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Pathogens, Volume 14, Issue 2 (February 2025) – 96 articles

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12 pages, 3388 KiB  
Article
Old Bug—New Challenges After COVID-19 Pandemic: Severe Invasive Streptococcus pyogenes Infections in Adults—A Single-Center Experience in Poland
by Patrycja Leśnik, Jarosław Janc, Martyna Biała, Marzenna Bartoszewicz, Lidia Łysenko and Natalia Słabisz
Pathogens 2025, 14(2), 199; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens14020199 (registering DOI) - 17 Feb 2025
Abstract
Since the beginning of December 2022, an unusually high number of cases and deaths of Group A Streptococcus (GAS) infections has been reported in many European countries. GAS infection frequently causes mild diseases such as pharyngitis, tonsillitis, impetigo, cellulitis, and scarlet fever. However, [...] Read more.
Since the beginning of December 2022, an unusually high number of cases and deaths of Group A Streptococcus (GAS) infections has been reported in many European countries. GAS infection frequently causes mild diseases such as pharyngitis, tonsillitis, impetigo, cellulitis, and scarlet fever. However, in rare instances, GAS infection can lead to invasive, life-threatening conditions like necrotizing fasciitis and toxic shock syndrome, which are associated with high mortality. The aim of the study was to present the clinical course of invasive Streptococcus pyogenes infections and to highlight the increase in the incidence of severe infections of this etiology, similar to trends observed in other European countries. The study included 11 patients with severe, invasive infections caused by S. pyogenes accompanied by sepsis or septic shock, treated at the 4th Clinical Military Hospital in Wroclaw between December 2022 and May 2023. Among 11 patients, 6 had streptococcal skin and soft tissue infections, 3 had pneumonia caused by S. pyogenes, 1 had streptococcal otitis, and 1 had a knee joint infection. Nine developed septic shock, and three died from fulminant streptococcal toxic shock syndrome (STSS). Physicians should be aware of the increased prevalence of invasive GAS (iGAS) infections; timely diagnosis and effective treatment are crucial to reducing the risk of severe complications, including death. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sepsis and Group A Streptococcus)
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9 pages, 573 KiB  
Article
Evaluation of IgM, IgA, and IgG Antibody Responses Against PCV3 and PCV2 in Tissues of Aborted Fetuses from Late-Term Co-Infected Sows
by Jesús Hernández, Alexandra Henao-Díaz, Mónica Reséndiz-Sandoval, Joana Ramírez-Morán, Angel Cota-Valdez, Verónica Mata-Haro and Luis G. Giménez-Lirola
Pathogens 2025, 14(2), 198; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens14020198 - 16 Feb 2025
Viewed by 198
Abstract
Porcine circovirus type 2 (PCV2) is a ubiquitous pathogen, and co-infections with the emerging PCV3 are increasingly reported. Both PCV2 and PCV3 have been implicated in reproductive failure, yet the diagnostic criteria for PCV3 remain under development. While fetal or neonatal antibody detection [...] Read more.
Porcine circovirus type 2 (PCV2) is a ubiquitous pathogen, and co-infections with the emerging PCV3 are increasingly reported. Both PCV2 and PCV3 have been implicated in reproductive failure, yet the diagnostic criteria for PCV3 remain under development. While fetal or neonatal antibody detection is a recognized indicator of transplacental infection in multiple species, PCV2 appears to be an exception due to the possible transfer of maternal antibodies. This study evaluated IgG, IgA, and IgM antibodies in the heart, kidney, lung, and spleen of aborted fetuses from sows co-infected with PCV2 and PCV3. PCR analysis revealed that all aborted fetuses were positive for both PCV2 and PCV3, with PCV3 Ct values being generally lower than those of PCV2, although this difference was not statistically significant. Antibody profiling showed a higher prevalence of anti-PCV3 IgM and IgA compared to anti-PCV2 IgM and IgA, particularly in the heart, kidney, and lung, while IgG responses against both viruses were similar. These findings suggest that the detection of anti-PCV3 antibodies in fetal tissues may provide supportive evidence of PCV2 and PCV3 infection and the possible involvement of these viruses in reproductive failure; however, further studies are needed to establish causation definitively. Full article
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19 pages, 3868 KiB  
Article
Trends in Human Papillomavirus-Related Health Burden in Greece from 1996 to 2021 with a Focus on Cervical and Lip, Oral Cavity, and Pharyngeal Cancer
by Georgios Tampakoudis and Olympia E. Anastasiou
Pathogens 2025, 14(2), 197; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens14020197 - 16 Feb 2025
Viewed by 177
Abstract
This study aimed to evaluate the burden of HPV-related hospitalization and mortality in Greece, with a focus on invasive cervical cancer and lip, oral cavity, and pharyngeal (LOCP) cancers. A retrospective query using data from the Greek Statistical Office and Eurostat was executed. [...] Read more.
This study aimed to evaluate the burden of HPV-related hospitalization and mortality in Greece, with a focus on invasive cervical cancer and lip, oral cavity, and pharyngeal (LOCP) cancers. A retrospective query using data from the Greek Statistical Office and Eurostat was executed. The query included hospital admission and standardized mortality rates (SDRs) on cervical dysplasia and cervical, vulvar, and vaginal; anal; penile; and LOCP cancers. The hospitalization rate for invasive cervical cancer decreased over time, exhibiting a sharp decrease after 2010, while the hospitalization rate for LOCP cancer decreased after 2011, preceded by a sustained increase from 1996. The hospitalization rate of HPV-attributable diseases in total showed a declining tendency between 2013 and 2017. SDR due to cervical cancer showed a slightly decreasing trend in Greece and the European Union, while SDR due to LOCP cancer showed a slightly increasing trend in Greece, but a decrease in the European Union. The decline in hospitalization rates for HPV-related disease in Greece, especially for cervical cancer and dysplasia, and also the declining SDR for invasive cervical cancer in Greece and the EU, are indications of the positive public health impact of screening programs and the implementation of HPV vaccination. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Human Papillomavirus Infection and Vaccine Research)
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23 pages, 1021 KiB  
Review
Beyond Tuberculosis: The Surprising Immunological Benefits of the Bacillus Calmette–Guérin (BCG) Vaccine in Infectious, Auto-Immune, and Inflammatory Diseases
by Magdalena Jurczak and Magdalena Druszczynska
Pathogens 2025, 14(2), 196; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens14020196 - 15 Feb 2025
Viewed by 197
Abstract
The Bacillus Calmette–Guérin (BCG) vaccine, best known for its role in preventing tuberculosis, has recently garnered attention for its broader immunomodulatory effects. By inducing trained immunity, BCG reprograms innate immune cells, enhancing their responses to various pathogens. This process, driven by epigenetic and [...] Read more.
