Assessment of Fungal Contamination in Fish Feed from the Lake Victoria Basin, Uganda
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Results
2.1. Moisture Content in Fish Feed
2.2. Isolation and Identification of Fungi in Fish Feed
2.3. Mycotoxin Contamination in Fish Feed from Factories and Farms
2.4. Mycotoxin Contamination in Different Feed Types
2.5. Relationship between Fungal Incidence, Moisture and Mycotoxin Content in Fish Feed
3. Discussion
4. Conclusions
5. Materials and Methods
5.1. Study Sites and Sample Collection
5.2. Sampling Procedure
5.3. Fungal Isolation and Molecular Characterization
5.4. Identification of Fungi using PCR-Sequencing Method
5.4.1. Extraction of Fungal DNA
5.4.2. PCR and Sequencing of the ITS Region
5.5. Analysis of Aflatoxin B1 and Fumonisin
5.5.1. Sample Preparation and Mycotoxin Analysis
5.5.2. Quality Control
5.6. Analysis of Moisture Content
5.7. Statistical Analysis
Author Contributions
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
- Gidongo, Z.H. A Comparative Analysis of the Competitiveness of Tilapia and Catfish Enterprises in Mbale Sub-Region, Eastern Uganda. Master’s Thesis, Makerere University, Kampala, Uganda, 2014. [Google Scholar]
- Kasozi, N.; Rutaisire, J.; Nandi, S.; Sundaray, J.K. A review of Uganda and India’s fresh water aquaculture: Key practices and experiences from each country. J. Ecol. Nat. Environ. 2017, 9, 15–29. [Google Scholar]
- Rutaisire, J. Analysis of feeds and fertilizers for sustainable aquaculture development in Uganda. In Study and Analysis of Feeds and Fertilizers for Sustainable Aquaculture Development; Hassan, M.R., Hect, T., de Silva, S.S., Tacin, A.G.J., Eds.; FAO Fisheries Technical Paper; FAO: Rome, Italy, 2007; Volume 497, pp. 471–487. [Google Scholar]
- Nalwanga, R.; Liti, D.M.; Waidbacher, H.; Munguti, J.; Zollitsch, W.J. Monitoring the nutritional value of feed components for aquaculture along the supply chain—An East African case study. Livest. Res. Rural Dev. 2009, 21, 148. [Google Scholar]
- Aanyu, M.; Carpaij, C.; Widmer, M. Effect of diets with graded levels of inclusion of cotton and sunflower seed cake on the growth performance and feed utilization of Nile tilapia, Oreochromis niloticus. Livest. Res. Rural Dev. 2012, 24. Available online: http://www.Irrd.org/Irrd24/5/aany24084.htm (accessed on 4 July 2018).
- Udomkun, P.; Wiredu, A.; Nagle, M.; Bandyopadhyay, R.; Muller, J.; Vanlauwe, B. Mycotoxins in sub-sahara Africa: Present situation, socio-economic impact, awareness, and outlook. Food Control. 2017, 72, 110–122. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Matejova, I.; Svobodova, Z.; Vakula, J.; Mares, J.; Modra, H. Impact of mycotoxins on aquaculture fish species: A review. J. World Aquac. Soc. 2016, 48, 186–200. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Wild, C.P.; Gong, Y.Y. Mycotoxins and human disease: A largely ignored global health issue. Carcinogenesis 2010, 31, 71–82. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Sebunya, T.K.; Yourtee, D.M. Aflatoxigenic Aspergilli in foods and feeds in Uganda. J. Food Qual. 1990, 13, 97–107. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kaaya, N.A.; Warren, H.L. A review of past and present research on aflatoxin in Uganda. Afr. J. Food Agric. Nutr. Dev. 2005, 5, 11–18. [Google Scholar]
- Kwikiriza, G.; Namulawa, V.T.; Owori-Wadunde, A.; Abaho, I.; Ondhoro, C.C. Proximate nutrient composition and cost of the selected potential fish feed ingredients in Lake Victoria Basin, Uganda. Int. J. Fish. Aquat. Stud. 2016, 4, 611–615. [Google Scholar]
- Kabessime, E.; Owuor, C.; Barihaihi, M.; Kajumba, T. Monitoring and Evaluating Climate Change Adoption and Disaster Risk Reduction in Uganda; IIED Country Report; IIED: Kampala, Uganda, 2015; Available online: http://pubs.iied.org/10116 (accessed on 4 July 2018).
