-, and e-derived inputs were not detected. Paired analyses of kerogen isolated from exterior and interior rock portions show near-unity exterior/interior ratios and broadly similar relative compositions, supporting a kerogen-bound origin rather than substantial surficial contamination. In the context of organic-rich marine shales containing evidence for microbial ecosystems, the detected compounds are most plausibly interpreted as reflecting photosynthetic pigment inputs, especially (bacterio)chlorophyll-related tetrapyrrole precursors. The absence of higher-alkyl maleimides may reflect either limited original inputs from anoxygenic phototrophs or the preferential degradation of higher-alkyl maleimides during thermal alteration. Overall, these results show that kerogen-bound maleimide-type compounds provide a promising approach for tracing ancient tetrapyrrole and photosynthetic pigment inputs in Precambrian sedimentary rocks. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Biogeosciences)

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21 pages, 4326 KB

Open AccessArticle

Experimental Evaluation of Shear Strength of Soil–Concrete Interface in Carbonate Sands from Northeastern Brazil

by José Cléber do Nascimento Sales, Sâmilly de Carvalho Saraiva, Ana Clara Paiva Guimarães, Gabriela França Azevedo, Claver Giovanni da Silveira Pinheiro and Alfran Sampaio Moura

Geosciences 2026, 16(7), 286; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences16070286 - 11 Jul 2026

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Abstract

This study evaluates the shear strength and geomechanical behavior of the soil–concrete interface in carbonate sands from the coast of Ceará, with particular relevance to offshore wind turbine foundations. Three sands with different calcium carbonate (CaCO₃) contents, namely, 10.6%, 22.0% and [...] Read more.

This study evaluates the shear strength and geomechanical behavior of the soil–concrete interface in carbonate sands from the coast of Ceará, with particular relevance to offshore wind turbine foundations. Three sands with different calcium carbonate (CaCO₃) contents, namely, 10.6%, 22.0% and 30.0%, were tested under applied normal stresses of 50, 100 and 200 kPa. Conventional direct shear tests were carried out to determine soil–soil shear behavior, whereas controlled-interface tests were performed using cementitious specimens with smooth and rough surfaces. The soil–soil tests indicated effective internal friction angles (φ′) between 35° and 38°, with no cohesion. No direct correlation was observed between shear strength and CaCO₃ content. Instead, the results indicate that particle size distribution, particularly the proportion of finer fractions, exerted the main control on mechanical behavior. Within the three materials tested, no monotonic trend between CaCO₃ content and shear strength was identified, a finding that should be confirmed with a larger sample set. At the soil–concrete interface, shear stress mobilization depended on surface roughness, with the rough surface mobilizing higher shear stresses than the smooth surface. The ratio between the interface friction angle and the soil effective internal friction angle (δ/φ′) ranged from 0.963 to 0.994 for rough surfaces and from 0.859 to 0.951 for smooth surfaces. These findings show the need for site-specific characterization of carbonate sands and for explicit consideration of interface conditions in offshore foundation design, thereby reducing unnecessary structural oversizing. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Geomechanics)

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17 pages, 5602 KB

Open AccessArticle

Area-Specific Seismic Noise Reference Curves in an Urban Volcanic Environment: The Campi Flegrei Case

by Roberta Esposito, Lucia Nardone, Roberto Manzo, Guido Gaudiosi and Massimo Orazi

Geosciences 2026, 16(7), 285; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences16070285 - 10 Jul 2026

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Abstract

This study investigates the seismic ambient noise within the Campi Flegrei caldera (Naples, Italy) to improve the detection capability and reliability of the earthquake monitoring system managed by the INGV, Osservatorio Vesuviano. It focuses on the spectral characteristics and spatial variability of the [...] Read more.

This study investigates the seismic ambient noise within the Campi Flegrei caldera (Naples, Italy) to improve the detection capability and reliability of the earthquake monitoring system managed by the INGV, Osservatorio Vesuviano. It focuses on the spectral characteristics and spatial variability of the ambient noise field, aiming to identify the dominant frequency bands that control signal detectability and to provide information for optimizing the monitoring network. Due to the dense urban environment surrounding the caldera, seismic recordings are often contaminated by anthropogenic noise, which can mask low-magnitude volcanic or seismic signals. Power spectral density (PSD) analysis was applied to evaluate background noise levels at several broadband stations from permanent and temporary seismic networks over the period January 2022 to January 2023. The resulting PSD estimates were compared with the global Peterson noise models to assess station performance. Results show marked variability among stations, related to local human activity, proximity to infrastructure, and different installation settings (buried vs. surface). The study emphasizes the importance of noise monitoring to ensure high-quality seismic data, support optimal station siting, and refine monitoring strategies in densely populated volcanic regions such as Campi Flegrei, where the reliable detection of low-amplitude seismic and volcanic signals is essential. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Environmental Seismology: Methods, Applications, and Case Studies)

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2 pages, 669 KB

Open AccessCorrection

Correction: Rakhymberdina et al. Integrated Sentinel-2 and UAV Remote Sensing for Rare-Metal Pegmatite–Greisen Exploration: Evidence from the Central Kalba–Narym Belt, East Kazakhstan. Geosciences 2026, 16, 130

by Marzhan Rakhymberdina, Roman Shults, Baitak Apshikur, Yerkebulan Bekishev, Yevgeniy Grokhotov, Azamat Kapasov and Damir Mukyshev

Geosciences 2026, 16(7), 284; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences16070284 - 10 Jul 2026

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Abstract

Error in Figure [...] Full article

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24 pages, 6229 KB

Open AccessArticle

Living with the Active Earth: Perspectives from Japanese Geoparks

by Koji Wakita

Geosciences 2026, 16(7), 283; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences16070283 - 9 Jul 2026

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Abstract

This study examines all 48 members of the Japanese Geoparks Network to explore how human societies live with the Active Earth in one of the world’s most tectonically active regions. Rather than treating geoparks as separate sites, the study analyzes them collectively in [...] Read more.

