Sensors

11 pages, 356 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Frequency Function in Atomic Force Microscopy Applied to a Liquid Environment

by Po-Jen Shih

Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, National University of Kaohsiung, CEE NUK, No. 700, Kaohsiung University Rd., Nanzih District, 81148, Kaohsiung, Taiwan

Sensors 2014, 14(6), 9369-9379; https://doi.org/10.3390/s140609369 - 26 May 2014

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 4941

Abstract

Scanning specimens in liquids using commercial atomic force microscopy (AFM) is very time-consuming due to the necessary try-and-error iteration for determining appropriate triggering frequencies and probes. In addition, the iteration easily contaminates the AFM tip and damages the samples, which consumes probes. One [...] Read more.

Scanning specimens in liquids using commercial atomic force microscopy (AFM) is very time-consuming due to the necessary try-and-error iteration for determining appropriate triggering frequencies and probes. In addition, the iteration easily contaminates the AFM tip and damages the samples, which consumes probes. One reason for this could be inaccuracy in the resonant frequency in the feedback system setup. This paper proposes a frequency function which varies with the tip-sample separation, and it helps to improve the frequency shift in the current feedback system of commercial AFMs. The frequency function is a closed-form equation, which allows for easy calculation, as confirmed by experimental data. It comprises three physical effects: the quasi-static equilibrium condition, the atomic forces gradient effect, and hydrodynamic load effect. While each of these has previously been developed in separate studies, this is the first time their combination has been used to represent the complete frequency phenomenon. To avoid “jump to contact” issues, experiments often use probes with relatively stiffer cantilevers, which inevitably reduce the force sensitivity in sensing low atomic forces. The proposed frequency function can also predict jump to contact behavior and, thus, the probe sensitivity could be increased and soft probes could be widely used. Additionally, various tip height behaviors coupling with the atomic forces gradient and hydrodynamic effects are discussed in the context of carbon nanotube probes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Physical Sensors)

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28 pages, 6691 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Object Tracking Using Adaptive Covariance Descriptor and Clustering-Based Model Updating for Visual Surveillance

by Lei Qin^1,*, Hichem Snoussi¹ and Fahed Abdallah²

¹ Institute Charles Delaunay, Université de Technologie de Troyes, 12 rue Marie Curie, CS 42060,10004 TROYES CEDEX, France

² Laboratory Heudiasyc, Université de Technologie de Compiègne, Rue Roger Couttolenc, CS 60319,60203 COMPIEGNE CEDEX, France

Sensors 2014, 14(6), 9380-9407; https://doi.org/10.3390/s140609380 - 26 May 2014

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 6489

Abstract

We propose a novel approach for tracking an arbitrary object in video sequences for visual surveillance. The first contribution of this work is an automatic feature extraction method that is able to extract compact discriminative features from a feature pool before computing the [...] Read more.

We propose a novel approach for tracking an arbitrary object in video sequences for visual surveillance. The first contribution of this work is an automatic feature extraction method that is able to extract compact discriminative features from a feature pool before computing the region covariance descriptor. As the feature extraction method is adaptive to a specific object of interest, we refer to the region covariance descriptor computed using the extracted features as the adaptive covariance descriptor. The second contribution is to propose a weakly supervised method for updating the object appearance model during tracking. The method performs a mean-shift clustering procedure among the tracking result samples accumulated during a period of time and selects a group of reliable samples for updating the object appearance model. As such, the object appearance model is kept up-to-date and is prevented from contamination even in case of tracking mistakes. We conducted comparing experiments on real-world video sequences, which confirmed the effectiveness of the proposed approaches. The tracking system that integrates the adaptive covariance descriptor and the clustering-based model updating method accomplished stable object tracking on challenging video sequences. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Physical Sensors)

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21 pages, 2384 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Multi-Agent Cooperative Target Search

by Jinwen Hu¹, Lihua Xie², Jun Xu³ and Zhao Xu^4,*

¹ Singapore Institute of Manufacturing Technology, Singapore 638075, Singapore

² The School of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore 639798, Singapore

³ Western Digital Corporation, Singapore 118261, Singapore

⁴ Institute of High Performance Computing, Singapore 138632, Singapore

Sensors 2014, 14(6), 9408-9428; https://doi.org/10.3390/s140609408 - 26 May 2014

Cited by 74 | Viewed by 8504

Abstract

This paper addresses a vision-based cooperative search for multiple mobile ground targets by a group of unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) with limited sensing and communication capabilities. The airborne camera on each UAV has a limited field of view and its target discriminability varies [...] Read more.