The Bacillus Calmette–Guérin (BCG) vaccine, best known for its role in preventing tuberculosis, has recently garnered attention for its broader immunomodulatory effects. By inducing trained immunity, BCG reprograms innate immune cells, enhancing their responses to various pathogens. This process, driven by epigenetic and metabolic reprogramming, suggests that BCG may have therapeutic potential far beyond tuberculosis. Emerging evidence points to its potential benefits in conditions such as autoimmune diseases, cancer, and viral infections. Furthermore, by modulating immune activity, BCG has been proposed to reduce chronic inflammation and promote immune tolerance. This review delves into the multifaceted role of BCG, highlighting its potential as a versatile therapeutic tool for managing a wide range of diseases. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Interactions between Pathogens and the Human Immune System)
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15 pages, 622 KiB  
Article
Sex, Age, and Previous Herpes Zoster Infection Role on Adverse Events Following Immunization with Adjuvanted Recombinant Vaccine
by Maria Costantino, Valentina Giudice, Giuseppina Moccia, Monica Ragozzino, Salvatore Calabrese, Francesco Caiazzo, Massimo Beatrice, Walter Longanella, Simona Caruccio, Candida Iacuzzo, Carmen Giugliano, Mariagrazia Bathilde Marongiu, Giovanni Genovese, Bianca Serio, Emilia Anna Vozzella, Amelia Filippelli and Francesco De Caro
Pathogens 2025, 14(2), 195; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens14020195 - 15 Feb 2025
Viewed by 207
Abstract
Adverse events following immunizations (AEFIs) with recombinant zoster vaccine (RZV) are underexplored in fragile populations. This study aims to assess incidence, duration, and characteristics of AEFIs, focusing on the impact of sex, age, and prior Herpes Zoster (HZ) infection in a frail population, [...] Read more.
Adverse events following immunizations (AEFIs) with recombinant zoster vaccine (RZV) are underexplored in fragile populations. This study aims to assess incidence, duration, and characteristics of AEFIs, focusing on the impact of sex, age, and prior Herpes Zoster (HZ) infection in a frail population, including solid organ transplant recipients. We conducted an observational study on patients receiving RZV, and AEFIs were classified as local or systemic and analyzed for incidence, duration, and patterns across groups. We showed that females had a higher incidence of AEFIs (p = 0.02), both local and systemic symptoms, such as swelling +/− redness at the site of injection and fatigue, after the first and second doses. Younger adults experienced more systemic reactions, while older adults reported more local events (e.g., redness and swelling, p = 0.01). Moreover, patients with previous HZ infection exhibited a higher incidence of AEFIs after the second dose (68% vs. 38%, p = 0.001). In conclusion, sex, age, and clinical history significantly influenced AEFI incidence and manifestations. Therefore, it is important to personalize vaccination strategies in frail populations, by tailored administration and monitoring plans, especially in females and individuals with prior HZ infection, to improve vaccine safety and patient outcomes. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Vaccines and Therapeutic Developments)
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21 pages, 1031 KiB  
Article
Virulence and Genetic Diversity of Puccinia spp., Causal Agents of Rust on Switchgrass (Panicum virgatum L.) in the USA
by Bochra A. Bahri, Peng Tian, Samikshya Rijal, Katrien M. Devos, Jeffrey L. Bennetzen and Shavannor M. Smith
Pathogens 2025, 14(2), 194; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens14020194 - 14 Feb 2025
Viewed by 160
Abstract
Switchgrass (Panicum virgatum L.) is an important cellulosic biofuel grass native to North America. Rust, caused by Puccinia spp. is the most predominant disease of switchgrass and has the potential to impact biomass conversion. In this study, virulence patterns were determined on [...] Read more.
Switchgrass (Panicum virgatum L.) is an important cellulosic biofuel grass native to North America. Rust, caused by Puccinia spp. is the most predominant disease of switchgrass and has the potential to impact biomass conversion. In this study, virulence patterns were determined on a set of 38 switchgrass genotypes for 14 single-spore rust isolates from 14 field samples collected in seven states. Single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) variation was also assessed in 720 sequenced cloned amplicons representing 654 base pairs of the elongation factor 1-α gene from the field samples. Five major haplotypes were identified differing by 11 out of the 39 SNP positions identified. STRUCTURE, Principal Coordinate Analysis, and phylogenetic analyses divided the rust population into two genetic clusters. Virginia and Georgia had the highest and lowest rust genetic diversity, respectively. Only nine accessions showed a differential disease response between the 14 isolates, allowing the identification of eight races, differing by 1-3 virulence factors. Overall, the results suggested clonal reproduction of the pathogen and a North–South differentiation via local adaptation. However, similar haplotypes and races were also recovered from several states, suggesting migration events, and highlighting the need to further investigate the switchgrass rust population structure and evolution in the USA. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Fungal Pathogens)
32 pages, 1729 KiB  
Review
Neuropathogenesis of Encephalitic Alphaviruses in Non-Human Primate and Mouse Models of Infection
by Caitlin M. Woodson, Shannon K. Carney and Kylene Kehn-Hall
Pathogens 2025, 14(2), 193; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens14020193 - 14 Feb 2025
Viewed by 208
Abstract
Encephalitic alphaviruses, including eastern, Venezuelan, and western equine encephalitis virus (EEEV, VEEV, and WEEV, respectively) are New World alphaviruses primarily transmitted by mosquitos that cause debilitating and lethal central nervous system (CNS) disease in both humans and horses. Despite over one hundred years [...] Read more.
Encephalitic alphaviruses, including eastern, Venezuelan, and western equine encephalitis virus (EEEV, VEEV, and WEEV, respectively) are New World alphaviruses primarily transmitted by mosquitos that cause debilitating and lethal central nervous system (CNS) disease in both humans and horses. Despite over one hundred years of research on these viruses, the underpinnings of the molecular mechanisms driving virally induced damage to the CNS remain unresolved. Moreover, virally induced encephalitis following exposure to these viruses causes catastrophic damage to the CNS, and survivors of infection often suffer from permanent neurological sequelae as a result of sustained neuroinflammation and neurological insults encountered. Animal models are undoubtedly invaluable tools in biomedical research, where physiologically relevant models are required to study pathogenesis and host–pathogen interactions. Here, we review the literature to examine nonhuman primate (NHP) and mouse models of infection for EEEV, VEEV, and WEEV. We provide a brief overview of relevant background information for each virus, including geography, epidemiology, and clinical disease. The primary focus of this review is to describe neuropathological features associated with CNS disease in NHP and mouse models of infection and compare CNS invasion and neuropathogenesis for aerosol, intranasal, and subcutaneous routes of exposure to EEEV, VEEV, and WEEV. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Neuropathogenesis of Arboviruses)
15 pages, 8288 KiB  
Article
Isolation, Identification, and Molecular Genetic Characteristics of a Pathogenic Strain of Streptococcus suis Serotype 3
by Longbai Wang, Jingli Qiu, Bing He, Xuemin Wu, Qiuyong Chen, Quanxi Wang, Renjie Wu, Bohan Zheng, Lunjiang Zhou and Xiaohong Huang
Pathogens 2025, 14(2), 192; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens14020192 - 14 Feb 2025
Viewed by 184
Abstract
Streptococcus suis (S. suis) is considered as one of the most crucial bacterial pathogens that leads to serious economic losses to the swine industry. Different S. suis serotypes exhibit diverse characteristics in population structure and pathogenicity. Epidemiology data underscore the importance [...] Read more.