This study examines all 48 members of the Japanese Geoparks Network to explore how human societies live with the Active Earth in one of the world’s most tectonically active regions. Rather than treating geoparks as separate sites, the study analyzes them collectively in terms of geoheritage, geohazards, hydrological environments, and community-based activities. The study is organized around four interconnected perspectives: (1) local geoheritage and Deep Time, (2) geohazards linking Human Time and Deep Time, (3) human life within Earth-system circulation, and (4) people and local communities connected through geopark participation. The results show that Japanese geoparks collectively preserve records of plate subduction, magmatism, accretion, crustal deformation, uplift, erosion, and hydrological processes that have shaped the Japanese active margin over hundreds of millions of years. These same processes continue to influence contemporary society through earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, water resources, ecosystems, agriculture, fisheries, and regional livelihoods. This nationwide analysis suggests that Japanese geoparks can be understood not only as sites for geoheritage conservation or tourism, but also as places where people recognize and sustain relationships among Earth-system processes, everyday life, and local communities. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Earth System–Society Nexus: Geoheritage and Geopark Practices)

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17 pages, 62610 KB

Open AccessArticle

Failure Causes and Kinematics of a Catastrophic Red-Bed Rock Avalanche in Zhenxiong, Yunnan, Southwestern China

by Long Yang, Yueping Yin and Sainan Zhu

Geosciences 2026, 16(7), 282; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences16070282 - 9 Jul 2026

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Abstract

At approximately 05:51 on 22 January 2024, a catastrophic red-bed rock avalanche with a volume of 16 × 10⁴ m³ occurred in Zhenxiong County, Yunnan Province, southwestern China (105°00′47″ E, 27°28′54″ N). The detached rock mass buried 18 houses, killed 44 [...] Read more.

At approximately 05:51 on 22 January 2024, a catastrophic red-bed rock avalanche with a volume of 16 × 10⁴ m³ occurred in Zhenxiong County, Yunnan Province, southwestern China (105°00′47″ E, 27°28′54″ N). The detached rock mass buried 18 houses, killed 44 people, and caused economic losses of 145 million CNY (23.1 million USD). Field investigations, unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) imagery, interferometric synthetic aperture radar (InSAR) analysis, and two-dimensional discrete-element modelling using PFC2D were conducted to examine the deformation characteristics, failure causes, and kinematics of the rock avalanche. The results show that internal factors, including high-relief terrain resulting from tectonic activity, fractured rock masses caused by joint cutting and weathering, and a soft–hard interbedded stratigraphic structure associated with argillaceous interlayers, were primarily responsible for the failure. Frost heaving may have been an important triggering factor for the Liangshuicun rock avalanche. Continued attention should be paid to slopes around the rock-avalanche site because ground deformation is still ongoing and may lead to future catastrophic events. The numerical simulation reveals that the kinematic process of the rock avalanche from initiation to final deposition lasted approximately 30 s. About 20 s after failure, the rock debris reached the village, burying houses and killing residents. The maximum velocity and displacement of the rock debris were 45 m/s and 335 m, respectively. These findings provide insight into the instability mechanisms and risk assessment of red-bed rock avalanches in the study area. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Advances in Landslide Mechanisms and Prediction Models)

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16 pages, 24750 KB

Open AccessArticle

Effects of Mine Tailings Leachates on the Hydraulic Performance of Geosynthetic Clay Liners

by Hao Wang, Yang Liu, Luguang Luo, Lizhen Wang and Yulong Lu

Geosciences 2026, 16(7), 281; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences16070281 - 9 Jul 2026

Viewed by 337

Abstract

This study systematically elucidates the mechanisms of hydraulic performance of geosynthetic clay liners (GCLs) by using tailings leachates from two representative mines, Xikuangshan and Shizhuyuan, in Hunan Province. A series of physical parameter tests, including fluid loss, free swell index, and liquid limit, [...] Read more.

This study systematically elucidates the mechanisms of hydraulic performance of geosynthetic clay liners (GCLs) by using tailings leachates from two representative mines, Xikuangshan and Shizhuyuan, in Hunan Province. A series of physical parameter tests, including fluid loss, free swell index, and liquid limit, together with microstructural characterization using X-ray diffraction (XRD), X-ray fluorescence (XRF), and scanning electron microscopy (SEM), were conducted to clarify the governing processes underlying the degradation of GCL performance in the presence of tailings leachates. The results demonstrate that the Xikuangshan tailings leachate markedly diminishes the hydraulic barrier performance of the bentonite component of the GCLs. This reduction primarily results from the exchange reactions between the high-valence cations in the leachate and the interlayer cations of bentonite. Such cation exchange compresses the diffuse double layer, reduces the swelling potential, and consequently manifests macroscopically as a pronounced increase in fluid loss and decreases in both the free swell index and the liquid limit. Microstructural observations further reveal that although the dominant mineralogical composition of the bentonite remains unchanged, its pore structure undergoes notable alteration: the hydraulic radius increases, the clay fabrics (crystallites) become looser and more dispersed, and the permeant pathways become more conductive. In addition, the hydraulic conductivity of GCLs permeated by different test solutions was estimated based on the measured fluid loss. The calculated values were slightly higher than the measured permeabilities, indicating that the proposed method can provide conservative estimates for rapid evaluation of GCL hydraulic performance. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Formation Mechanisms of Landslides Under Multi-Physics and Multi-Scale Interactions)

