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Article

Occurrence and Genetic Diversity of Trichomonas gallinae in Captive Synanthropic Birds in Southeastern Brazil

by
Amanda Garcia Pereira
1,
Sarah Raquel Jesus Santos Simões
1,
Maitê Cardoso Coelho da Silva
1,
Ana Cláudia Calchi
2,
Ricardo Bassini-Silva
3,
Ana Carolina Castro-Santiago
4,
Rosangela Zacarias Machado
2,
Marcos Rogério André
2 and
Karin Werther
1,*
1
Serviço de Patologia de Animais Silvestres—SEPAS, Departamento de Patologia, Reprodução e Saúde Única, Faculdade de Ciências Agrárias e Veterinárias, Universidade Estadual Paulista “Júlio de Mesquita Filho”—UNESP, Jaboticabal 14884-900, SP, Brazil
2
Vector-Borne Bioagents Laboratory—VBBL, Departamento de Patologia, Reprodução e Saúde Única, Faculdade de Ciências Agrárias e Veterinárias, Universidade Estadual Paulista “Júlio de Mesquita Filho”—UNESP, Jaboticabal 14884-900, SP, Brazil
3
Laboratório de Coleções Zoológicas, Instituto Butantan, São Paulo 05503-900, SP, Brazil
4
Departamento de Medicina Veterinária Preventiva e Saúde Animal, Faculdade de Medicina Veterinária e Zootecnia, Universidade de São Paulo—USP, São Paulo 05508-270, SP, Brazil
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Pathogens 2026, 15(4), 428; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens15040428
Submission received: 4 March 2026 / Revised: 8 April 2026 / Accepted: 11 April 2026 / Published: 16 April 2026
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biology, Epidemiology and Interactions of Parasitic Diseases)
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Abstract

Avian trichomonosis is caused by protozoa of the genus Trichomonas, mainly Trichomonas gallinae, which infects the upper digestive tract of birds and is commonly associated with Columbiformes, the main reservoirs of the parasite. This study aimed to investigate the occurrence and genetic diversity of Trichomonas spp. in captive synanthropic birds from southeastern Brazil. Oropharyngeal swabs were collected from 281 birds belonging to 13 avian orders and analyzed using Diamond medium culture, Giemsa-stained smears, and molecular assays. Of the 262 samples submitted to culture analysis, 72 (27.48%) showed trophozoite-like structures under light microscopy. Molecular screening based on the ITS1–5.8S–ITS2 region detected Trichomonas DNA in 76 out of 267 samples with successful DNA extraction (28.46%), including 72 Columba livia domestica from Franca, one Coragyps atratus from Ribeirão Preto, and three rock doves from Jaboticabal. Among the ITS-positive samples, 67 (88.15%) amplified the Fe-hydrogenase gene, and 65 (85.5%) were also positive for the 18S rRNA gene. Only six samples (2.29%) exhibited structures compatible with Trichomonas spp. in Giemsa-stained smears. Phylogenetic analyses based on ITS sequences grouped the isolates into two clades within the Trichomonas gallinae complex. Greater genetic diversity was observed using Fe-hydrogenase and 18S rRNA markers, revealing multiple haplotypes and clades. Molecular assays, particularly PCR applied directly to oropharyngeal swabs, showed higher sensitivity for detecting and characterizing Trichomonas gallinae compared to culture and cytology. These findings highlight the high occurrence and genetic diversity of T. gallinae in captive synanthropic pigeons and reinforce the importance of molecular tools for epidemiological surveillance in wildlife facilities.
Keywords: wild birds; Columbiformes; culture; phylogeny; protozoa; Trichomonas gallinae wild birds; Columbiformes; culture; phylogeny; protozoa; Trichomonas gallinae

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MDPI and ACS Style

Pereira, A.G.; Simões, S.R.J.S.; Silva, M.C.C.d.; Calchi, A.C.; Bassini-Silva, R.; Castro-Santiago, A.C.; Machado, R.Z.; André, M.R.; Werther, K. Occurrence and Genetic Diversity of Trichomonas gallinae in Captive Synanthropic Birds in Southeastern Brazil. Pathogens 2026, 15, 428. https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens15040428

AMA Style

Pereira AG, Simões SRJS, Silva MCCd, Calchi AC, Bassini-Silva R, Castro-Santiago AC, Machado RZ, André MR, Werther K. Occurrence and Genetic Diversity of Trichomonas gallinae in Captive Synanthropic Birds in Southeastern Brazil. Pathogens. 2026; 15(4):428. https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens15040428

Chicago/Turabian Style

Pereira, Amanda Garcia, Sarah Raquel Jesus Santos Simões, Maitê Cardoso Coelho da Silva, Ana Cláudia Calchi, Ricardo Bassini-Silva, Ana Carolina Castro-Santiago, Rosangela Zacarias Machado, Marcos Rogério André, and Karin Werther. 2026. "Occurrence and Genetic Diversity of Trichomonas gallinae in Captive Synanthropic Birds in Southeastern Brazil" Pathogens 15, no. 4: 428. https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens15040428

APA Style

Pereira, A. G., Simões, S. R. J. S., Silva, M. C. C. d., Calchi, A. C., Bassini-Silva, R., Castro-Santiago, A. C., Machado, R. Z., André, M. R., & Werther, K. (2026). Occurrence and Genetic Diversity of Trichomonas gallinae in Captive Synanthropic Birds in Southeastern Brazil. Pathogens, 15(4), 428. https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens15040428

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