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30 June 2025

15 Pages

Patterns of Beverage Consumption Among Saudi Residents and Associated Demographic Factors: A Nationwide Survey

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1
Saudi Food and Drug Authority, Riyadh 13513, Saudi Arabia
2
Chemistry Department, Faculty of Science, Taibah University, Madinah 42353, Saudi Arabia
3
Department of Clinical Nutrition, College of Nursing and Health Sciences, Jazan University, Jazan 45142, Saudi Arabia
4
College of Science, King Khalid University, Abha 61413, Saudi Arabia
Nutrients2025, 17(13), 2182;https://doi.org/10.3390/nu17132182
This article belongs to the Section Nutrition Methodology & Assessment
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Abstract

Background/Objectives: Non-communicable diseases (NCDs) are strongly linked to beverage consumption. This study aimed to assess the average daily beverage intake of Saudi residents, energy intake from beverages, and the influence of socio-demographic factors, health behaviors, and health status on beverage intake. Methods: A nationally representative, cross-sectional study utilized stratified quota sampling to survey adults (≥18 years) across all 13 administrative regions of Saudi Arabia. Data were collected from April 2022 to December 2023 using the validated Arabic Beverage Frequency Questionnaire (ABFQ), assessing consumption patterns of 28 beverage types. Results: The study included 4385 participants (mean age: 36.1 ± 11.14 years, 65% male). Sweetened tea (28 mL/day), regular soft drinks (22.1 mL/day), and Saudi coffee (18 mL/day) were the most frequent beverages after water. Sweetened tea contributed to the highest average energy intake (33.2 ± 46.4 kcal/day). Consumption of sugar-sweetened beverages (SSBs) was higher among younger individuals (18–29 years: OR: 4.0, 95% CI [2.6–6.3]; 30–44 years: OR: 2.8, 95% CI [1.8–4.3]), males (OR:1.6, 95% CI [1.4–1.8]), and residents of specific regions [Al-Jawf (OR: 1.9, 95% CI [1.2–3.2]) and Jazan (OR: 3.2, 95% CI [2.2–4.7])]. Higher water intakes were associated with males (OR: 1.5, 95% CI [1.3–1.7]), higher education levels (OR: 1.4, 95% CI [1.2–1.8]), physically active (OR: 1.5, 95% CI [1.3–1.8]), and those overweight (OR: 1.6, 95% CI [1.2–2.3]) or obese (OR: 2, 95% CI [1.4–2.8]). Conclusions: This study provides a valuable insight into beverage consumption patterns among Saudi residents. The findings highlight the need for targeted public health interventions to promote healthier beverage choices, particularly among younger populations and those with lower socioeconomic status.

1. Introduction

Non-communicable diseases (NCDs), including cardiovascular diseases, cancer, and diabetes, pose a significant global health challenge, accounting for a substantial proportion of all deaths worldwide [1]. The burden of NCDs is similarly alarming in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) region, where rates of NCD-related mortality mirror global trends [2]. Obesity, a major risk factor for NCDs, is prevalent across the region [3].
Behavioral factors, including poor dietary habits, excessive consumption of sugar-sweetened beverages (SSBs), and physical inactivity, play a critical role in the increasing incidence of these diseases [1]. Among these, beverage consumption has emerged as a key area of concern due to its direct contribution. A growing body of evidence demonstrates the strong association between high intake of SSBs and these health outcomes [4,5,6,7,8,9,10,11,12,13,14,15,16]. Conversely, water consumption is essential for supporting vital physiological functions and overall health, with studies indicating its role in the prevention of chronic diseases [7,17]. The impact of caffeinated beverages, however, is more complex. While they may offer health benefits, their effects can vary, particularly for individuals with pre-existing cardiovascular conditions or hypertension, where both risks and benefits have been observed [18,19].
Studies assessed beverage consumption using food records to determine their contribution to daily energy intake in both adults and children, revealing that plain water is the predominant beverage across all age groups, while other beverages vary by age [20,21,22,23,24,25]. In Saudi Arabia, data on dietary intake, particularly regarding beverage consumption, remain scarce. One study involving 507 undergraduate students reported an average daily intake of 650.6 mL of sugar-sweetened beverages (SSBs), 575.2 mL of caffeinated beverages, and 224.6 mL of carbonated drinks, contributing 187.6 kcal from SSBs, 87.6 kcal from caffeinated beverages, and 52.5 kcal from carbonated drinks, respectively [26].
Despite the critical role of sweet beverage consumption in overall dietary patterns and public health, comprehensive nationwide data in Saudi Arabia are limited. This study aimed to address this gap by providing a comprehensive analysis of beverage consumption patterns among Saudi residents. Specifically, the study investigated the average daily intake of various beverages, estimated energy intake from beverages, and explored the influence of socio-demographic factors, health behaviors, and health status on beverage consumption choices.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Study Design