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11 pages, 5025 KB

Open AccessArticle

Species Diversity of Radulopecten (Pectinoidea, Bivalvia) in the Jurassic Seas of the Northern Central Neotethys: Reconsidering the Paleontological Information

by Dmitry A. Ruban

Geosciences 2026, 16(7), 280; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences16070280 - 8 Jul 2026

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Abstract

Radulopecten Rollier, 1911 was a common bivalve genus in the Middle–Late Jurassic seas of the northern Central Neotethys. The present work offers measurements of the species diversity dynamics of this genus after reconsideration of the species names and the related corrections of their [...] Read more.

Radulopecten Rollier, 1911 was a common bivalve genus in the Middle–Late Jurassic seas of the northern Central Neotethys. The present work offers measurements of the species diversity dynamics of this genus after reconsideration of the species names and the related corrections of their stratigraphic ranges. Information from four large domains of the northern Central Neotethys is employed. It is established that Radulopecten included seven species and evolved during the Bathonian–Tithonian interval in this region. The total number of species peaked in the Callovian, after which it declined. Globally, this genus had a slightly wider stratigraphic range (Bajocian–Tithonian), and its species diversity peaked in the Oxfordian. The regional diversity dynamics of Radulopecten may reflect some global regularities of changes in the species number modified by specific regional paleoenvironmental changes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Biogeosciences)

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25 pages, 8234 KB

Open AccessArticle

Quantitative Prediction of Blast-Induced Crack Length Around a Blasthole in Deep Rock Masses Under In Situ Stress

by Huyun Zhao, Xiaodong Wu, Min Gong, Chunping Wu and Minghao Li

Geosciences 2026, 16(7), 279; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences16070279 - 7 Jul 2026

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Abstract

Deep rock blasting under high in situ stress is challenged by the suppression of stress wave propagation and the strong directional dependence of crack growth, which together make fragmentation control notoriously difficult. Existing studies remain largely qualitative and lack predictive mathematical relationships linking [...] Read more.

Deep rock blasting under high in situ stress is challenged by the suppression of stress wave propagation and the strong directional dependence of crack growth, which together make fragmentation control notoriously difficult. Existing studies remain largely qualitative and lack predictive mathematical relationships linking crack length to the in situ stress state. In this study, we combine theoretical analysis with LS-DYNA numerical simulations to investigate eight stress cases (σ = 10~40 MPa, lateral stress coefficient K = 0~2). For the first time, a dimensionless confinement parameter, χ = σ_m/σ_t^* + α_χΔσ/σ_c, combining mean and deviatoric stresses, is introduced. And a unified exponential scaling relationship is established: L_c/a = 122.54exp(−0.80χ) + 4.9(R² = 0.94). This quantitative relationship reveals a hoop stress phase transition: the tensile phase vanishes completely when the hydrostatic stress reaches approximately 30 MPa, and provides a practical theoretical basis for optimizing blasting parameters and predicting fragmentation extents in deep, high-stress mining and tunneling. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Geomechanics)

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26 pages, 39965 KB

Open AccessArticle

The Structural and Tectonic Setting of the Linking Zone Between Claritas Fossae and Noctis Labyrinthus on Mars

by Fabrizio Marini, Evandro Balbi, Paola Cianfarra and Gabriele Ferretti

Geosciences 2026, 16(7), 278; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences16070278 - 7 Jul 2026

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Abstract

The linking zone between Claritas Fossae and Noctis Labyrinthus represents one of the most structurally complex areas on Mars and has so far received limited attention in the scientific literature. In this work, we aim to reconstruct the tectonic structural framework of this [...] Read more.

The linking zone between Claritas Fossae and Noctis Labyrinthus represents one of the most structurally complex areas on Mars and has so far received limited attention in the scientific literature. In this work, we aim to reconstruct the tectonic structural framework of this area by combining regional-scale geological structural mapping of tectonic lineaments and agglomerative hierarchical clustering. For the clustering analysis, five attributes were considered for each of the 1729 mapped lineament: azimuth, sinuosity, length, position, and the age of the terrain on which they occur. A total of 68 tests were conducted using different combinations of attributes and relative weights. The most geologically and statistically meaningful solution identified six clusters with specific orientations occurring on both Noachian and Hesperian terrains. This allowed us to relate individual clusters with the different phases of evolution proposed in the literature for the Thaumasia region. In addition, comparison with previous regional tectonic models indicates that some clusters can be confidently related to the Claritas Fossae, others to the Noctis Labyrinthus. Results indicate that the study area effectively represents the place where the two regional-scale tectonic domains interacted during multiple phases of deformation. The highlighted polyphase evolution started during the Noachian and continued through episode(s) of reactivation during the Hesperian, as a result of the tectonic interference between Claritas Fossae and Noctis Labyrinthus. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Planetary Science and Astrobiology)

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26 pages, 34240 KB

Open AccessArticle

The Application of Horizontal Directional Drilling for the Geological Investigation of Super-Long Tunnels: A Case Study

by Qiang Zhao, Xuefeng Yan, Jiguo Liu, Sheng Huang and Baosong Ma

Geosciences 2026, 16(7), 277; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences16070277 - 7 Jul 2026

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Abstract

With the increasing construction of ultra-long tunnels, complex and highly variable geological conditions along tunnel alignments pose major challenges to geological investigation, design, and construction. Conventional vertical drilling mainly provides discrete vertical geological profiles and is limited in its ability to continuously characterize [...] Read more.