Streptococcus suis (S. suis) is considered as one of the most crucial bacterial pathogens that leads to serious economic losses to the swine industry. Different S. suis serotypes exhibit diverse characteristics in population structure and pathogenicity. Epidemiology data underscore the importance of S. suis serotype 3 (SS3). However, except for a few epidemiological information, limited study information is available on this serotype. Herein, a pathogenic SS3 (the S. suis strain YA) was isolated from infected piglets in clinical practice, and then whole genome sequencing and analysis, hemolytic activity, antimicrobial susceptibility, pathogenicity to mice and piglets were conducted. The results of the whole genome sequencing of the S. suis strain YA showed that the complete genome was 2,167,682 bp in length with a G + C content of 41.2% and exhibited a unique sequence type (ST1801). The result of phylogenetic tree showed that it was most closely related to strain DNC15 and 6407 (ST54) from Denmark. The tet(W) and erm(B) resistant genes were identified in the S. suis strain YA by inserting into rum locus, in accordance with the result of resistance to tetracyclines and macrolide-lincosamide-streptogramin antibiotics. Twenty-seven key virulence factors were detected in the S. suis strain YA, including sly, ef and mrp, which contribute to pathogenicity in mice and piglets, causing bleeding and congestion in multiple tissue organs especially in the brains. And the LD50 value for mice was 1.54 × 107 CFU. Therefore, our research emphasizes the importance of understanding SS3, and provides valuable information for the scientific prevention and control of S. suis. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Zoonotic Streptococci)
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12 pages, 6209 KiB  
Article
Seasonal Variability and Pathogenicity of Kiwifruit Bacterial Canker Pathogens in Sichuan Province, China
by Chengyong He, Zihong Xu, Lingli Wang, Yarui Li, Jing Li, Haiyan Song, Dong Chen, Guoliang Jiang and Meiyan Tu
Pathogens 2025, 14(2), 191; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens14020191 - 14 Feb 2025
Viewed by 208
Abstract
Kiwifruit canker disease, caused by different bacterial pathogens, was observed in Sichuan Province, China. Specifically, in the winter and spring seasons, Pseudomonas syringae pv. actinidiae (Psa) was identified as the primary pathogen, causing reddish-brown exudates, branch dieback, and phloem decay. In contrast, during [...] Read more.
Kiwifruit canker disease, caused by different bacterial pathogens, was observed in Sichuan Province, China. Specifically, in the winter and spring seasons, Pseudomonas syringae pv. actinidiae (Psa) was identified as the primary pathogen, causing reddish-brown exudates, branch dieback, and phloem decay. In contrast, during the summer months, Pectobacterium carotovorum subsp. actinidiae (Pca) emerged as the primary causal agent of kiwifruit canker, exhibiting similar symptoms to those caused by Psa, such as exudates from leaf scars and lenticels, xylem necrosis, and branch desiccation. From 55 symptomatic samples, 34 bacterial isolates were obtained, with 28 identified as Psa and 6 as Pca. Pathogenicity tests revealed significant variation in virulence, with Psa isolate G5 and Pca isolate M5 showing the highest pathogenicity on leaves and branches, respectively. Both pathogens caused characteristic necrosis and lesion expansion, fulfilling Koch’s postulates. Phylogenetic analyses confirmed the distinct evolutionary relationships of Psa and Pca isolates. These findings highlight the seasonal variability of kiwifruit canker pathogens and emphasize the need for targeted disease management strategies. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Bacterial Pathogens)
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16 pages, 4587 KiB  
Article
In Silico Analysis and Transcriptional Profiling of A Putative Metalloprotease ADAMTSL as A Potential Tick Antigen against Rhipicephalus microplus
by Cesar Onoshi Sedano-Juarez, Ninnet Gómez-Romero, Miguel Ángel Alonso-Díaz, América Ivette Barrera-Molina, David Emanuel Reyes-Guerrero and Rodolfo Lagunes-Quintanilla
Pathogens 2025, 14(2), 190; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens14020190 - 14 Feb 2025
Viewed by 270
Abstract
The cattle tick, Rhipicephalus microplus, is the most significant ectoparasite in the cattle industry. The application of acaricides constitutes the main control method. However, inadequate treatments have serious drawbacks, including the appearance of multi-resistant ticks. Tick vaccines offer a safe and economically [...] Read more.
The cattle tick, Rhipicephalus microplus, is the most significant ectoparasite in the cattle industry. The application of acaricides constitutes the main control method. However, inadequate treatments have serious drawbacks, including the appearance of multi-resistant ticks. Tick vaccines offer a safe and economically sustainable alternative for controlling R. microplus. Nevertheless, the efficacy of existing vaccines has been limited by polymorphisms in target antigens among strains from different geographical regions. In this study, we characterized a putative Metalloprotease from the ADAMTSL family. We analyzed three regions to evaluate their transcriptional profiling in different R. microplus tick tissues, using two constitutive genes (β-tubulin and Elfa-1) as references. The expression levels showed that ADAMTSL-R1 was upregulated 39.37-fold (p ≤ 0.05) in salivary glands. The ADAMTSL-R2 showed the highest expression, rising 7.69-fold (p ≤ 0.05) in ovaries and up to 59.39-fold (p ≤ 0.05) in egg mass. Furthermore, this region showed the highest level of conservation among Rhipicephalus isolates. The ADAMTSL-R3 was upregulated only in the egg mass. The results of this study provide a basis for future research focused on elucidating the role of these protein variants in tick biology, including their feeding mechanisms and potential implications in pathogen transmission. Understanding these factors may aid in developing an effective tick vaccine. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Infectious Diseases and Vaccine Technology Research)
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15 pages, 4389 KiB  
Article
First Complete Genome of Reticuloendotheliosis Virus in a Mallard Duck from Brazil: Phylogenetic Insights and Evolutionary Analysis
by Ruy D. Chacón, Claudete S. Astolfi-Ferreira, Stefhany Valdeiglesias Ichillumpa, Henrique Lage Hagemann, Maristela Furlan Rocha, Larissa Fernandes Magalhães, Tânia Freitas Raso and Antonio J. Piantino Ferreira
Pathogens 2025, 14(2), 189; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens14020189 - 13 Feb 2025
Viewed by 432
Abstract
Reticuloendotheliosis virus (REV) is an oncogenic retrovirus that affects both commercial and free-ranging birds. To date, only two complete REV genome sequences have been identified in chickens from South America, with no records in other avian species. This study reports the first complete [...] Read more.
Reticuloendotheliosis virus (REV) is an oncogenic retrovirus that affects both commercial and free-ranging birds. To date, only two complete REV genome sequences have been identified in chickens from South America, with no records in other avian species. This study reports the first complete genome of REV detected in a mallard duck (Anas platyrhynchos domesticus) in South America. In 2021, a mallard duck in Brazil died from severe lymphoproliferative disease affecting multiple organs. Molecular detection and histopathological analysis confirmed REV as the causative agent. Using dideoxy sequencing and phylogenetic analysis, the virus was classified as subtype 3 (REV-3). The phylogenetic analysis identified three clades, each with a bootstrap value of 100, corresponding to the three REV subtypes. Furthermore, a comprehensive comparative genomic analysis revealed two distinct REV-3 subclusters—‘East’ (38 strains) and ‘West’ (24 strains)—with notable geographical associations. Additionally, 27 genomes in chimeric states with fowlpox virus (FWPV) were distributed across the phylogenetic tree, emphasizing the critical role of FWPV in the dissemination of REV. Selective pressure analysis revealed evidence of positive selection acting on several codons within the gag, pol, and env genes, particularly in domains such as matrix, p18, reverse transcriptase/ribonuclease H, and surface. These findings provide valuable insights into REV evolution and underscore the importance of genomic surveillance for detecting REV circulation in diverse hosts. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Retroviruses: Molecular Biology, Immunology and Pathogenesis)
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13 pages, 945 KiB  
Review
Cytokine Networks and the Clinical Outcome of American Teg-Umentary Leishmaniasis: Unveiling Targets for Alternative Therapeutic Interventions
by Carolina Cattoni Koh, Kenneth J. Gollob and Walderez O. Dutra
Pathogens 2025, 14(2), 188; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens14020188 - 13 Feb 2025
Viewed by 265
Abstract
American Tegumentary Leishmaniasis (ATL), caused by parasites of the genus Leishmania, presents a significant global health challenge, especially in Brazil, where cutaneous and mucosal forms are highly prevalent. Cutaneous Leishmaniasis (CL) typically results in single lesions, while mucosal Leishmaniasis (ML) leads to [...] Read more.
