Vulnerability and Adaptation to Extreme Heat in Odisha, India: A Community Based Comparative Study
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Methods
3. Results
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
Ethical Statement
Abbreviations
aOR | adjusted odds ratio |
CI | confidence interval |
GEE | generalized estimating equation |
HH | household |
HRI | heat-related illness |
HRS | heat-related syndrome |
HW | heat wave. |
References
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Variable | Category | Slum (n = 404) Percentage (95% CI) | Non Slum (n = 695) Percentage (95% CI) | Total (n = 1099) Percentage (95% CI) | p-Value # |
Sex | Female | 53.2 (49.8–57.2) | 46.5 (42.8–50.2) | 49.0 (46.0–51.91) | 0.031 * |
Caste | Schedule Caste | 59.4 (54.5–64.1) | 44.1 (40.4–47.7) | 49.7 (46.7–52.6) | <0.001 * |
Schedule Tribe | 17.6 (14.1–21.6) | 4.3 (3.1–6.1) | 9.2 (7.6–11.1) | ||
Religion | Hinduism | 92.1 (89.0–94.3) | 98.7 (97.5–99.3) | 96.3 (94.9–97.2) | <0.001 * |
Islam | 5.9 (4.0–8.7) | 0.9 (0.4–1.9) | 2.7 (1.9–3.8) | ||
Christian | 1.5 (07–3.3) | 0.4 (0.1–1.3) | 0.8 (0.4–1.56) | ||
Age group (in years) | ≤5 | 11.9 (9.1–15.4) | 2.7 (1.7–4.2) | 6.1 (4.8–7.7) | <0.001 * |
6–15 | 5.7 (3.8–8.4) | 5.6 (4.1–7.6) | 5.6 (4.4–7.2) | ||
16–30 | 18.1 (14.6–22.2) | 23.5 (20.3–26.7) | 21.5 (19.1–24.0) | ||
31–45 | 30.9 (26.6–35.6) | 32.4 (29.0–4.0) | 31.8 (29.1–34.7) | ||
46–60 | 19.6 (15.9–23.7) | 28.3 (25.1–31.8) | 25.1 (22.6–22.8) | ||
>60 | 13.9 (10.8–17.6) | 7.5 (5.7–9.7) | 9.8 (8.2–11.7) | ||
Household Characteristics | Slum (n = 306) Percentage (95% CI) | Non Slum (n = 460) Percentage (95% CI) | Total (n = 766) Percentage (95% CI) | p-Value | |
Housing | Kutcha | 57.2 (52.3–61.9) | 0.4 (0.1–1.3) | 21.3 (18.9–23.8) | <0.001 *,# |
Semi-Pucca | 21.5 (17.8–25.8) | 0 | 7.9 (6.4–9.7) | ||
Pucca | 21.3 (17.6–25.6) | 99.6 (98.7–99.9) | 70.8 (68.1–73.4) | ||
Ventilation adequate | Yes | 6.4 (4.4–9.3) | 98.3(97.0–99.1) | 64.5 (61.6–67.3) | <0.001* |
Electric supply | Yes | 66.3 (61.6–70.8) | 99.6 (99.2–99.9) | 87.6 (85.5–89.4) | <0.001 * |
Power cut | Yes | 28.0 (23.8–32.5) | 98.7 (97.5–99.3) | 72.7 (70.0–75.2) | <0.001 * |
Kitchen inside home | Yes | 69.1 (64.4–73.4) | 99.1 (98.1–99.6) | 88.1 (86.0–89.9) | <0.001 * |
Regular water supply in summer | Yes | 61.6 (56.8–66.3) | 98.3 (97.0–99.1) | 84.8 (82.5–86.8) | <0.001 * |
Wooden chulha for cooking | Yes | 74.1 (69.5–78.1) | 10.5 (8.4–13.1) | 66.2 (63.2–68.9) | <0.001 * |
Liquified petroleum gas (LPG) | Yes | 49.1 (44.–53.5) | 99.23 (97.0–99.8) | 66.3 (62.9–69.6) | <0.001 * |
Kerosene stove | Yes | 55.3 (50.9–59.6) | 6.5 (4.04–10.2) | 38.5 (35.1–42.0) | <0.001 * |
Drinking water | Borewell | 13.3 (10.6–16.6) | 0.4 (0.01–2.7) | 8.9 (7.1–11.1) | <0.001 * |
Piped water supply | 81.9 (78.2–85.0) | 96.9 (94.0–98.5) | 87.1 (84.5–89.3) | ||
Open well | 4.8 (3.2–7.1) | 2.7 (1.3–5.5) | 4.1 (2.8–5.7) | ||
Roofing | Tin/asbestos | 43.3 (39.0–47.7) | 3.1 (1.5–5.9) | 29.5 (26.4–32.8) | <0.001 # |
Cemented | 2.0 (1.1–3.7) | 96.9 (94.1–98.5) | 34.6 (31.3–38.0) | ||
Husk/bamboo | 49.5 (45.1–53.9) | 0 | 32.5 (29.3–35.9) | ||
Other (polythene) | 5.2 (3.5–7.5) | 0 | 3.4 (2.3–4.9) |
Slum (n = 404) Percentage (95% CI) | Non-Slum (n = 695) Percentage (95% CI) | Total (n = 1099) Percentage (95% CI) | p-Value | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Available mechanism | Fan | 59.7 (54.7–64.3) | 97.4 (95.9–98.4) | 83.5 (81.2–85.6) | <0.001 *,# |
Cooler | 0 | 3.3 (2.2–4.9) | 2.1 (1.4–3.1) | ||
A/C | 0 | 13.1 (10.8–15.8) | 8.3 (6.8–10.1) | <0.001 * | |
Practices | Green space | 28.5 (24.2–33.0) | 99.1 (98.1–99.6) | 73.2 (70.4–75.7) | <0.001 * |
Bathing multiple times | 4.9 (3.2–7.5) | 3.5 (2.3–5.1) | 4.0 (3.0–5.3) | 0.222 | |
Resting in open areas | 11.9 (9.1–15.4) | 2.9 (1.9–4.4) | 6.2 (4.9–7.8) | <0.001 * | |