This study employed a nationally representative, cross-sectional design, using a stratified quota sampling technique to survey adults aged 18 years and older. Data were collected through a validated online questionnaire [27], covering all 13 administrative regions of Saudi Arabia, including Al-Riyadh, Makkah, Al-Madinah, Al-Qaseem, Eastern Province, Aseer, Tabouk, Hail, Northern Borders, Jazan, Najran, Al-Baha, and Aljouf. The study was reviewed and approved by the SFDA Ethical Committee (Approval number: 2022_1).

2.2. Sample Size

A multistage quota sampling technique was used to achieve equal distribution of participants across the 13 regions of Saudi Arabia stratified by region, age, and gender. Two age groups were used based on the median age of adults in Saudi Arabia, reported as 37 in the latest census data [28]. This led to 52 quotas for this study. The sample size was calculated based on the depth of the sub-analysis we wanted to reach, which is comparing the age and gender groups between regions with a medium effect size of around 0.3. Thus, each quota required 68 participants, resulting in a total sample size of 3536 participants. Once the quota sample is reached, the participants with similar characteristics will not be eligible to participate in the study. All statistics of this survey have been calculated using sample weights assigned to each demographic quota that were constructed to represent the Saudi population [28]. The proportions of the population within each demographic quota were calculated to reflect their representation in the overall population. For each stratum, sample proportions were determined based on the collected data. Sample weights were then derived by dividing the population proportion of each quota by its corresponding sample proportion.

2.3. Sample Recruitment

Participants were included in the study if they met the following criteria: (a) residents of Saudi Arabia (both Saudis and non-Saudis); (b) aged 18 years and above; and (c) Arabic-speaking. A list of random phone numbers was generated from a government database based on the study’s inclusion criteria. A link to the survey was then sent via Short Message Service (SMS), including study objectives, a consent form regarding the confidentiality and anonymity of personal information, followed by the eligibility questions. Data collection was conducted from April 2022 until December 2023. However, due to major changes in dietary behavior in Ramadan (i.e., the Muslim fasting month), data collection was postponed during this period.