American Tegumentary Leishmaniasis (ATL), caused by parasites of the genus Leishmania, presents a significant global health challenge, especially in Brazil, where cutaneous and mucosal forms are highly prevalent. Cutaneous Leishmaniasis (CL) typically results in single lesions, while mucosal Leishmaniasis (ML) leads to destructive mucosal lesions with a worse prognosis. The immune response, regulated by cytokines, plays a crucial role in disease progression and resolution. In CL, a balance between pro-inflammatory and anti-inflammatory cytokines is associated with lesion resolution, whereas in ML, an exaggerated inflammatory response worsens tissue damage. Thus, understanding cytokine regulation is essential for unveiling disease pathology and developing effective immunotherapeutic strategies. Here we discuss gene polymorphisms and epigenetic modifications that affect cytokine expression, influencing disease susceptibility and severity, as well as immunotherapeutic approaches that involve cytokine function in Leishmaniasis. In addition, we examine advancements in drug discovery, utilizing in silico methods and targeted drug delivery systems, providing potential avenues for better therapeutic interventions. Continuous research into immune responses and cytokine production and function is critical for identifying novel therapeutic targets and optimizing patient care for ATL. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Parasitic Pathogens)
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10 pages, 228 KiB  
Brief Report
Anaerobiosis and Mutations Can Reduce Susceptibility of Pseudomonas aeruginosa to Tobramycin Without Reducing the Cellular Concentration of the Antibiotic
by Woravimol Krittaphol, Lois W. Martin, Greg F. Walker and Iain L. Lamont
Pathogens 2025, 14(2), 187; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens14020187 - 13 Feb 2025
Viewed by 294
Abstract
Chronic infections of Pseudomonas aeruginosa are commonly treated with tobramycin. During infections, the bacteria can exist under conditions of oxygen deprivation that render them less susceptible to this antibiotic. The aims of this research were to investigate the genetic basis of tobramycin resistance [...] Read more.
Chronic infections of Pseudomonas aeruginosa are commonly treated with tobramycin. During infections, the bacteria can exist under conditions of oxygen deprivation that render them less susceptible to this antibiotic. The aims of this research were to investigate the genetic basis of tobramycin resistance under anaerobic conditions, and to investigate the effects of anaerobiosis and mutations on the cellular concentration of tobramycin. Ten mutants with lowered susceptibility to tobramycin than wild-type bacteria were evolved from a laboratory reference strain under anaerobic conditions. Mutations were identified by genome sequencing. Mutations had arisen most frequently in the fusA1 gene that encodes elongation factor EF-G1A and in genes involved in twitching motility. Cellular concentrations of tobramycin were then measured. Mutations in fusA1 or absence of the MexXY efflux pump that is associated with tobramycin resistance did not alter the cellular tobramycin concentration under either anaerobic or aerobic conditions. Anaerobic growth reduced the cellular concentration of tobramycin, relative to aerobically grown bacteria, in some but not all of five tested P. aeruginosa isolates. Overall, our findings indicate that anaerobiosis and mutations that reduce aminoglycoside effectiveness do not lower the cellular concentration of antibiotic but instead reduce susceptibility through other mechanisms. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Bacterial Pathogens)
15 pages, 3845 KiB  
Article
Prevalence and Genetic Diversity of Parasites in Humans and Pet Dogs in Rural Areas of Los Ríos Region, Southern Chile
by Daniel Sanhueza Teneo, Tamara Venegas, Francisca Videla, Cedric B. Chesnais, Carlos Loncoman and Guillermo Valenzuela-Nieto
Pathogens 2025, 14(2), 186; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens14020186 - 13 Feb 2025
Viewed by 378
Abstract
Parasitic infections pose a significant global health burden, affecting millions of people worldwide. Despite their importance, studies integrating human and animal parasitology to understand transmission pathways are scarce. This study, conducted between August 2022 and April 2023, aimed to investigate the prevalence of [...] Read more.
Parasitic infections pose a significant global health burden, affecting millions of people worldwide. Despite their importance, studies integrating human and animal parasitology to understand transmission pathways are scarce. This study, conducted between August 2022 and April 2023, aimed to investigate the prevalence of parasites in humans and domestic dogs in the Los Rios Region, southern Chile, and explore the risk factors associated with parasitism. A total of 291 human participants provided fecal and blood samples for parasitological and serological analyses, while 92 fecal samples from owned dogs were analyzed. The detection of intestinal parasites employed microscopy and molecular techniques, including next-generation sequencing (NGS). Anti-Toxocara canis and anti-Echinococcus granulosus antibodies in humans were assessed using ELISA. Socioeconomic surveys explored the risk factors associated with parasitism. The results showed a parasite prevalence of 39% in humans and 40% in dogs. Anti-Toxocara canis IgG antibodies were detected in 28.2% of humans. Zoonotic subtypes of Giardia duodenalis and Blastocystis sp. were identified. Thus, the results of our study indicate a high prevalence of intestinal and extraintestinal parasites in the human population of our region. Furthermore, our findings underscore the significant risk of zoonotic transmission of parasites from companion animals. This study contributes to the understanding of parasite transmission dynamics in southern Chile and has implications for public health policy and practice. The results emphasize the importance of considering the connection between human, animal, and environmental health to develop effective control strategies and mitigate the impact of parasitic infections. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Parasitic Pathogens)
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62 pages, 3177 KiB  
Review
Staphylococcus aureus in Inflammation and Pain: Update on Pathologic Mechanisms
by Fernanda S. Rasquel-Oliveira, Jhonatan Macedo Ribeiro, Geovana Martelossi-Cebinelli, Fernanda Barbosa Costa, Gerson Nakazato, Rubia Casagrande and Waldiceu A. Verri
Pathogens 2025, 14(2), 185; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens14020185 - 12 Feb 2025
Viewed by 457
Abstract
Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus) is a Gram-positive bacterium of significant clinical importance, known for its versatility and ability to cause a wide array of infections, such as osteoarticular, pulmonary, cardiovascular, device-related, and hospital-acquired infections. This review describes the most recent evidence of [...] Read more.
Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus) is a Gram-positive bacterium of significant clinical importance, known for its versatility and ability to cause a wide array of infections, such as osteoarticular, pulmonary, cardiovascular, device-related, and hospital-acquired infections. This review describes the most recent evidence of the pathogenic potential of S. aureus, which is commonly part of the human microbiota but can lead to severe infections. The prevalence of pathogenic S. aureus in hospital and community settings contributes to substantial morbidity and mortality, particularly in individuals with compromised immune systems. The immunopathogenesis of S. aureus infections involves intricate interactions with the host immune and non-immune cells, characterized by various virulence factors that facilitate adherence, invasion, and evasion of the host’s defenses. This review highlights the complexity of S. aureus infections, ranging from mild to life-threatening conditions, and underscores the growing public health concern posed by multidrug-resistant strains, including methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA). This article aims to provide an updated perspective on S. aureus-related infections, highlighting the main diseases linked to this pathogen, how the different cell types, virulence factors, and signaling molecules are involved in the immunopathogenesis, and the future perspectives to overcome the current challenges to treat the affected individuals. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Structural Biology Applied in the Study of Pathogenic Bacteria)
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31 pages, 966 KiB  
Review
Functional Roles and Host Interactions of Orthoflavivirus Non-Structural Proteins During Replication
by Meghan K. Donaldson, Levi A. Zanders and Joyce Jose
Pathogens 2025, 14(2), 184; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens14020184 - 12 Feb 2025
Viewed by 446
Abstract
Orthoflavivirus, a genus encompassing arthropod-borne, positive-sense, single-stranded RNA viruses in the Flaviviridae family, represents clinically relevant viruses that pose significant threats to human and animal health worldwide. With warming climates and persistent urbanization, arthropod vectors and the viruses they transmit continue to [...] Read more.