- Makun, H.A.; Dutton, M.F.; Njobeh, P.B.; Gbodi, T.A.; Ogbadu, G.H. Aflatoxin Contamination in Foods and Feeds: A Special Focus on Africa, Trends in Vital Foods and Contro Engineering; Intech: Rijeka, Croatia, 2012; ISBN 978–953–51–0449–0. Available online: http//www.intechopen.com (accessed on 3 October 2018).
- Rama, P.J.; Suhas, S.J.; Ashish, K.S.; Gaurav, S.; Chala, M.E. Contaminants and toxins in foods and feeds. Int. J. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2016, 2, 82–89. [Google Scholar]
- Lizarraga-Paulin, E.; Moreno-Martinez, E.; Miranda-Castro, S.P. Aflatoxins and their impact on human and animal health. In An Enlarged Problem, Aflatoxin–Biochemistry and Molecular Biology by Ramon G; Intech Open: Rijeka, Croatia, 2011; ISBN 978–953–307–395–8. [Google Scholar]
- Hussein, H.; Brasel, J.M. Toxicity, metabolism and impact of mycotoxins on humans and animals. Toxicology 2001, 167, 101–134. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kennedy, D.; Delaney, A.; Koren, G. Mutagens, carcinogens and teratogens. In Goldfrank’s Toxicologic Emergencies, 6th ed.; Goldfrank, L., Ed.; Appleton & Lange: Stanford, CA, USA, 1998; pp. 262–273. [Google Scholar]
- Ashley, L.M. Pathology of fish aflatoxins and other anti-metabolites. In A Symposium on Diseases of Fishes and Shell Fishes; Am. Fish. Soc. Special Publications: Bethesda, MD, USA, 1970; Volume 5, pp. 366–379. [Google Scholar]
- Dirican, S. A review of the effects of aflatoxins in aquaculture. Appl. Res. J. 2015, 1, 1191–1196. [Google Scholar]
- Ruby, D.S.; Masood, A.; Fatmi, A. Effect of aflatoxin contaminated feed on growth and survival of fish Labeo rohita (Hamilton). Curr. World Environ. 2013, 8, 213–225. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Zychowski, K.E.; Hoffmann, A.R.; Ly, H.J.; Pohlen, Z.C.; Buentello, A.; Romoser, A.; Gatlin, D.; Phillips, T.D. The effect of aflatoxin B1 on Red drum (Sciaenops ocellatus) and assessment of dietary supplementation of Novasil for the prevention of aflatoxicosis. Toxin 2013, 5, 1555–1573. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Santos, G.A.; Rodrigues, I.; Stark, V.; Naehrer, K.; Hofstetter, U.; Encarnacao, P. Mycotoxins in aquaculture: Occurrence in feeds components and impact on animal performance. In Proceedings of the Avances en Nutricion Acuicola X–Memorias del Decimo Simposio Internacional de Nutricion Acuicola, San Nicolas de los Garza, Mexico, 8–9 November 2010; pp. 502–513. [Google Scholar]
- Zain, M.E. Impact of mycotoxins on human and animals. J. Saudi Chem. 2011, 15, 129–144. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Bolman, B.; Pieter van Duijn, A.; Rutaisire, J. Review and Analysis of Small-Scale Aquaculture Production in East. Africa Part. 4. Uganda; Wageningen Center for Development Innovation, Wageningen University & Research Report WCDI-18-021; Wageningen University: Wageningen, The Netherlands, 2018. [Google Scholar]
- Marijani, E.; Wainaina, J.M.; Charo-Karisa, H.; Nzayisenga, L.; Munguti, J.; Gnonlonfin, B.; Kigadye, E.; Okoth, S. Mycoflora and mycotoxins in finished fish feed and feed ingredients from small holder farms in East Africa. Egypt. J. Aquat. Res. 2017, 43, 169–179. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Michelin, E.C.; Massocco, M.M.; Godoy, S.H.; Baldin, J.C.; Yasui, G.S.; Lima, C.G.; Rottinghaus, G.E.; Sousa, R.L.; Fernandes, A.M. Carry over of aflatoxins from feed to lambari fish (Astyanax altiparanae) tissues. Food Addit. Contam. Part A 2016, 2, 265–272. [Google Scholar]
- Uganda National Bureau of Standards. Uganda Standards Catalogue as at 30 June. 2015. Available online: http://www.businesslicences.go.ug/uploads/Uganda/standards/catalogue (accessed on 6 November 2018).