2.4. Measurements and Variable Definitions

2.4.1. Arabic Beverage Frequency Questionnaire (ABFQ)

The ABFQ is a validated online tool that measures total beverage intake among Arabic-speaking consumers [27]. The questionnaire included an assessment of consumption of 28 beverages: water, unpackaged 100% fresh fruit juice, unpackaged 100% fresh vegetable juice, packaged 100% fresh fruit juice, packaged fruit drinks or nectars, packaged fruit juice with milk, full-fat milk, low-fat milk, skimmed-fat milk, full-fat buttermilk (Laban), low-fat buttermilk (Laban), skimmed-fat buttermilk (Laban), regular soft drinks, diet soft drinks, packaged iced tea, unsweetened tea, sweetened tea, Saudi coffee, Saudi coffee with milk, unsweetened Turkish coffee or espresso, sweetened Turkish coffee or espresso, unsweetened black or filtered coffee, black or filtered coffee with milk, flavored coffee with milk such as cappuccino, flavored malt drink, sweetened energy drink, diet energy drink, and sports drinks.
To evaluate beverage consumption, participants were queried regarding their drinking patterns over the preceding 30 days. Responses were classified into 11 distinct consumption frequency levels, which were subsequently transformed into daily frequency units. These units were defined as follows: never (0), once a month (0.033), twice a month (0.067), three times a month (0.1), once a week (0.14), two to three times a week (0.36, averaged at 2.5 days), four to six times a week (0.71, averaged at 5 days), once a day (1), twice a day (2), three times a day (3), and more than three times a day (4). To assess the quantity consumed, participants were asked about the usual consumption amount each time. The frequency codes established were then multiplied by the reported amount consumed (in mL) per occasion to calculate the average daily intake in mL.
To calculate energy intake from beverages, the energy content of each beverage was first determined. Beverages were categorized into two groups: (1) pre-packaged beverages, for which the average energy content per 100 mL was derived from the Saudi Branded Food Database (SBFD) [29], and (2) unpackaged beverages, where energy content per 100 mL was obtained from the ESHA Food Database [30]. Once the energy content for each beverage was established, the daily energy intake was calculated by multiplying the daily volume consumed (in milliliters) by the energy content per 100 mL of that particular beverage and then dividing by 100. Outliers for all continuous variables were then detected using box plots and replaced with the median value for the corresponding variable [31].
For analysis, beverages were categorized into five groups: (1) water; (2) 100% fresh fruits and vegetable juices, including unpackaged 100% fresh fruit juice, unpackaged 100% fresh vegetable juice, and packaged 100% fresh fruit juice; (3) sugary-sweetened beverages (SSB), including packaged fruit drinks or nectars, regular soft drinks, diet soft drinks, packaged iced tea, flavored malt drink, sweetened energy drink, diet energy drink, and sport drink; (4) dairy beverages, including packaged fruit juice with milk, full-fat milk, low-fat milk, skimmed-fat milk, full-fat buttermilk (Laban), low-fat buttermilk (Laban), and skimmed-fat buttermilk (Laban); and (5) caffeinated beverages, including unsweetened tea, sweetened tea, Saudi coffee, Saudi coffee with milk, unsweetened Turkish coffee or espresso, sweetened Turkish coffee or espresso, unsweetened black or filtered coffee, black or filtered coffee with milk, and flavored coffee with milk such as cappuccino.

2.4.2. Information on General Characteristics

The general characteristics section collected key information about socio-demographic factors, health behaviors, and health status. Socio-demographic data, including age, gender, administrative region of residence, educational level (categorized as high school or less, diploma or bachelor’s degree, and postgraduate), and marital status (single, married, and divorced/widowed). Age was classified into four groups according to the World Health Organization (WHO): 18–29, 30–44, 45–59, and 60 years and older [32].
Health behaviors were evaluated by asking participants about their engagement in regular physical activity over the past three months (regular physical activity), as well as their consumption patterns of fruits and vegetables (never, monthly, weekly, and daily). Health status included self-reported weight and height, which were used to calculate body mass index (BMI), as well as inquiries regarding participants’ histories of chronic diseases and any health conditions requiring fluid restriction in the past month. BMI was classified into four groups according to WHO standards: underweight (<18.5 kg/m2), normal weight (18.5 to 24.9 kg/m2), overweight (25.0 to 29.9 kg/m2), and obese (>30 kg/m2) [33].

2.5. Statistical Analysis

Data analysis was performed using SPSS version 29. General characteristics of the sample were summarized using frequencies and percentages. Daily beverage intake (mL) and energy consumption from beverages (kcal) were described using medians and ranges as the primary measures of central tendency and variability due to the non-normal distribution of the data, which was confirmed by the Shapiro–Wilk test and examination of skewness. Means and standard deviations (SDs) were also reported for reference. Beverage consumption frequencies were categorized as never, daily, weekly, or monthly, and reported with frequencies and percentages. Differences in mean daily beverage intake across various factors, including socio-demographic characteristics, health behaviors, and health status, were evaluated using Independent t-tests and One-Way ANOVA, as appropriate. Statistically significant independent factors were included in a binary logistic regression analysis to examine their association with daily beverage intake (in mL) for each beverage category. The dependent variable (daily beverage intake) was categorized based on the median value into two groups: below the median and at or above the median.