Orthoflavivirus, a genus encompassing arthropod-borne, positive-sense, single-stranded RNA viruses in the Flaviviridae family, represents clinically relevant viruses that pose significant threats to human and animal health worldwide. With warming climates and persistent urbanization, arthropod vectors and the viruses they transmit continue to widen their geographic distribution, expanding endemic zones. Flaviviruses such as dengue virus, Zika virus, West Nile virus, and tick-borne encephalitis virus cause debilitating and fatal infections globally. In 2024, the World Health Organization and the Pan American Health Organization declared the current dengue situation a Multi-Country Grade 3 Outbreak, the highest level. FDA-approved treatment options for diseases caused by flaviviruses are limited or non-existent, and vaccines are suboptimal for many flaviviruses. Understanding the molecular characteristics of the flavivirus life cycle, virus-host interactions, and resulting pathogenesis in various cells and model systems is critical for developing effective therapeutic intervention strategies. This review will focus on the virus-host interactions of mosquito- and tick-borne flaviviruses from the virus replication and assembly perspective, emphasizing the interplay between viral non-structural proteins and host pathways that are hijacked for their advantage. Highlighting interaction pathways, including innate immunity, intracellular movement, and membrane modification, emphasizes the need for rigorous and targeted antiviral research and development against these re-emerging viruses. Full article
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29 pages, 410 KiB  
Review
Fighting Strategies Against Chagas’ Disease: A Review
by Andrea Hernández-Flores, Debora Elías-Díaz, Bernadeth Cubillo-Cervantes, Carlos N. Ibarra-Cerdeña, David Morán, Audrey Arnal and Andrea Chaves
Pathogens 2025, 14(2), 183; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens14020183 - 12 Feb 2025
Viewed by 313
Abstract
Chagas disease, caused by Trypanosoma cruzi, remains a significant public health challenge, particularly in Latin America, where it is one of the most neglected diseases and is primarily transmitted by triatomine insects. The disease exhibits complexity due to its diverse transmission routes, [...] Read more.
Chagas disease, caused by Trypanosoma cruzi, remains a significant public health challenge, particularly in Latin America, where it is one of the most neglected diseases and is primarily transmitted by triatomine insects. The disease exhibits complexity due to its diverse transmission routes, including vectorial and non-vectorial mechanisms such as blood transfusions and congenital transmission. Effective monitoring and control strategies are critical to mitigating its impact. This review focuses on current monitoring and control efforts, emphasizing the importance of enhanced surveillance systems, improved risk assessments, and integrated vector control programs. Surveillance plays a pivotal role in early detection and timely intervention, particularly in endemic regions, while vector control remains central to reducing transmission. Moreover, the development of novel diagnostic tools, treatments, and vaccines is a crucial step in advancing control efforts. This review also highlights the involvement of local governments, international organizations, and civil society in executing these strategies, stressing the need for sustained political commitment to ensure the success of public health programs. By addressing key challenges in monitoring, control, and prevention, this review aims to provide insights and recommendations to further global efforts in reducing the burden of Chagas disease. Full article
11 pages, 2263 KiB  
Article
Analysis of Halophilic Phenotypic Variation and Cytotoxicity of Vibrio parahaemolyticus from Different Sources
by Jingyue Gu, Xin Dong, Yunqian Zhou, Ying Zhao, Qiang Du, Jia Chen, Xujian Mao, Fengming Wang and Bowen Tu
Pathogens 2025, 14(2), 182; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens14020182 - 12 Feb 2025
Viewed by 357
Abstract
Vibrio parahaemolyticus is an aquatic animal pathogen. Recently, the detection rate of V. parahaemolyticus in freshwater products has exceeded that in seafood products, and the strains isolated from freshwater products exhibit better growth conditions in low-salinity environments. This study is based on a [...] Read more.
Vibrio parahaemolyticus is an aquatic animal pathogen. Recently, the detection rate of V. parahaemolyticus in freshwater products has exceeded that in seafood products, and the strains isolated from freshwater products exhibit better growth conditions in low-salinity environments. This study is based on a food risk detection activity in Changzhou, Jiangsu Province, China, investigating the variation of halophilism and the virulence of two groups of strains under different salt concentrations. Under 0%, 0.5%, and 1% salt, the strains from the freshwater showed faster growth than those from the seawater. In comparison, the strains from the seawater group under 2% and 3% salt grew faster than the growing status under the foregoing low-salt concentration environment. The cytotoxicity produced by the two strains was approximately 1.4 times higher in the 0.5% and 1% salt concentration groups compared to the 3% corresponding experimental group. Under the 0%, 0.5%, and 1% salt, the cytotoxicity of strains in the freshwater group increased by nearly 20% compared to that in the seawater groups. The freshwater strains showed altered halophilism and adapted to the low-salt environment. This research will be helpful in establishing a local and global control strategy against the diseases resulting from V. parahaemolyticus. Full article
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16 pages, 1394 KiB  
Review
Recognition, Diagnosis, and Treatment of Clostridioides difficile Enterocolitis Presenting Without Diarrhea: A Literature Review
by Ezgi Yılmaz, Duygu Işıl Gencer, Mustafa Salih Akın, Meyha Şahin, Bahadır Ceylan and Ali Mert
Pathogens 2025, 14(2), 181; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens14020181 - 12 Feb 2025
Viewed by 360
Abstract
Diarrhea, as the well-known clinical feature of Clostridioides difficile infection (CDI), may be absent at the initial presentation, leading to delays in diagnosis. The delay is due to both underrecognition of such presentations and the dependence of CDI diagnosis on stool samples. This [...] Read more.
Diarrhea, as the well-known clinical feature of Clostridioides difficile infection (CDI), may be absent at the initial presentation, leading to delays in diagnosis. The delay is due to both underrecognition of such presentations and the dependence of CDI diagnosis on stool samples. This review was conducted to evaluate the literature for CDI cases presenting without diarrhea, raise awareness about the possibility of CDI in the differential diagnosis regardless of diarrhea, and assemble relevant data to harmonize clinical approaches. The PubMED Medline database was used to conduct this literature review, focusing on reported CDI cases presenting without diarrhea. After exclusions, 22 articles were included for analysis, providing data for 48 cases. This paper will present the selected clinical data of these 48 patients and follow a real-life case with a clinical course of CDI including presentation, diagnosis, management, and outcomes. The excessive mortality and bowel resection rates of CDI patients presenting without diarrhea were the notable findings. Poor prognosis was possibly inflated by delayed diagnoses in an unfamiliar setting, emphasizing the importance of a high index of suspicion to allow early recognition of CDIs in the appropriate clinical context despite the absence of diarrhea. Full article
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24 pages, 3115 KiB  
Article
The 16SrXII-P Phytoplasma GOE Is Separated from Other Stolbur Phytoplasmas by Key Genomic Features
by Rafael Toth, Bruno Huettel, Mark Varrelmann and Michael Kube
Pathogens 2025, 14(2), 180; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens14020180 - 11 Feb 2025
Viewed by 355
Abstract
The syndrome “bassess richesses” is a vector-borne disease of sugar beet in Germany. The gammaproteobacterium ‘Candidatus Arsenophonus phytopathogenicus’ causes reduced sugar content and biomass, growth abnormalities, and yellowing. Co-infection with the 16SrXII-P stolbur phytoplasmas often leads to more severe symptoms and a [...] Read more.