- Okoth, S. Improving the Evidence Base on Aflatoxin Contamination and Exposure in Africa: Strengthening the Agriculture–Nutrient Nexus; CTA Working Paper 16/13; CTA: Wageningen, The Netherlands, 2016. [Google Scholar]
- Grace, D.; Lindahl, J.; Atherstone, C.; Kangethe, E.; Nelson, F.; Wesonga, T.; Manyong, V. Building an Aflatoxin Safe East African Community; Aflatoxin Standards for Feed; Knowledge Platform, Situational Analysis for East Africa Region: Dar es Salaam, Tanzania, 2015; p. 7. [Google Scholar]
- Anukul, N.; Vangnai, K.; Mahakarnchanakul, W. Significance of regulation limits in mycotoxin contamination in Asia and risk management programs at the national level. J. Food Drug Anal. 2013, 21, 227–241. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Mutiga, S.; Were, V.; Hoffmann, V.; Harvey, J.; Milgroom, M.; Nelson, R. Extent and drivers of mycotoxin contamination: Inferences from a survey of Kenya Maize mills. Phytopathology 2014, 104, 1221–1231. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Mazumder, P.M.; Sasmal, D. Mycotoxins–Limits and Regulations. Ancient Sci. Life 2001, 20, 1–19. [Google Scholar]
- Pinotti, L.; Ottoboni, M.; Giromini, C.; Dell’Orto, V.; Cheli, F. Mycotoxin contamination in the EU feed supply chain: A focus on cereal by products. Toxins 2016, 8, 45. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Sharma, K.; Singh, U.S. Cultural and morphological characterization of rhizosoheric isolates of fungal antagonist Trichodema. J. Nat. Appl. Sci. 2014, 6, 451–456. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Stielow, B.; Bratek, Z.; Orezan, A.K.; Rudnoy, S.; Hensel, G. Species delimitation in taxonomically difficult fungi: The case of hymenogaster. PLoS ONE 2011, 6, e15614. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Cai, L.; Giraud, T.; Zhang, N.; Begerow, D.; Cai, G.; Shivas, R.G. The evaluation of species concepts and species recognition criteria in plant pathogenic fungi. Fungal Divers. 2011. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Balajee, S.A.; Borman, A.M.; Brandt, M.E.; Cano, J.; Cuenca-Estrella, M.; Dannaoui, E.; Guarro, J.; Haasa, G.; Kibbler, C.C.; Meyer, W. Sequence-based identification of Aspergilli, Fusarium, and Mucorales species in the clinical mycology laboratory: Where are we and where should we go from here? J. Clin. Microbiol. 2009, 877–884. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Toledo, V.; Simurro, M.E.; Balatti, P.A. Morphological and molecular characterization of fungus, Hirsutella sp. isolated from planthopper and psocids in Argentina Andrea. J. Insect Sci. 2013, 13, 18. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Nishimwe, K.; Bowers, E.; Ayabagabo, J.D.; Habimana, R.; Mutiga, S.K.; Maier, D. Assessment of Aflatoxin and Fumonisin Contamination and Associated Risk Factors in Feed and Feed Ingredients in Rwanda. Toxins 2019, 11, 270. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Consulting, L. Report on Market Study of the Aquaculture Market in Kenya: Kenya Market-Led Aquaculture Program (KMAP); KMAP: Nairobi, Kenya, 2016; Available online: https://www.farmafrica.org/downloads/study-of-thekenya-aquaculture-market.pdf (accessed on 9 January 2019).