3. Results

3.1. General Characteristics

The sample was predominantly male (65.2%) with a mean age of 36.1 ± 11.1 years. Most participants were physically inactive, and nearly half consumed fruits and vegetables weekly. Overweight and obesity were common, affecting over 60% of the sample. Additionally, about one-fifth reported chronic diseases or conditions requiring fluid restriction. Further details are available in Table 1.
Table 1. General characteristics of the study sample.

3.2. Beverages Total Intake

Table 2 summarizes the median daily intake of 28 beverage categories. Water was the most consumed beverage, followed by sweetened tea, regular soft drinks, and Saudi coffee. More details are presented in Table 2.
Table 2. Average daily intake (mL/day) per person.

3.3. Energy Consumption

Table 3 presents the median estimated energy intake from various beverages. Regular soft drinks and sweetened tea contributed the highest median energy, followed by full-fat buttermilk and fresh fruit juices. Several beverages, including black coffee with milk and skimmed-fat dairy drinks, had median energy intakes near zero despite wide variability. Full details are available in Table 3.
Table 3. Average energy consumption (kcal/day) from beverages per person.

3.4. Pattern of Consumption

Distinct consumption patterns were observed for the 28 beverages examined (Table 4). Saudi coffee was most frequently consumed on a daily basis. In contrast, unpackaged 100% fresh fruit juices were predominantly consumed monthly.
Table 4. Beverage consumption patterns.

3.5. Factors Associated with Beverages Total Intake

3.5.1. Socio-Demographic Factors

Table 5 shows socio-demographic factors associated with beverage consumption. Younger adults (18–44 years) were more likely to consume sugar-sweetened beverages compared to older adults. Males had higher odds of consuming water, 100% fresh fruit and vegetable juices, and sugar-sweetened beverages than females. Regional differences were observed in the consumption of dairy and caffeinated beverages, with several regions showing higher intakes compared to Riyadh. Higher educational attainment was linked to increased water consumption but lower intake of sugar-sweetened beverages. Marital status also influenced beverage choices, with married individuals less likely to drink water but more likely to consume caffeinated beverages. Further details are provided in Table 5.
Table 5. Binary logistic regression between total beverage intake and socio-demographic factors (<median vs. ≥median).

3.5.2. Health Behaviors

Table 6 presents associations between health behaviors and beverage consumption. Participants who engaged in regular physical activity were more likely to consume water and dairy beverages. Additionally, daily or weekly fruit and vegetable intake was significantly linked to higher consumption of water, 100% fresh fruit and vegetable juices, and dairy beverages. Detailed results can be found in Table 6.
Table 6. Binary logistic regression between total beverage intake and health behaviors (<median vs. ≥median).

3.5.3. Health Status

Table 7 highlights associations between health status and beverage consumption. Overweight and obese participants were more likely to consume water compared to underweight individuals. Those without chronic diseases or fluid restriction conditions had higher odds of consuming sugar-sweetened beverages, dairy drinks, and 100% fresh fruit and vegetable juices. Further details are available in Table 7.
Table 7. Binary logistic regression between total beverage intake and health status (<median vs. ≥median).