The syndrome “bassess richesses” is a vector-borne disease of sugar beet in Germany. The gammaproteobacterium ‘Candidatus Arsenophonus phytopathogenicus’ causes reduced sugar content and biomass, growth abnormalities, and yellowing. Co-infection with the 16SrXII-P stolbur phytoplasmas often leads to more severe symptoms and a risk of complete economic loss. This yellowing agent of the Mollicutes class had not been described before, so its differences from other stolbur phytoplasmas remained unanswered. The genome of strain GOE was sequenced, providing a resource to analyze its characteristics. Phylogenetic position was revised, genome organization was compared, and functional reconstructions of metabolic and virulence factors were performed. Average nucleotide identity analysis indicates that GOE represents a new ‘Ca. Phytoplasma‘ species. Our results show that GOE is also distinct from other stolbur phytoplasmas in terms of smaller genome size and G+C content. Its reductive evolution is reflected in conserved membrane protein repertoire and minimal metabolism. The encoding of a riboflavin kinase indicates a lost pathway of phytoplasmas outside the groups 16SrXII and 16SrXIII. GOE shows a complete tra5 transposon harboring orthologs of SAP11, SAP54, and SAP05 effectors indicating an original phytoplasma pathogenicity island. Our results deepen the understanding of phytoplasma evolution and reaffirm the heterogeneity of stolbur phytoplasmas. Full article
33 pages, 1766 KiB  
Article
How Does Vaccine-Induced Immunity Compare to Infection-Acquired Immunity in the Dynamics of COVID-19?
by Indunil M. Hewage, Dylan Hull-Nye and Elissa J. Schwartz
Pathogens 2025, 14(2), 179; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens14020179 - 11 Feb 2025
Viewed by 424
Abstract
Five years into the COVID-19 pandemic, the availability of effective vaccines has substantially reduced new cases, hospitalizations, and mortality. However, the waning of immunity has been a topic of particular interest in relation to disease control. The objective of this study is to [...] Read more.
Five years into the COVID-19 pandemic, the availability of effective vaccines has substantially reduced new cases, hospitalizations, and mortality. However, the waning of immunity has been a topic of particular interest in relation to disease control. The objective of this study is to investigate the impact of the decline in vaccine-induced immunity (ω1) and infection-acquired immunity (ω2) on disease dynamics. For this purpose, we use a compartmental model with seven compartments that accounts for differential morbidity, vaccination, and waning immunity. A compartmental model divides a population into distinct groups depending on their disease status. The temporal changes in the compartments are represented through ordinary differential equations (ODEs). The model is mathematically analyzed to show that a backward bifurcation (i.e., a perverse outcome) may occur when the vaccinated reproduction number (Rv) is equal to unity. Both local and global sensitivity analysis on the reproduction number reveal that the vaccine efficacy, waning of vaccine-induced immunity, vaccine coverage rate, coefficients of transmissibility, and the recovery rate for mild infections are the most sensitive parameters. The global sensitivity analysis on the cumulative number of infections shows that ω1 and ω2 are both pivotal parameters, while ω2 has a higher influence. Simulations on infections and mortality suggest that the changes in ω2 result in dynamics that are more pronounced compared to the dynamics resulting from the changes in ω1, thus indicating the importance of the duration of infection-acquired immunity in disease spread. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Viral Pathogens)
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16 pages, 1173 KiB  
Article
New Approaches to the Ecology of Triatoma sordida in Peridomestic Environments of an Endemic Area of Minas Gerais, Brazil
by Carolina Valença-Barbosa, Isabel Mayer de Andrade, Fellipe Dias Tavares de Simas, Ozorino Caldeira Cruz Neto, Nilvanei Aparecido da Silva, Camila Fortunato Costa, Bruno Oliveira Bolivar Moreira, Paula Finamore-Araujo, Marcus Vinicius Niz Alvarez, André Borges-Veloso, Otacílio da Cruz Moreira, Liléia Diotaiuti and Rita de Cássia Moreira de Souza
Pathogens 2025, 14(2), 178; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens14020178 - 11 Feb 2025
Viewed by 409
Abstract
Triatoma sordida is a native South American species and the most frequently captured triatomine in artificial environments in Brazil. Although considered a secondary vector of Trypanosoma cruzi, it is typically associated with low infection rates. To investigate its role in an endemic [...] Read more.
Triatoma sordida is a native South American species and the most frequently captured triatomine in artificial environments in Brazil. Although considered a secondary vector of Trypanosoma cruzi, it is typically associated with low infection rates. To investigate its role in an endemic area for Chagas disease in northern Minas Gerais, Brazil, we employed a multidimensional approach that combined triatomine capture data with quantitative and qualitative analyses of T. cruzi. A total of 1861 T. sordida specimens were captured, of which 1455 were examined and 210 (14.4%) were found to be infected with T. cruzi. The most prevalent discrete typing unit (DTU) was TcI (80%), followed by TcII (8%), TcV (5%), and TcIII (3%). Molecular techniques provided new insights into the ecology of T. sordida, revealing a higher infection rate than previously reported and a parasitic load lower than that observed in other quantified species. Chickens were confirmed as the primary food source, playing an epidemiological role in maintaining infected insects with four T. cruzi DTUs. The observed diversity of T. cruzi DTUs suggests a lack of environmental segregation, likely due to the extensive movement of various host species between wild and domestic habitats, resulting in overlapping transmission cycles. Full article
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19 pages, 3184 KiB  
Article
RNA Helicase DDX3 Interacts with the Capsid Protein of Hepatitis E Virus and Plays a Vital Role in the Viral Replication
by Shaoli Lin, Bhargava Teja Sallapalli, Peixi Chang, Jia He, Etienne Coyaud, Brian G. Pierce and Yan-Jin Zhang
Pathogens 2025, 14(2), 177; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens14020177 - 10 Feb 2025
Viewed by 347
Abstract
DDX3 is an ATP-dependent RNA helicase that is involved in multiple cellular activities, including RNA metabolism and innate immunity. DDX3 is known to assist the replication of some viruses while restricting others through its direct interaction with viral proteins. However, the role of [...] Read more.