With the increasing construction of ultra-long tunnels, complex and highly variable geological conditions along tunnel alignments pose major challenges to geological investigation, design, and construction. Conventional vertical drilling mainly provides discrete vertical geological profiles and is limited in its ability to continuously characterize lithological variations, fracture zones, and groundwater conditions along the tunnel axis. To overcome this limitation, this study proposes an integrated investigation approach based on horizontal directional drilling (HDD) for continuous along-axis geological exploration. Using the Tianshan Shengli Tunnel as the geological setting, the technical advantages of HDD for tunnel investigation—including ultra-long reach, ultra-high accuracy, high penetration rate, and strong adaptability—are first summarized. An integrated investigation method is then developed by combining HDD with targeted borehole coring, hydraulic fracturing, comprehensive borehole logging, and borehole TV imaging. A 2271 m long investigation borehole was drilled along the tunnel axis from the portal section. As a result, precise directional control limited the maximum deviation between the HDD borehole trajectory and the tunnel axis to only 6.32 m. Meanwhile, the lag distance between cuttings was determined through theoretical calculations to reconstruct the true borehole positions corresponding to the collected cuttings. Based on XRD mineralogical analysis, macroscopic observations, and preliminary investigation results, the lithology of the tunnel surrounding rock was delineated with high resolution. In addition, daily borehole inflow was monitored, and tunnel inflow during construction was predicted using the groundwater dynamics method and an empirical railway relationship, yielding an expected normal inflow of 4016.6 m³/d and a maximum inflow of 12,049.8 m³/d; furthermore, borehole TV footage was used to accurately locate inflow points and intervals with well-developed joints and fractures within the surrounding rock. Highlights This study proposes an HDD–downhole geophysics method for tunnel investigation, classifies surrounding-rock lithology from cuttings and cores, and predicts tunnel construction inflow from HDD borehole inflow monitoring data. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Geophysical Inversion)

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24 pages, 6995 KB

Open AccessArticle

Decoding the Geomechanical Memory of Deep Shales: Decoupling Extreme 3D Stress and Overpressure for Unconventional Engineering

by Gang Wang, Changyu Fan, Zhenliang Wang and Haijun Yang

Geosciences 2026, 16(7), 276; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences16070276 - 6 Jul 2026

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Abstract

Predicting present-day pore pressure and 3D in situ stress in ultra-deep fold-thrust belts is severely hindered by the inadequacies of traditional 1D vertical compaction models, which fail to account for massive lateral tectonic compression and continuous elastoplastic yielding. To overcome this, a 3D [...] Read more.

Predicting present-day pore pressure and 3D in situ stress in ultra-deep fold-thrust belts is severely hindered by the inadequacies of traditional 1D vertical compaction models, which fail to account for massive lateral tectonic compression and continuous elastoplastic yielding. To overcome this, a 3D poro-elastoplastic analytical framework is developed based on the Modified Cam-Clay model to decode the irreversible “geomechanical memory” of deeply buried argillaceous rocks. Applied to the highly compressed Kelasu Thrust Belt, this method links volumetric strain with mean and deviatoric stresses in stress-invariant space to reconstruct the maximum paleo-pore pressure and 3D paleo-stress tensor during the Coulomb Failure Period (CFP). The quantitative decoupling reveals an extreme state of geopressure prior to macroscopic faulting (pore pressure ratio α = 0.85–0.89). Crucially, the mean stress surge is identified as the dominant driver, generating ~91% of the excess overpressure. Consequently, horizontal tectonic compression accounts for 80–90% of the total overpressure anomaly, fundamentally overturning the classical assumption that vertical undercompaction (10–20%) is the primary mechanism. Furthermore, it is demonstrated that during subsequent tectonic uplift, the heavily compacted, salt-capped mudstones follow an undrained unloading path; the reduction in lithostatic burden is almost entirely offset by fluid depressurization, maintaining a constant effective stress state. This physically decoupled framework provides a rigorous basis for optimizing pre-drill safe mud-weight windows, designing hydraulic fracturing in highly deviatoric stress regimes, and assessing caprock integrity for deep geo-energy storage. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Geomechanics)

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31 pages, 6305 KB

Open AccessArticle

Quantifying Uncertainty in Permeability Estimation Using Deep Learning and Generative Models

by Oriyomi Raheem, Misael M. Morales, Michael Pyrcz, Carlos Torres-Verdín, Wen Pan, Yuanjun Li, Xiaohui Xiao, Rafael Centeno, Jay Chen and Pandu Devarakota

Geosciences 2026, 16(7), 275; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences16070275 - 6 Jul 2026

Viewed by 381

Abstract

Uncertainty quantification of well-log interpretation is essential to derisking subsurface exploration and development decision-making by providing possible scenarios for reservoir property distribution, fluid flow behaviors, and hydrocarbon potential. Well-log interpretation offers crucial insights into permeability variations, reservoir compartmentalization, mineral composition, and fluid mobility. [...] Read more.