- The United Republic of Tanzania Ministry of Livestock and Fisheries; Division, MLDF. Fisheries Annual Statistics Report; Ministry of Livestock and Fisheries: Dar es Salaam, Tanzania, 2014. Available online: www.mifugouvuvi.go.tz/wp-content/uploads/2012/12/ANNUAL-STATISTICS-REPORT-2013.pdf (accessed on 3 December 2019).
- Kaaya, A.; Kyamuhangire, W. The effect of storage time and agroecological zone on mold incidence and aflatoxin contamination on maize from traders in Uganda. Int. J. Food Microbiol. 2011, 110, 217–223. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Sahar, N.; Arif, S.; Iqbal, S.; Qurat, U.; Afzal, A.; Sahar, A.; Jahan, A.; Mubarik, A. Moisture content and its impact on aflatoxin levels in ready-to-use red chillies. Food Addit. Contam. Part B 2014, 8, 67–72. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ono, E.Y.; Sasaki, E.Y.; Hashimoto, E.H.; Hara, L.N.; Correa, B.; Itano, E.N.; Sugiura, T.; Ueno, Y.; Hirooka, E.Y. Post-harvest storage of corn: Effect of beginning moisture content on mycoflora and fumonisin in contamination. Food Addit. Contam. 2002, 19, 1081–1090. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Krnjaja, V.; Pavlovski, Z.; Lukic, M.; Skrbic, Z.; Stojanovic, I.; Bijelic, Z.; Mandic, V. Fungal contamination and natural occurrence of Ochratoxin a (OTA) in poultry feed. Biotechnol. Anim. Husb. 2014, 30, 481–488. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Sivakumar, V.; Singaravelu, G.; Sivamani, P. Isolation, characterization and growth optimization of toxicogenic molds from different animal feeds in Tamilnadu. Int. J. Curr. Microbiol. Appl. Sci. 2014, 3, 430–445. [Google Scholar]
- Darwish, W.; Ikenaka, Y.; Nakayama, S.; Ishizuka, M. An overview on mycotoxin contamination of foods in Africa. J. Vet. Sci. 2014, 76, 789–797. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Van Egmond, H.; Schothorst, R.; Jonker, M. Regulations relating to mycotoxins in food. Anal. Bioanal. Chem. 2007, 389, 147–157. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Zhonghua, M.; Themis, J.M. Advances in understanding molecular mechanisms of fungicide resistance and molecular detection of resistant genotypes in phytogenic fungi. Crop Prot. 2005, 24, 853–863. [Google Scholar]
- Kajuna, F.F.; Temba, B.A.; Mosha, R.D. Surveillance of aflatoxin B1 contamination in chicken commercial feeds in Morogoro, Tanzania. Livest. Res. Rural Dev. 2013, 25, 51. [Google Scholar]
- Anater, A.; Manyes, L.; Meca, G.; Ferrer, E.; Luciano, F.B.; Pimpao, C.T.; Font, G. Mycotoxins and their consequence in aquaculture: A review. Aquaculture 2016, 451, 1–10. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Goncalves-Nunes, E.C.; Gomes-Pereira, M.M.; Raposo-Costa, A.P.; da Rocha- Rosa, C.A.; Pereyra, C.M.; Calvet, R.M.; Alves-Marques, A.L.; Cardoso-Filho, F.; Sanches-Muratori, M.C. Screening of aflatoxin B1 and mycobiota related to raw materials and finished feed destined for fish. Lat. Am. J. Aquat. Res. 2015, 43, 595–600. [Google Scholar]