4. Discussion

This study provides valuable insights into the beverage consumption patterns of Saudi residents. Our findings demonstrate that water is the most frequently consumed beverage, followed by sweetened tea, regular soft drinks, and traditional Saudi coffee. Notably, regular soft drinks emerged as the primary contributor to energy intake from beverages, highlighting the potential health implications of high sugar consumption. Furthermore, the study underscores the significant influence of socio-demographic factors, health behaviors, and health status on beverage choices. These findings have crucial implications for public health, providing a foundation for the development and implementation of targeted interventions aimed at promoting healthier beverage consumption among the Saudi population.
Sweetened tea ranked as the second most consumed beverage. A cross-sectional study among Saudi adolescents reported that 19.6% of participants regularly consumed sugar-sweetened tea, underscoring its significant contribution to total energy intake [34]. Similarly, findings from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) 2007–2010 revealed a positive association between higher sugar-sweetened beverage (SSB) intake, including sweetened tea, and increased overall caloric consumption [35]. However, findings in SSB consumption are not uniform across populations; a study assessing beverage consumption patterns documented a decline in sweetened tea and powdered drink intakes between 2018 and 2019 [36]. Despite these variations, the persistently high intake of sweetened tea highlights its role in excessive energy consumption, which may elevate the risk of metabolic disorders such as obesity and type 2 diabetes [6]. This finding likely reflects cultural preferences, habitual consumption patterns, and product accessibility, emphasizing the need for public health interventions to encourage healthier beverage choices.
The findings indicate that regular soft drinks are among the most consumed beverages among Saudi residents. This high consumption rate raises significant health concerns due to its strong association with obesity, diabetes, and other metabolic disorders linked to high sugar content [12,37,38]. The high intake may reflect cultural or lifestyle preferences for sugary beverages [39]. In response to these concerns, the Saudi government implemented a 50% excise tax on carbonated soft drinks to discourage consumption by increasing prices from 2.31 to 2.5 Saudi Riyals per pack, resulting in a 31% decline in volume sales [40,41]. Despite these efforts, high consumption persists, indicating a need for further regulatory actions. Promoting the substitution of soft drinks with healthier alternatives, such as water or unsweetened beverages, could significantly alleviate the negative health outcomes associated with excessive sugar intake [42,43,44].
The findings indicate that Saudi coffee, or locally known as Gahwa, is one of the most frequently consumed beverages in Saudi Arabia, reflecting its deep cultural significance and role in social customs [45]. Its popularity arises from both its flavor and its association with hospitality and social gatherings [45]. Although typically prepared with less sugar than other beverages, Saudi coffee is often consumed with dates or sweet snacks, which can increase overall sugar intake [46]. Additionally, Saudi coffee is typically served in small cups and consumed multiple times throughout the day, which may result in a cumulative increase in caffeine intake [47]. These findings underscore the importance of understanding cultural dietary habits. Although Saudi coffee offers health benefits due to its antioxidant properties [48], promoting moderation and awareness of excessive caffeine consumption is crucial.
The findings of this study reveal a significant finding among younger adults, particularly those aged 18–29 and 30–44 years, who demonstrate a stronger preference for SSBs compared to individuals aged 60 and older. This observation aligns with the existing literature, highlighting the variations in beverage consumption patterns across different age groups [49,50,51]. Several factors contribute to the higher consumption of SSBs among younger demographics, including taste preferences, increased exposure to aggressive SSB marketing, and the beverages’ wide availability and affordability [51,52]. Additionally, these younger individuals may be more susceptible to developing dependence on these sugary drinks [51,52]. Understanding these patterns is essential for designing targeted public health interventions aimed at reducing SSB consumption among this age group. A multi-pronged approach is needed to address this challenge, including strategies such as public education campaigns, stricter regulations on SSB advertising, particularly to younger audiences, and promoting healthier alternatives.
This study reveals significant regional variations in beverage consumption patterns, which can be driven by interrelated factors such as environmental conditions and cultural practices. For instance, residents of Makkah exhibited a greater likelihood of consuming water compared to those in Riyadh, which can be attributed to the hotter climate of the Makkah region that necessitates increased hydration [53,54,55]. In contrast, the southern regions of Saudi Arabia—specifically Jazan, Najran, and Asir—show a higher prevalence of dairy beverage consumption. This finding is supported by local agricultural practices, particularly livestock farming, which facilitates the availability of fresh milk and dairy [56]. In Qassim, Hail, Aljawf, and Jazan, residents display a notable preference for caffeinated beverages, reflecting the cultural significance of coffee, especially Saudi coffee [45,57,58,59]. Understanding these regional variations is crucial for developing culturally relevant public health initiatives that encourage healthier beverage choices.
The current study found that individuals with higher educational attainment were significantly more likely to consume water and less likely to consume SSBs compared to those with lower levels of education. This pattern is consistent with previous research indicating that health-conscious behaviors tend to be more prevalent among populations with higher educational backgrounds [60,61]. This relationship may be attributed to education’s role in fostering greater health awareness, which is linked to healthier lifestyle choices [62,63,64,65]. Moreover, individuals with higher education levels often have better access to health-promoting resources, such as nutritional information [66]. Understanding these dynamics can inform public health initiatives aimed at promoting healthier drinking habits, particularly among lower-educated populations.
The study revealed that males, physically active individuals, and those classified as overweight or obese had higher water consumption. This can be explained by differences in metabolism and physiological needs. Men generally have a higher muscle mass than women, leading to increased water requirements for maintaining cellular hydration and metabolic processes [67]. Similarly, physically active individuals require more water to compensate for fluid lost through sweat during exercise, as well as to support enhanced metabolic activity during physical exertion [68]. Overweight and obese individuals often have higher metabolic rates and increased body mass, which necessitate greater fluid intake to regulate body temperature and maintain metabolic functions [69,70].
This study has several limitations that should be acknowledged, including its cross-sectional design, which provides observations on beverage consumption frequencies and self-reported health status at a single point in time, without assessing clinical health outcomes. Health status was self-reported and not verified through medical records, which may introduce reporting bias. Additionally, while energy intake from beverages was estimated based on reported consumption and standard energy values, total daily energy intake was not directly measured. The reliance on self-reported data may introduce recall bias, leading participants to inaccurately estimate their beverage intake. Nevertheless, the study’s strengths include the use of a comprehensive online cross-sectional survey design, which allowed for the collection of data from a large and diverse sample. The use of the validated ABFQ also provides a reliable tool for measuring beverage intake among Arabic-speaking populations. Furthermore, all statistics of this survey were calculated using sample weights assigned to each demographic quota constructed to represent the Saudi population. The findings hold important implications for public health strategies aimed at promoting healthier beverage consumption among Saudi residents while addressing the need to mitigate the intake of sugary beverages.