Uncertainty quantification of well-log interpretation is essential to derisking subsurface exploration and development decision-making by providing possible scenarios for reservoir property distribution, fluid flow behaviors, and hydrocarbon potential. Well-log interpretation offers crucial insights into permeability variations, reservoir compartmentalization, mineral composition, and fluid mobility. Inherent uncertainties, such as those arising from geological heterogeneity, limited sampling, and non-uniform distribution of rock properties, can lead to inaccuracies that compromise petrophysical interpretation and formation evaluation. However, traditional data-driven well-log interpretation methods, which map well logs to formation properties based on core measurements, are primarily deterministic and fail to quantify uncertainty accurately. By leveraging deep learning and generative models, we introduce a probabilistic approach that significantly improves permeability estimation and uncertainty quantification. Our methodology integrates co-kriging techniques with Conditional Generative Adversarial Networks (cGANs) and Conditional Variational Autoencoders (cVAEs), establishing a quantitative relationship between kriged core, well-log data and permeability. Our approach enhances petrophysical property uncertainty estimations based on geostatistics by establishing a quantitative relationship between kriged estimates and flow-related properties. Training features are constructed using collocated co-kriging, capturing the cross-correlation between well logs (input features) and core data (output formation properties). Core bulk density, calculated from grain density, is kriged to well-log resolution to enable porosity estimation, while permeability is similarly kriged. A low-pass filter is then applied to smooth the kriged core bulk density, permeability, and estimated porosity, ensuring more accurate interpretations. The results reveal that cGANs and cVAEs consistently produce lower uncertainty estimates compared to traditional machine learning models. High-permeability zones exhibit lower uncertainty (approximately 3–5%), while low-permeability zones show higher uncertainty (10–15%). Traditional deep learning models tend to overestimate uncertainty, whereas generative models provide more reliable estimates. Additionally, applying kriged permeability data improves uncertainty estimations, further reducing uncertainty to 3% in high-permeability zones and 10% in low-permeability zones. To ensure broad applicability, the methods were tested on datasets from both carbonate and clastic reservoirs. In carbonate formations, prior classification steps are necessary to achieve accurate permeability predictions. The interpretation workflow improves permeability estimation accuracy and enhances uncertainty quantification across conventional and unconventional reservoirs. Additionally, this method is adaptable for CO₂ injection and H₂ storage wells, demonstrating versatility across various reservoir types. Full article

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13 pages, 13185 KB

Open AccessArticle

Coseismic Fault Parameter Inversion of the 2019 Mirpur Earthquake (Mw 5.8) in the Northeast of Pakistan Based on Sentinel-1 InSAR Data

by Yiyan Zhou and Tengxu Zhang

Geosciences 2026, 16(7), 274; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences16070274 - 6 Jul 2026

Viewed by 312

Abstract

We analyzed ascending and descending Sentinel-1 SAR imagery to map the coseismic displacement field resulting from the 24 September 2019 Mirpur earthquake in Pakistan. Though moderate in magnitude (Mw 5.8), this earthquake caused severe damage and significant devastation. InSAR-derived observations reveal that the [...] Read more.

We analyzed ascending and descending Sentinel-1 SAR imagery to map the coseismic displacement field resulting from the 24 September 2019 Mirpur earthquake in Pakistan. Though moderate in magnitude (Mw 5.8), this earthquake caused severe damage and significant devastation. InSAR-derived observations reveal that the seismic event occurred on a concealed southeast-striking fault. Peak line-of-sight (LOS) displacements, derived from the ascending and descending orbit datasets, were recorded at approximately 13 cm and 8.6 cm, respectively. The geodetic modeling indicates that the primary slip of 0.77 m occurred within the 6–10 km depth range on a fault plane characterized by a 274.37° strike and a 13.01° dip. The seismogenic fault dips to the southwest, which directly aligns with the geometry derived from our uniform slip model. Our InSAR-based inversion, utilizing a crustal rigidity of 30 GPa, estimates a seismic moment of 1.11 × 10¹⁸ N m (Mw 6.0). The results of the Coulomb stress change indicate that this seismic event promoted static Coulomb stress loading around the southern, eastern, and western margins of the rupture, which may signify an elevated seismic hazard for the surrounding regions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue GIS, InSAR, and Deep Learning in Earth Hazard Monitoring)

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23 pages, 54465 KB

Open AccessArticle

Statistical Evidence for the Colonization of Gravelly Coastal Channels by Early Cambrian Burrowers

by Boxin Kang

Geosciences 2026, 16(7), 273; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences16070273 - 6 Jul 2026

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Abstract

The coastal realm contains various architectural elements that differ from both typical marine and terrestrial deposits. These architectural elements represent novel habitats for marine benthos in terms of hydrodynamic regime, and some may even serve as a gateway for colonization into aquatic environments [...] Read more.