- Greco, M.; Pardo, A.; Pose, G. Mycotoxigenic fungi and natural co-occurrence of mycotoxins in Rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) feeds. Toxins 2015, 7, 4595–4609. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Wenshuo, S.; Zheng, H.; Dongxia, N.; Mengtong, J.; Wen, S.; Zhiyong, Z.; Desaeger, S.; Yong, Z.; Abio, W. A reliable liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry method for simultaneous determination of multiple mycotoxins in fish and dried sea foods. J. Chromatogr. A 2015, 1387, 42–48. [Google Scholar]
- Nesic, K.; Ivanovic, S.; Nesic, V. Fusarial toxins: Secondary metaboloites of fusarium fungi. Rev. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 2014, 228, 101–220. [Google Scholar] [PubMed]
- Xiaoying, L.; Lihong, Z.; Yu, F.; Yaxiong, J.; Lei, S.; Shanshan, M.; Cheng, J.; Qiugang, M.; Jianyun, Z. Occurrence of mycotoxins in feed ingredients and complete feeds obtained from Beijing region of China. J. Anim. Sci. 2014, 5, 37. [Google Scholar]
- Whitlow, W.M.; Diaz, D.E. Mycotoxins in feeds. Feed Stuffs, 16 September 2009; 74–84. [Google Scholar]
- Sultana, N.; Hanif, N.Q. Mycotoxin contamination in cattle feed and feed ingredients. Pak. Vet. J. 2009, 29, 211–213. [Google Scholar]
- Rodrigues, I.; Naehrer, K. A three- year survey on the worldwide occurrence of mycotoxins in feed stuffs and feed. Toxins 2012, 4, 663–675. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Krishnamurthy, Y.L.; Shashikala, J. Inhibition of aflatoxin B1 production of Aspergillus flavus, isolated from soybean seeds by certain natural plant products. Soc. Appl. Microbiol. Lett. Appl. Microbiol. 2006, 43, 469–474. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Pradeep, F.; Began, M.; Palaniswamy, M.; Pradeep, B. Influence of culture media on growth and pigment production by Fusarium moniliforme KUMBF1201, isolated from paddy field soil. World Appl. Sci. J. 2013, 22, 70–77. [Google Scholar]
- A Pictorial Guide for the Identification of Mold Fungi on Sorghum Grain; International Crops Research institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics: Patancheru, Andhra Pradesh, India, 1999.
- Pallez, M.; Paquali, M.; Bohn, T.; Hoffmann, L.; Beyer, M. Validation of a quick PCR method suitable for direct sequencing: Identification of Fusarium fungal species and chemotypes for preventive approaches in food safety. Food Technol. Biotech. 2014, 52, 351–358. [Google Scholar]