DDX3 is an ATP-dependent RNA helicase that is involved in multiple cellular activities, including RNA metabolism and innate immunity. DDX3 is known to assist the replication of some viruses while restricting others through its direct interaction with viral proteins. However, the role of DDX3 in the replication of the hepatitis E virus (HEV) is unknown. In this study, DDX3 was shown to interact with the HEV capsid protein and provide an important role in HEV replication. The DDX3 C-terminal domain was demonstrated to interact with the capsid protein. The depletion of DDX3 led to a significant reduction in HEV replication. Also, the ATPase motif of DDX3 was shown to be required in HEV replication as an ATPase-null mutant DDX3 failed to rescue the viral replication in the DDX3-depleted cells. These results demonstrate a pro-viral role of DDX3 in HEV replication, providing further insights on the virus–cell interactions. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Host Interaction and Immune Modulation of RNA Viruses)
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16 pages, 2330 KiB  
Article
Differentially Expressed miRNA Profiles in Serum-Derived Exosomes from Cattle Infected with Lumpy Skin Disease Virus
by Anh Duc Truong, Ha Thi Thanh Tran, Lanh Phan, Thi Hoai Phan, Nhu Thi Chu, Thi Hao Vu, Hieu Minh Nguyen, Linh Phuong Nguyen, Chaeeun Kim, Hoang Vu Dang and Yeong Ho Hong
Pathogens 2025, 14(2), 176; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens14020176 - 10 Feb 2025
Viewed by 473
Abstract
Exosomal miRNAs from individual cells are crucial in regulating the immune response to infectious diseases. In this study, we performed small RNA sequencing (small RNA-seq) analysis to identify the expressed and associated exosomal miRNAs in the serum of cattle infected with lumpy skin [...] Read more.
Exosomal miRNAs from individual cells are crucial in regulating the immune response to infectious diseases. In this study, we performed small RNA sequencing (small RNA-seq) analysis to identify the expressed and associated exosomal miRNAs in the serum of cattle infected with lumpy skin disease virus (LSDV). Cattle were infected with a 106.5 TCID50/mL LSDV Vietnam/HaTinh/CX01 (HT10) strain and exosomal miRNA expression in the serum of infected cattle was analyzed using small RNA sequencing (small RNA-seq). We identified 59 differentially expressed (DE) miRNAs in LSDV-infected cattle compared to uninfected controls, including 18 upregulated and 41 downregulated miRNAs. These 59 miRNAs were used to predict 7656 target genes. Gene Ontology (GO) and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) analyses revealed that the target genes were enriched in several biological processes and pathways associated with viral replication, immune response, virus–host interactions, and signal transduction. Additionally, we identified 708 potentially novel cattle miRNAs corresponding to 710 genomic loci. The transcription levels of five miRNA genes (bta-miR-11985, bta-miR-1281, bta-miR-12034, bta-miR-let-7i, and bta-miR-17-5p) were validated using reverse transcription quantitative real-time PCR, showing consistency with the small RNA-seq results. Overall, these findings provide significant insights into the immune and protective responses during LSDV infection in cattle, offering valuable information on identifying new biomarkers and understanding the pathogenesis of LSDV. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Emergence and Re-Emergence of Animal Viral Diseases)
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14 pages, 260 KiB  
Article
Exposure Time to a Tuberculosis Index Case as a Marker of Infection in Immigrant Populations
by Sofia Godoy, Miquel Alsedà, Ignasi Parrón, Joan-Pau Millet, Joan A. Caylà, Núria Follia, Monica Carol, Angels Orcau, Diana Toledo, Gloria Ferrús, Pere Plans, Irene Barrabeig, Laura Clotet, Angela Domínguez, Jaume March-Llanes, Pere Godoy and on behalf of the Transmission of Tuberculosis in Catalonia (Spain) Working Group
Pathogens 2025, 14(2), 175; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens14020175 - 10 Feb 2025
Viewed by 391
Abstract
Background: Exposure time to a tuberculosis (TB) index case may be a marker of a recent latent tuberculosis infection (LTBI) risk. The aim of this study was to determine the LTBI risk involved in immigrant contact based on exposure time to pulmonary [...] Read more.
Background: Exposure time to a tuberculosis (TB) index case may be a marker of a recent latent tuberculosis infection (LTBI) risk. The aim of this study was to determine the LTBI risk involved in immigrant contact based on exposure time to pulmonary TB index cases. Methods: We conducted a 30-month LTBI prevalence study of pulmonary TB immigrant contacts in Catalonia (1 January 2019–30 June 2021). Contacts with LTBI were identified by means of the tuberculin skin test and/or interferon gamma release assay. Variables associated with LTBI in contacts were analysed using adjusted OR (aOR) and 95% confidence interval (CI) values. Results: LTBI prevalence was 37.4% (939/2509). Prevalence was higher in men than women (40.6% versus 33.5%; p < 0.001), and in all age groups, relative to children <5 years (12.2%; p < 0.001)). Prevalence increased with exposure time to the index case; relative to <6 h/week exposure, LTBI risk was greater for both ≥6 h/day (aOR = 2.0; 95% CI: 1.5–2.6) and <6 h/day but ≥6 h/week (aOR = 1.6; 95% CI: 1.1–2.2). Conclusions: The LTBI risk in immigrant contacts increases with recent exposure time to the index case, and may suggest recent LTBI in immigrants. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Bacterial Pathogens)
17 pages, 797 KiB  
Article
First Molecular Detection of Toxoplasma gondii DNA in Blood and Milk of Goats from Algeria
by Abdeldjalil Dahmane, Alice Vismarra, Karine Passebosc-Faure, Nassiba Reghaissia, Djamel Baroudi, Houssem Samari, Manuela Semeraro, Hélène Yera and AbdElkarim Laatamna
Pathogens 2025, 14(2), 174; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens14020174 - 10 Feb 2025
Viewed by 779
Abstract
Toxoplasmosis is one of the most important foodborne diseases in humans, potentially acquired by ingesting unpasteurized goat milk. This study examined the role of goat milk as a source of infection of Toxoplasma gondii for humans in Algeria. Sera, blood, and milk samples [...] Read more.
Toxoplasmosis is one of the most important foodborne diseases in humans, potentially acquired by ingesting unpasteurized goat milk. This study examined the role of goat milk as a source of infection of Toxoplasma gondii for humans in Algeria. Sera, blood, and milk samples collected from 106 female goats were tested for the presence of antibodies against T. gondii and its DNA, using indirect ELISA and PCR, respectively. Multiplex PCR was performed using 15 microsatellite markers to determine the clonal type of the T. gondii DNA detected. Seropositive results were found in 51 she-goats (48.11%). T. gondii DNA was detected in 16 (15.09%) and 15 (14.15%) blood and milk samples, respectively. In total, 15 (29.41%) out of 51-seropositive goats were PCR-positive for blood, while only 6 of them (6/15, 40%) showed the presence of T. gondii DNA in their milk. A fair correlation was found between indirect ELISA and PCR assays for T. gondii detection in milk (K = 0.2243) and blood (K = 0.28300), with a substantial difference in the screening ability of the tests (G2 = 38.96, p < 0.0001). The genotyping of samples could not be completed, but showed the absence of type I and type III lineages in goats from the Mila region, northeastern Algeria. The Algerian goat population is highly exposed to T. gondii, with a potentially increased risk of parasite transmission to humans via milk consumption. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Foodborne and Waterborne Parasites: The Next Frontier of Food Safety)
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18 pages, 10968 KiB  
Article
The Historical Baseline of Hard Tick Records in Spain (1985–2024)
by Agustín Estrada-Peña, Miguel A. Habela Martínez-Estéllez, Carlos Pradera and Joaquim Castellà
Pathogens 2025, 14(2), 173; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens14020173 - 9 Feb 2025
Viewed by 934
Abstract
Ticks are important vectors of pathogens, producing diseases in animals and humans. The planning of information campaigns or prevention programs is heavily based on the knowledge of highly detailed data on tick distribution. This study reports unpublished data on the distribution of more [...] Read more.