Use clay pot for drinking water | 8.2 (5.9–11.3) | 3.6 (2.4–5.3) | 5.3 (4.1–6.8) | 0.001 * | |
Wet floor and wall | 9.4 (6.9–12.7) | 3.5 (2.3–5.1) | 5.6 (4.4–7.2) | <0.001 * | |
Wear wet clothes | 16.1 (12.8–20.0) | 16.7 (14.1–19.6) | 16.5 (14.4–18.8) | 0.795 | |
Wear cotton clothes | 0.5 (0.1–1.9) | 52.9 (49.2–50.8) | 33.7 (30.9–36.5) | <0.001 * | |
Use fan/cooler/AC | 2.0 (1.0–3.9) | 12.5 (10.2–15.2) | 8.6 (7.1–10.4) | <0.001 * | |
Stay indoors | 11.6 (8.8–15.1) | 0.9 (3.9–1.9) | 4.8 (3.7–6.3) | <0.001 * | |
Drink soft drinks (cold) | 0.5 (0.1–1.9) | 11.7 (9.5–14.3) | 7.6 (6.1–9.3) | <0.001 * | |
Spread straw/husk | 29.7 (25.4–34.3) | 13.4 (11.0–16.2) | 19.4 (17.1–21.8) | <0.001 * | |
Albedo painting on roof | 0 | 30.2 (26.9–33.7) | 19.1 (16.9–21.5) | <0.001 * | |
Eat rice water | 11.5 (9.3–14.1) | 9.4 (6.9–12.7) | 10.7 (9.1–12.7) | 0.277 | |
Drink enough water | 22.8 (18.9–27.1) | 24.7 (21.7–28.1) | 24 (21.6–26.6) | 0.46 | |
Rest in shade | 8.4 (6.1–11.5) | 0.4 (0.1–1.3) | 3.4 (2.5–4.6) | <0.001 | |
Count | No methods | 11.4 (9.2–13.9) | 11.3 (8.6–14.9) | 11.4 (9.6–13.4) | <0.001 |
One method | 36.6 (32.1–41.5) | 19.1 (16.4–22.2) | 25.6 (23.1–28.2) | ||
Two methods | 43.1 (38.3–47.9) | 39.7 (36.1–43.4) | 40.9 (38.1–43.9) | ||
Three or more | 8.9 (6.3–11.8) | 29.8 (26.1–32.8) | 22.2 (19.4–24.3) |
Variables | Categories | Total Adjusted OR (95% CI) | Non-Slum (n = 695) Adjusted OR (95% CI) | Slum (n = 404) Adjusted OR (95% CI) |
---|---|---|---|---|
Type of area | Non-slum | Reference | ||
Slum | 2.52 (0.96–6.61) | - | - | |
Sex | Female | Reference | Reference | - |
Male | 2.07 (1.51–2.84) * | 3.56 (2.39–5.29) * | ||
Housing type | Kutcha | Reference | - | - |
Semi Pucca | 0.89 (0.37–2.16) | |||
Pucca | 1.20 (0.55–2.60) | |||
Kitchen | Inside the house | Reference | - | Reference |
Outside of the house | 2.42 (1.17–6.00) * | 1.63 (1.02–3.96) * | ||
Electricity supply | No | Reference | - | - |
Yes | 1.12 (0.54–2.31) | |||
Power cut during summer | No | Reference | - | Reference |
Yes | 1.38 (0.57–3.17) | 2.02 (0.68–5.94) | ||
Count of cooling practices | Nil | Reference | - | Reference |
Only one | 0.42 (0.18–0.94) * | 0.35 (0.15–0.79) * | ||
Two or more | 0.31 (0.13–0.74) * | 0.29 (0.12–0.66) * | ||
Presence of wooden chulha | No | Reference | - | - |
Yes | 0.95 (0.59–1.51) | |||
Chronic disease | Nil | Reference | Reference | Reference |
Only one | 2.69 (1.67–4.34) * | 2.43 (1.24–4.77) * | 2.29 (1.24–4.21) * | |
Only two | 4.64 (2.08–10.35) * | 3.04 (1.29–7.14) * | 1.76 (0.92–3.95) | |
Three | 2.74 (1.41–5.32) * | 4.31 (1.80–10.35) * | 1.47 (0.63–3.42) | |
Four or more | 4.02 (0.49–32.78) | 1.53 (0.35–6.76) | ||
Medication use currently | No | Reference | Reference | - |
Yes | 1.29 (0.72–2.33) | 3.09 (1.15–8.29) * |
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Swain, S.; Bhattacharya, S.; Dutta, A.; Pati, S.; Nanda, L. Vulnerability and Adaptation to Extreme Heat in Odisha, India: A Community Based Comparative Study. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2019, 16, 5065. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16245065
Swain S, Bhattacharya S, Dutta A, Pati S, Nanda L. Vulnerability and Adaptation to Extreme Heat in Odisha, India: A Community Based Comparative Study. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2019; 16(24):5065. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16245065
Chicago/Turabian StyleSwain, Subhashisa, Shreeporna Bhattacharya, Ambarish Dutta, Sanghamitra Pati, and Lipika Nanda. 2019. "Vulnerability and Adaptation to Extreme Heat in Odisha, India: A Community Based Comparative Study" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 16, no. 24: 5065. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16245065