- Desjardins, P.; Conklin, D. NanoDrop microvolume quantitation of nucleic acids. J. Vis. Exp. 2010, 45, 2565. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Op De Beeck, M.; Lievens, B.; Busschaert, P.; Declerck, S.; Vangronsveld, J.; Colpaert, J.V. Comparison and validation of some ITS primer pairs useful for fungal metabarcoding studies. PLoS ONE 2014, 9, e97629. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Brozynska, M.; Furtado, A.; Henery, R. Direct chloroplast sequencing: Comparison of sequencing platforms and analysis tool for whole chloroplast barcoding. PLoS ONE 2014, 9, e110387. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Nishimwe, K.; Wanjuki, I.; Karangwa, C.; Darnell, R.; Harvey, J. An initial characterization of aflatoxin B1 contamination of maize sold in the principal retail markets of Kigali, Rwanda. Food Control 2017, 73, 574–580. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- AOAC. Official Methods of Analysis, 18th ed.; Association of official Analytical Chemists: Arlington, VA, USA, 2007. [Google Scholar]
- Mutiga, S.; Morales, L.; Angwenyi, S.; Wainaina, J.; Harvey, J.; Das, B.; Nelson, R. Association between agronomic traits and aflatoxin accumulation in diverse maize lines grown under two soil nitrogen levels in Easter Kenya. Field Crops Res. 2017, 205, 124–134. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lamm, S.H.; Ferdosi, H.; Dissen, E.K.; Li, J.; Ahn, J. A systematic review and meta-regression analysis of lung cancer risk and inorganic Arsenic in drinking water. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2015, 12, 15498–15515. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
Feed Sample Type | Percentage Moisture Content | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Farms | Factories | |||||||
Sample Size (n) | MC ± SE | Confidence Interval (95%) | Sample Size (n) | MC ± SE | Confidence Interval (95%) | |||
Lower | Upper | Lower | Upper | |||||
4.0 mm pellets | - | - | - | - | 3 | 16.2 ± 2.2 a, b | 11.9 | 20.5 |
3.0 mm pellets | - | - | - | - | 3 | 15.4 ± 2.2 a, b | 11.1 | 19.7 |
2.0 mm pellets | - | - | - | - | 3 | 9.7 ± 2.2 a, b | 5.3 | 13.9 |
1.5 mm pellets | - | - | - | - | 18 | 15.2 ± 0.9 a | 13.4 | 16.9 |
Maize bran | - | - | - | - | 6 | 10.7±1.5 a, b | 7.6 | 13.7 |
Powder | 18 | 10.0 ± 0.3 a | 9.5 | 10.5 | 18 | 10.2 ± 0.9 b | 8.4 | 11.9 |
Fish meal | - | - | - | - | 6 | 9.6 ± 1.5 a, b | 6.5 | 12.6 |
Crumbles | 3 | 7.4 ± 0.6 b | 6.2 | 8.7 | 3 | 9.4 ± 2.2 a, b | 5 | 13.7 |
Soy meal | - | - | - | - | 6 | 8.7 ± 1.5 b | 5.6 | 11.7 |
Pellets | 60 | 10.4 ± 0.1 a | 10.2 | 10.7 | - | - | - | - |
Aflatoxin (µg/kg) | Fumonisin (mg/kg) | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Feed Source | Samples (%) with AFB1 ≥ 40 | Mean Contamination (AFB1 ≥ 40) | Maximum AFB1 | Samples (%) with Fumonisin ≥ 0.1 | Mean Contamination (≥ 0.1) | Maximum Fumonisin |
Farms | ||||||
A2 | 100 (9/9) | 150 ± 42.9 | 211 | 44 (4/9) | 0.19 ± 0.06 | 0.28 |
B2 | 83 (5/6) | 135 ± 28.2 | 175 | 50 (3/6) | 0.17 ± 0.02 | 0.20 |
C2 | 25 (3/12) | 154 ± 6.3 | 163 | 50 (6/12) | 0.18 ± 0.06 | 0.26 |
D2 | 100 (6/6) | 374 ± 11.5 | 390 | 17(1/6) | 0.10 ± 0.001 | 0.10 |
E2 | 0 (0/9) | ND | ND | 22 (2/9) | 0.20 ± 0.02 | 0.23 |