Ticks are important vectors of pathogens, producing diseases in animals and humans. The planning of information campaigns or prevention programs is heavily based on the knowledge of highly detailed data on tick distribution. This study reports unpublished data on the distribution of more than 30,000 tick specimens, collected by active surveys in the years 1985–2024 in Spain, from 2285 surveys in 1636 unique sites, providing coordinates with variable accuracy. The report covers new records of Dermacentor marginatus, Dermacentor reticulatus, Haemaphysalis punctata, Haemaphysalis sulcata, Hyalomma marginatum, Hyalomma lusitanicum, Ixodes ricinus, Rhipicephalus bursa, Rhipicephalus hibericus, and Rhipicephalus sanguineus (either s.s. or s.l.). Other species were sporadically collected. Many specimens have been re-examined for accurate identification according to current taxonomic views, mainly in the genus Rhipicephalus. We summarized this newly available information using the Köppen–Geiger climate classification. This compilation of unpublished tick records pinpoints the importance of the systematic monitoring of ticks. It is intended as the baseline over which the ongoing national tick collection program is built in order to track the long-term changes of tick distribution in Spain, because of the land use changes, the spread of invasive vertebrates, or the climate trends. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Ticks)
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10 pages, 528 KiB  
Article
The Prevalence of Schistosoma haematobium and Its Impact on the Hematological Profile of Children Living in Northern Madagascar
by Wanesa Wilczyńska, Daniel Kasprowicz, Dariusz Świetlik and Krzysztof Korzeniewski
Pathogens 2025, 14(2), 172; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens14020172 - 9 Feb 2025
Viewed by 434
Abstract
Schistosomiasis is a parasitic disease that is considered a major threat to public health in Madagascar. The condition is endemic in more than 90% of the country’s districts. It is estimated that as much as 52% of the country’s general population is infected [...] Read more.
Schistosomiasis is a parasitic disease that is considered a major threat to public health in Madagascar. The condition is endemic in more than 90% of the country’s districts. It is estimated that as much as 52% of the country’s general population is infected with Schistosoma spp. trematodes. The aim of the present study was to assess the prevalence values of Schistosoma haematobium infections in a population of children living in northern Madagascar and to determine the impact of trematode infections on the hematological profiles of the children included in the study. This screening study was conducted in 2024, and it involved a group of 170 children aged 0–17 years. The participants were required to provide urine samples for microscopic and molecular examination. The urine samples were preserved on Whatman 903 protein sever cards using the dried urine spot (DUS) sampling technique and then were transported from Madagascar to a molecular laboratory in Poland, where the samples were tested for the presence of S. haematobium. The present study found that the incidence of S. haematobium infections in the study group consisting of 170 children was as high as 67.6%. The authors observed a reduction in mean hemoglobin (Hb) and mean corpuscular hemoglobin concentration (MCHC) values in the infected children. In spite of continuous efforts to prevent the transmission of schistosomiasis in endemic countries (WHO-recommended mass drug administration campaigns), the incidence of S. haematobium infections was found to be exceptionally high among the study participants. S. haematobium infections present with a characteristic hematological picture showing signs of increased immune response and anemia. The DUS technique has been successfully used for the molecular diagnosis of S. haematobium. This method opens up possibilities for more effective and less expensive sample collection. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Parasites: Epidemiology, Treatment and Control: 2nd Edition)
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13 pages, 4110 KiB  
Article
Toxoplasma gondii Type I TR and ROP16 Synergistically Downregulate IL-12 to Inhibit Host Reactive Oxygen Species Production
by Xiaoling Geng, Ruifang Li, Jingying Du, Manyu Zhang, Wei Jiang, Qing Sun, Rongsheng Mi, Shuang Qin and Quan Wang
Pathogens 2025, 14(2), 171; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens14020171 - 8 Feb 2025
Viewed by 513
Abstract
Toxoplasma gondii is an obligate intracellular opportunistic protozoan parasite. T. gondii invasion disturbs the balance between reactive oxygen species (ROS) production and antioxidant capacity in the host, triggering the oxidative stress response. Thioredoxin reductase (TR) of T. gondii helps to escape ROS-induced damage [...] Read more.
Toxoplasma gondii is an obligate intracellular opportunistic protozoan parasite. T. gondii invasion disturbs the balance between reactive oxygen species (ROS) production and antioxidant capacity in the host, triggering the oxidative stress response. Thioredoxin reductase (TR) of T. gondii helps to escape ROS-induced damage in the host, whereas T. gondii rhoptry protein 16 (ROP16) downregulates host innate immunity to suppress excessive inflammation and inhibit ROS production. However, whether TR and ROP16 synergistically promote resistance to ROS-induced damage remains unclear. Here, we used the CRISPR/Cas9 technology to successfully obtain a double TR and ROP16 gene knockout T. gondii strain. The double deletion of TR and ROP16 in T. gondii weakened its growth ability in vitro and decreased its virulence in vivo. Moreover, the double deletion of TR and ROP16 resulted in a lower antioxidant capacity, higher degree of lipid oxidation, and elevated ROS levels in the parasite and host cells. Interestingly, the deletion of the TR and ROP16 genes in T. gondii synergistically increased IL-12 levels, which triggered host cells to produce more ROS to resist T. gondii infection. These results show that TR and ROP16 in T. gondii play a synergistic role, facilitating resistance to ROS damage incurred by host immune cells through different pathways. Full article
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23 pages, 509 KiB  
Review
Invasive Fungal Disease After Chimeric Antigen Receptor-T Immunotherapy in Adult and Pediatric Patients
by Paschalis Evangelidis, Konstantinos Tragiannidis, Athanasios Vyzantiadis, Nikolaos Evangelidis, Panagiotis Kalmoukos, Timoleon-Achilleas Vyzantiadis, Athanasios Tragiannidis, Maria Kourti and Eleni Gavriilaki
Pathogens 2025, 14(2), 170; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens14020170 - 8 Feb 2025
Viewed by 638
Abstract
Invasive fungal diseases (IFDs) have been documented among the causes of post-chimeric antigen receptor-T (CAR-T) cell immunotherapy complications, with the incidence of IFDs in CAR-T cell therapy recipients being measured between 0% and 10%, globally. IFDs are notorious for their potentially life-threatening nature [...] Read more.
Invasive fungal diseases (IFDs) have been documented among the causes of post-chimeric antigen receptor-T (CAR-T) cell immunotherapy complications, with the incidence of IFDs in CAR-T cell therapy recipients being measured between 0% and 10%, globally. IFDs are notorious for their potentially life-threatening nature and challenging diagnosis and treatment. In this review, we searched the recent literature aiming to examine the risk factors and epidemiology of IFDs post-CAR-T infusion. Moreover, the role of antifungal prophylaxis is investigated. CAR-T cell therapy recipients are especially vulnerable to IFDs due to several risk factors that contribute to the patient’s immunosuppression. Those include the underlying hematological malignancies, the lymphodepleting chemotherapy administered before the treatment, existing leukopenia and hypogammaglobinemia, and the use of high-dose corticosteroids and interleukin-6 blockers as countermeasures for immune effector cell-associated neurotoxicity syndrome and cytokine release syndrome, respectively. IFDs mostly occur within the first 60 days following the infusion of the T cells, but cases even a year after the infusion have been described. Aspergillus spp., Candida spp., and Pneumocystis jirovecii are the main cause of these infections following CAR-T cell therapy. More real-world data regarding the epidemiology of IFDs and the role of antifungal prophylaxis in this population are essential. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Rare Fungal Infection Studies)
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