5. Conclusions

This study provides a comprehensive assessment of beverage consumption patterns among Saudi residents, highlighting key socio-demographic and health factors associated with beverage choices. The findings emphasize the prevalence of sugar-sweetened beverages among young age groups and the role of education in promoting healthier beverage choices. This study serves as a crucial step in understanding beverage consumption behaviors in Saudi Arabia, providing a foundation for targeted public health initiatives aimed at reducing the consumption of sugary beverages and encouraging healthier alternatives to improve overall health outcomes.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, R.Y.A., T.M.A., N.S.A. and A.S.A.; methodology, R.Y.A., T.M.A., N.S.A. and A.S.A.; data collection, T.M.A., N.S.A., N.A.A., S.A.A., S.M.A., M.A., E.A., M.B., R.A.A. and A.S.A.; data validation, R.Y.A., T.M.A., N.S.A., N.A.A., S.A.A., S.M.A., M.A., E.A., M.B., R.A.A., A.S.A. and N.A.A.; formal analysis, R.Y.A.; writing—original draft preparation, R.Y.A. and T.M.A.; writing—review and editing, R.Y.A., T.M.A., N.S.A., N.A.A., S.A.A., S.M.A., M.A., E.A., M.B., R.A.A. and A.S.A.; supervision, A.S.A. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research received no external funding.

Institutional Review Board Statement

The study was reviewed and approved by the SFDA ethical committee in 3 March 2022 (Approval number: 2022_1).

Data Availability Statement

Data available on request. The data are not publicly available due to Privacy.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

Abbreviations

The following abbreviations are used in this manuscript:
NCDNon-communicable diseases
MENAMiddle East and North Africa
SSBSugar-sweetened beverages
ABFQArabic Beverage Frequency Questionnaire
BMIBody mass index

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