The coastal realm contains various architectural elements that differ from both typical marine and terrestrial deposits. These architectural elements represent novel habitats for marine benthos in terms of hydrodynamic regime, and some may even serve as a gateway for colonization into aquatic environments on land. Here, I present vertical burrows from the Wulongqing Formation (Cambrian Series 2) in the Longbaoshan area, Yunnan, China, suggesting that early Cambrian burrowers colonized gravelly coastal channels within a fluvio-tidal system. The succession is dominated by mudstone (>80% of total thickness), with conglomerate beds present at its basal part. The characteristics of the mudstone (lenticular sands, mud drapes, bioturbations) demonstrate tidal influence and benthic activity. The conglomerates are interpreted as coastal channel deposits, characterized by sheet-like geometry (width to thickness ratio > 500), trough cross-stratifications (CXt), and inclined gravel-sand stratifications (CXgs). Furthermore, statistical analysis reveals that the occurrence frequency of vertical burrows at the contact between mudstones and overlying conglomerates (4 in 7) is significantly higher (p < 0.05, OR = 12.27, 95%CI: 2.01–64.32) than within mudstones (5 in 51), indicating that burrowers colonized these coastal channels. Given the similarity between these sheet-like conglomerates and pre-Devonian sheet-braided conglomerates, this colonization implies colonization at the marine end of fluvial systems during the Cambrian explosion. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Sedimentology, Stratigraphy and Palaeontology)

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23 pages, 13087 KB

Open AccessArticle

Evaluating the Coupling Between Turbidites and Paleo-Earthquakes over 700 Years in the Southern Okinawa Trough, Taiwan

by Yamin Yang, Lizhong Zhang, Shuai Chen, Xuebo Yin, Li Wu, Xiaoshuai Yang, Pengfei Wang, Zibin Li, Yuxin Wang and Zhigang Zeng

Geosciences 2026, 16(7), 272; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences16070272 - 5 Jul 2026

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Abstract

High-resolution marine sedimentary archives from active continental margins provide exceptional records of paleo-earthquake histories through the preservation of seismogenic turbidites. A 477cm long gravity core (HOBAB4-S2) retrieved from the southern Okinawa Trough (SOT) off eastern Taiwan at a water depth of 1505 m [...] Read more.

High-resolution marine sedimentary archives from active continental margins provide exceptional records of paleo-earthquake histories through the preservation of seismogenic turbidites. A 477cm long gravity core (HOBAB4-S2) retrieved from the southern Okinawa Trough (SOT) off eastern Taiwan at a water depth of 1505 m preserves a ~700-year record (1445–2003 AD) of alternating hemipelagic background sedimentation and rapid event deposits. Chronological control is established through accelerator mass spectrometry (AMS ¹⁴C) radiocarbon dating and excess ²¹⁰Pb profiling. Detailed sedimentological and geochemical analyses identify fifteen turbidite events (T1–T15), which are grouped into three lithofacies: TI (silt turbidites), TII (sandy silt turbidites), and TIII (silty sand turbidites). Temporal correlation demonstrates that the majority of these turbidite beds coincide with documented historical and instrumental earthquakes (M_w ≥ 6.6), confirming seismic shaking as the primary triggering mechanism. Notably, turbidite thickness, basal grain size and recurrence frequency increase during the Little Ice Age (LIA, ~1400–1850 AD), a pattern we attribute to enhanced terrestrial sediment supply driven by intensified typhoon activity, which preconditioned the slope system for seismically induced failure. These findings demonstrate that turbidite sequences in the SOT provide a reliable record of local paleo-earthquake activity, while establishing that their stratigraphic expression is modulated by climatically driven sedimentary preconditioning. This principle is critical to paleoseismic reconstruction in seismically active, storm-prone continental margins globally. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Sedimentology, Stratigraphy and Palaeontology)

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20 pages, 12820 KB

Open AccessArticle

Transitional Oil Sands Tailings’ Filterability and Consolidation Behavior

by Peter Kaheshi, Gordon Ward Wilson and Heather Kaminsky

Geosciences 2026, 16(7), 271; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences16070271 - 5 Jul 2026

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Abstract

Over the past few decades, the oil sands mining industry has taken steps to find ways to speed up the filterability and consolidation of their tailings deposits, which would otherwise take decades to settle and reach the required strength. The initiative has led [...] Read more.

Over the past few decades, the oil sands mining industry has taken steps to find ways to speed up the filterability and consolidation of their tailings deposits, which would otherwise take decades to settle and reach the required strength. The initiative has led to deposits that are combinations of sands and fines (<44 µm) in proportions whose geotechnical behaviors have not yet been determined by the existing body of knowledge. The purpose of this study is to examine how the quantity of fines and their index characteristics affect the filterability and consolidation of particular deposits. Findings from this research show that these deposits exhibit characteristics of low-plasticity soils. The hydraulic conductivity of these materials is strongly influenced by the fines content. The deposits behave more like sand below a threshold point of about 35 percent fines content, and they exhibit low hydraulic conductivity above this point. Furthermore, the hydraulic conductivity of these deposits is influenced by other factors, including clay properties, sodium adsorption ratio, and effective stress. The results of finite-strain consolidation modeling show that mixtures of sand and fluid tailings with fines within the threshold range exhibit significantly improved consolidation performance. In particular, compared to the performance of traditional fluid tailings deposits, settlement time and depth are reduced by more than 50%, and the time needed for complete pore pressure dissipation is reduced by more than 80%. Findings from this study provide an insight to the industry on the optimal fines–sand blending proportions for best performing deposits. Since these findings are solely laboratory-based, it should be noted that the determined threshold fines content and consolidation behavior may alter in field-scale deposition. Full article

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20 pages, 7451 KB

Open AccessArticle

Impact of Injection Strategy and Caprock Morphology on CO₂ Storage Efficiency and Safety in the Tazhong Uplift, Tarim Basin, China

by Kaisar Ahmat, Jianmei Cheng and Hao Lu

Geosciences 2026, 16(7), 270; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences16070270 - 5 Jul 2026

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Abstract

In carbon sequestration in saline aquifers, many factors affect multiphase fluid migration and reservoir pressure change. This study developed a high-resolution three-dimensional numerical model to investigate large-scale CO₂ geological storage in the Ordovician carbonate aquifer of the Tarim Basin, China. This study [...] Read more.