G2 | 75 (9/12) | 200 ± 143.6 | 403 | 0 (0/12) | ND | ND |
H2 | 78 (7/9) | 70 ± 19.0 | 97 | 100 (9/9) | 1.86 ± 1.55 | 4.06 |
I2 | 67 (6/9) | 159 ± 117.3 | 325 | 0 (0/9) | ND | ND |
J2 | 67 (6/9) | 93 ± 53.4 | 169 | 0(0/9) | ND | ND |
Total | 63 (51/81) | 31 (25/81) | ||||
Factories | ||||||
A1 | 33.3 (5/15) | 211 ± 6.9 | 221 | 53(8/15) | 0.7 ± 1.09 | 2.90 |
B1 | 0 (0/6) | ND | NA | 0 (0/6) | ND | ND |
C1 | 40 (6/15) | 176 ± 96.1 | 312 | 20 (3/15) | 0.1 ± 0.18 | 0.60 |
D1 | 100 (6/6) | 145 ± 74.9 | 251 | 0 (0/6) | ND | ND |
E1 | 0 (0/9) | ND | ND | 0 (0/9) | ND | ND |
F1 | 100 (9/9) | 146 ± 54.9 | 224 | 89 (8/9) | 0.8 ± 0.41 | 1.50 |
G1 | 100 (6/6) | 90 ± 45.7 | 154 | 0 (0/6) | ND | ND |
Total | 48 (32/66) | 29 (19/66) |
Aflatoxin B1(µg/kg) | Fumonisin (mg/kg) | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Feed Source and Types | Samples (%) with AFB1 ≥ 40 | Mean Contamination (AFB1 ≥ 40) | Maximum AFB1 | Samples (%) with Fumonisin ≥ 0.1 | Mean Contamination (≥0.1) | Maximum Fumonisin |
Farms | ||||||
Powder | 61 (11/18) | 129.3 ± 37.94 | 180.4 | 22(4/18) | 0.184 ± 0.06 | 0.26 |
Crumbles | 0 (0/3) | ND | ND | 0 (0/3) | ND | ND |
Pellets | 67 (40/60) | 177.94 ± 20.22 | 403.4 | 35 (21/60) | 0.90 ± 1.19 | 4.06 |
Total | 63 (51/81) | 31 (25/81) | ||||
Factories | ||||||
1.5 mm pellets | 50 (9/18) | 219.0 ± 64.3 | 311.9 | 17 (3/18) | 0.30 ± 0.04 | 0.35 |
2.0 mm pellets | 0 (0/3) | ND | ND | 0 (0/3) | ND | ND |
3.0 mm pellets | 100 (3/3) | 168.3 ± 38.98 | 172.6 | 100 (3/3) | 0.76 ± 0.21 | 0.96 |
4.0 mm pellets | 100 (3/3) | 169.3 ± 52.2 | 224.4 | 100 (3/3) | 0.89 ± 0.27 | 1.19 |
Crumbles | 100 (3/3) | 117.7 ± 31.59 | 154.1 | 0 (0/3) | ND | ND |
Fish meal | 0 (0/6) | ND | ND | 0(0/3) | ND | ND |
Maize bran | 0 (0/6) | ND | ND | 83 (5/6) | 1.86 ± 1.24 | 2.89 |
Powder | 78 (14/18) | 107.4 ± 54.06 | 2.19.6 | 28 (5/18) | 0.59 ± 0.54 | 1.50 |
Soy | 0 (0/6) | ND | ND | 0 (0/6) | ND | ND |
Total | 48 (32/66) | 29 (19/66) |
© 2020 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Namulawa, V.T.; Mutiga, S.; Musimbi, F.; Akello, S.; Ngángá, F.; Kago, L.; Kyallo, M.; Harvey, J.; Ghimire, S. Assessment of Fungal Contamination in Fish Feed from the Lake Victoria Basin, Uganda. Toxins 2020, 12, 233. https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins12040233
Namulawa VT, Mutiga S, Musimbi F, Akello S, Ngángá F, Kago L, Kyallo M, Harvey J, Ghimire S. Assessment of Fungal Contamination in Fish Feed from the Lake Victoria Basin, Uganda. Toxins. 2020; 12(4):233. https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins12040233
Chicago/Turabian StyleNamulawa, Victoria Tibenda, Samuel Mutiga, Fred Musimbi, Sundy Akello, Fredrick Ngángá, Leah Kago, Martina Kyallo, Jagger Harvey, and Sita Ghimire. 2020. "Assessment of Fungal Contamination in Fish Feed from the Lake Victoria Basin, Uganda" Toxins 12, no. 4: 233. https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins12040233