In carbon sequestration in saline aquifers, many factors affect multiphase fluid migration and reservoir pressure change. This study developed a high-resolution three-dimensional numerical model to investigate large-scale CO₂ geological storage in the Ordovician carbonate aquifer of the Tarim Basin, China. This study focuses on the quantitative prediction of CO₂ plume migration, multiphase flow interactions between supercritical CO₂ and brine, and formation pressure evolution under coupled injection operations. Injection strategies were compared by constant rate (CR) and variable rate (VR) injection, and two caprock morphology-type selection by placing wells into monocline traps (wells 1/3/5) and anticline traps (wells 2/4) with varying limb dip angles and closure depths. The results demonstrate that both injection speed and caprock morphology strongly control CO₂ trapping evolution and storage security. At the end of the 500-year simulation, the dissolved-CO₂ migration distance followed the order CR > VR, indicating that, under the studied conditions, VR injection most effectively limited the lateral spread of dissolved CO₂ and thereby enhanced dissolved-CO₂ immobilization. In addition, CR and VR injection schedules have a subtle impact on long-term pressure change; Across all cases, formation pressure remained below the caprock breakthrough pressure. CR injection promotes the fastest CO₂ dissolution and pressure dissipation but yields the weakest long-term immobilization, whereas VR injection trades early dissolution rate for more effective plume containment. This result indicates that injection-strategy selection should be matched to dominant site controlled near-term pressure management versus long-term containment and to the trapping behavior imposed by caprock morphology. This study provides a mechanistically grounded optimization framework linking injection-speed control and caprock morphology to the coupled evolution of pressure-buildup safety and long-term CO₂ immobilization, supporting CCUS decision-making in the Tarim Basin. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advancements in Geological Fluid Flow and Mechanical Properties)

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37 pages, 2507 KB

Open AccessArticle

Hydrogeochemical and Spatial Assessments of Groundwater Suitability for Drinking and Irrigation in Bazo River Catchment, Rift Valley, Ethiopia

by Awraja Abera, Samuel Dagalo and Muralitharan Jothimani

Geosciences 2026, 16(7), 269; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences16070269 - 3 Jul 2026

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Abstract

Groundwater is one of the basic requirements for life, economic and social developments in the Bazo River catchment, Rift Valley, Southern Ethiopia. In the study area, availability of water is faced with several problems, such as quality issues due to high levels of [...] Read more.

Groundwater is one of the basic requirements for life, economic and social developments in the Bazo River catchment, Rift Valley, Southern Ethiopia. In the study area, availability of water is faced with several problems, such as quality issues due to high levels of fluoride in some samples, spring scarcity in the lowlands, unprotected river water used for drinking, and high demand for good quality water. The aim of this study was to investigate the hydrogeochemical characteristics and to evaluate groundwater quality for domestic and irrigation uses. Thirty-four primary groundwater samples were collected from the field and analyzed in the water quality lab of Arba Minch University. Two water quality indices (WQI and EWQI), a variety of irrigation water quality indices, and GIS-based spatial analysis were utilized in this study. Cations were present in the descending order of Na > Ca > Mg > K > Fe, and anions were HCO₃⁻ > Cl > SO₄ > NO₃⁻ > F. Excepting two samples (BH8 and SP3), the water samples were acceptable for drinking. Sodium, TDS, and fluoride levels were over the limit of drinking water in BH8 and SP3. Rock–water interaction, cation exchange, and silicate mineral weathering were the main hydrogeochemical reactions that controlled groundwater composition in the area, based on Gibb’s diagram, chloro-alkaline indices, and major ions ratios. Groundwater facies were identified as Ca.HCO₃, Na.HCO₃ and mixed Ca-Na/Ca.Mg.Na.HCO₃ types using a Piper plot. The water quality index was computed, and its spatial variations were mapped using GIS. About 82.35% of groundwater samples were excellent for drinking use and 94.12% (SAR) of groundwater were acceptable for irrigation. These study results are useful to help develop inclusive strategies and interventions to address groundwater quality aspects in the study area, underlining the significance of managing and monitoring water resources. The findings underscore the need for effective management and monitoring strategies to ensure sustainable groundwater resources in the Bazo River catchment. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Geological Processes: A Key to Understand Water Quality Issues)

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21 pages, 54898 KB

Open AccessArticle

Basin-Mountain Structure and Evolution in the Northeastern Junggar Basin, Xinjiang, Northwest China

by Lei Wen, Zhenlong Dai, Yunlu Xin, Bin Liang, Bin Li, Youxing Yang, Depeng Zhu, Xiangcan Sun and Yingjie Liu

Geosciences 2026, 16(7), 268; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences16070268 - 3 Jul 2026

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Abstract

The Ulungu Depression, located in the northeastern Junggar Basin, adjacent to the Altai Orogenic Belt, exhibits distinctive tectonic relationships and evolutionary mechanisms. Through integrated interpretation of seismic and electromagnetic data, a composite transect was established to characterize the deep-to-shallow geological architecture of the [...] Read more.

The Ulungu Depression, located in the northeastern Junggar Basin, adjacent to the Altai Orogenic Belt, exhibits distinctive tectonic relationships and evolutionary mechanisms. Through integrated interpretation of seismic and electromagnetic data, a composite transect was established to characterize the deep-to-shallow geological architecture of the Altai Orogenic Belt–Ulungu Depression system. The tectonic evolution since the Late Paleozoic was reconstructed, revealing three distinct phases: (1) Late Paleozoic peripheral foreland basin development, (2) Mesozoic intracontinental foreland basin formation, and (3) Cenozoic intracontinental foreland basin reactivation. The Late Paleozoic phase records the formation of a peripheral foreland basin in the northeastern Junggar Basin, driven by the Altai-Junggar collision orogeny. During the Mesozoic, intracontinental orogeny along the Altai Belt controlled the development of an intracontinental foreland basin in this region. Paleogene tectonic quiescence facilitated regional subsidence and stable sedimentary deposition. From the Neogene to Quaternary, the Ulungu Depression experienced weak compressional deformation dominated by minor thrust faults, with intermittent regional extensional structures, attributable to the far-field effects of the India-Eurasia collision. This distant tectonic stress primarily localized intracontinental orogeny in the North Tianshan, while the Ulungu Depression, situated farther north, exhibited attenuated strain partitioning. Reconstruction of this multi-phase tectonic evolution provides critical insights into the accretionary orogenic processes of Central Asia. Furthermore, it offers practical implications for hydrocarbon exploration in the Ulungu Depression, particularly regarding structural traps and reservoir distribution patterns. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Oil and Gas Exploration, Resources, and Production in China)

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20 pages, 2746 KB

Open AccessArticle

Global Medium-Term Earthquake Forecasting with Every Earthquake a Precursor According to Scale

by Sepideh J. Rastin and David A. Rhoades

Geosciences 2026, 16(7), 267; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences16070267 - 3 Jul 2026

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Abstract

The “Every Earthquake a Precursor According to Scale” (EEPAS) model uses minor earthquakes in a catalogue to forecast major earthquakes, based on the precursory scale increase phenomenon and associated predictive scaling relations. It has previously been applied to regional earthquake catalogues for medium-term [...] Read more.

The “Every Earthquake a Precursor According to Scale” (EEPAS) model uses minor earthquakes in a catalogue to forecast major earthquakes, based on the precursory scale increase phenomenon and associated predictive scaling relations. It has previously been applied to regional earthquake catalogues for medium-term forecasting of earthquakes with target magnitudes exceeding thresholds in the range M 5.0–6.0 using previous earthquakes about two magnitude units below the target threshold, depending on the completeness of the catalogue. Here, we apply it to the ISC-GEM global earthquake catalogue and test its ability to forecast earthquakes with target magnitudes exceeding M 7.5, i.e., the largest and most important earthquakes for assessing earthquake hazard. We use background models based on both smoothed seismicity and spatial variation of strain rate estimates. The models are fitted to the period 1994–2013, with 85 target earthquakes, and tested on the period 2014–2019, with 19 target earthquakes. The EEPAS model shows larger information gains over a smoothed seismicity model than in most regional applications. Also, a hybrid composed of EEPAS, smoothed seismicity and the strain rate outperforms a hybrid consisting only of smoothed seismicity and strain rate components. These preliminary results suggest that EEPAS may be useful for forecasting the largest earthquakes globally but should be followed up by transparent prospective testing. There are several avenues for improvement of EEPAS modeling. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Editorial Board Members' Collection Series: Natural Hazards)

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23 pages, 33947 KB

Open AccessArticle

ASTER Mineral Mapping of Beresite–Listvenite Gold Systems in West Kalba, East Kazakhstan

by Yertay Yeskaliyev, Marzhan Rakhymberdina, Roman Shults, Asel Akilbaeva, Karel Pavelka and Mohammad Suhail

Geosciences 2026, 16(7), 266; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences16070266 - 2 Jul 2026

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Abstract

Multispectral satellite imagery is a very useful technique to identify altered wall rocks around orogenic gold systems. In this study in the Akzhal–Vasilyevskoye district, Kazakhstan, we show that a geology-based ASTER band-ratio workflow is a useful technique to trace metasomatic footprints of mineralization. [...] Read more.

Multispectral satellite imagery is a very useful technique to identify altered wall rocks around orogenic gold systems. In this study in the Akzhal–Vasilyevskoye district, Kazakhstan, we show that a geology-based ASTER band-ratio workflow is a useful technique to trace metasomatic footprints of mineralization. In the West Kalba camp, beresite and listvenite both produce usable ASTER SWIR signals, while pyrite and arsenopyrite are largely featureless at multispectral resolution. Five ratios on AST_07XT surface-reflectance data, screened with upper-tail anomaly masks, have enabled identification of sericitic cores, chloritic and carbonate halos, ferric caps, and zones containing mixtures of ferrous phyllosilicates. We show that district-scale Al–OH sericitic anomalies occur within Mg–OH and carbonate shells. At Vasilyevskoye the pattern is due to beresite nuclei within listvenite rims, while at Tokum the sericitic centres remain compact within wider Mg–OH and carbonate halos. Mean polygon spectra differ between the two footprints across Bands B4–B6 and across the SWIR tail (B7–B9). SEM–EDS at Vasilyevskoye links the mapped anomalies to chlorite, sericite, and carbonate gangue assemblages with sulfide-bearing volumes. The data also allow identification of subordinate REE, phosphate, and Ti enrichment within carbonaceous and polymineralic host lithologies. Full article

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