This paper addresses a vision-based cooperative search for multiple mobile ground targets by a group of unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) with limited sensing and communication capabilities. The airborne camera on each UAV has a limited field of view and its target discriminability varies as a function of altitude. First, by dividing the whole surveillance region into cells, a probability map can be formed for each UAV indicating the probability of target existence within each cell. Then, we propose a distributed probability map updating model which includes the fusion of measurement information, information sharing among neighboring agents, information decay and transmission due to environmental changes such as the target movement. Furthermore, we formulate the target search problem as a multi-agent cooperative coverage control problem by optimizing the collective coverage area and the detection performance. The proposed map updating model and the cooperative control scheme are distributed, i.e., assuming that each agent only communicates with its neighbors within its communication range. Finally, the effectiveness of the proposed algorithms is illustrated by simulation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Physical Sensors)

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22 pages, 1392 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Arterial Mechanical Motion Estimation Based on a Semi-Rigid Body Deformation Approach

by Pablo Guzman^1,*, Ghassan Hamarneh², Rafael Ros³ and Eduardo Ros¹

¹ Department of Computer Architecture and Technology, ETSI Informática y de Telecomunicación, CITIC-UGR, University of Granada, 18071 Granada, Spain

² School of Computing Science, Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, BC V5A 1S6, Canada

³ Hospital Universitario San Cecilio, Servicio de Angiología y Cirugía Vascular, 18008 Granada, Spain

Sensors 2014, 14(6), 9429-9450; https://doi.org/10.3390/s140609429 - 27 May 2014

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 7172

Abstract

Arterial motion estimation in ultrasound (US) sequences is a hard task due to noise and discontinuities in the signal derived from US artifacts. Characterizing the mechanical properties of the artery is a promising novel imaging technique to diagnose various cardiovascular pathologies and a [...] Read more.

Arterial motion estimation in ultrasound (US) sequences is a hard task due to noise and discontinuities in the signal derived from US artifacts. Characterizing the mechanical properties of the artery is a promising novel imaging technique to diagnose various cardiovascular pathologies and a new way of obtaining relevant clinical information, such as determining the absence of dicrotic peak, estimating the Augmentation Index (AIx), the arterial pressure or the arterial stiffness. One of the advantages of using US imaging is the non-invasive nature of the technique unlike Intra Vascular Ultra Sound (IVUS) or angiography invasive techniques, plus the relative low cost of the US units. In this paper, we propose a semi rigid deformable method based on Soft Bodies dynamics realized by a hybrid motion approach based on cross-correlation and optical flow methods to quantify the elasticity of the artery. We evaluate and compare different techniques (for instance optical flow methods) on which our approach is based. The goal of this comparative study is to identify the best model to be used and the impact of the accuracy of these different stages in the proposed method. To this end, an exhaustive assessment has been conducted in order to decide which model is the most appropriate for registering the variation of the arterial diameter over time. Our experiments involved a total of 1620 evaluations within nine simulated sequences of 84 frames each and the estimation of four error metrics. We conclude that our proposed approach obtains approximately 2.5 times higher accuracy than conventional state-of-the-art techniques. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Ultrasonic Sensors and Transducers for Applications in Biology, Medicine and NDT)

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20 pages, 1314 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Sparse Representation for Infrared Dim Target Detection via a Discriminative Over-Complete Dictionary Learned Online

by Zheng-Zhou Li^1,2,*, Jing Chen¹, Qian Hou¹, Hong-Xia Fu¹, Zhen Dai¹, Gang Jin³, Ru-Zhang Li² and Chang-Ju Liu²

¹ College of Communication Engineering, Chongqing University, Chongqing 400044, China

² National Laboratory of Analogue Integrated Circuits, No. 24 Research Institute of China Electronics Technology Group Corporation, Chongqing 400060, China

³ China Aerodynamics Research and Development Center, Mianyang 621000, China

Sensors 2014, 14(6), 9451-9470; https://doi.org/10.3390/s140609451 - 27 May 2014

Cited by 54 | Viewed by 7687

Abstract

It is difficult for structural over-complete dictionaries such as the Gabor function and discriminative over-complete dictionary, which are learned offline and classified manually, to represent natural images with the goal of ideal sparseness and to enhance the difference between background clutter and target [...] Read more.

It is difficult for structural over-complete dictionaries such as the Gabor function and discriminative over-complete dictionary, which are learned offline and classified manually, to represent natural images with the goal of ideal sparseness and to enhance the difference between background clutter and target signals. This paper proposes an infrared dim target detection approach based on sparse representation on a discriminative over-complete dictionary. An adaptive morphological over-complete dictionary is trained and constructed online according to the content of infrared image by K-singular value decomposition (K-SVD) algorithm. Then the adaptive morphological over-complete dictionary is divided automatically into a target over-complete dictionary describing target signals, and a background over-complete dictionary embedding background by the criteria that the atoms in the target over-complete dictionary could be decomposed more sparsely based on a Gaussian over-complete dictionary than the one in the background over-complete dictionary. This discriminative over-complete dictionary can not only capture significant features of background clutter and dim targets better than a structural over-complete dictionary, but also strengthens the sparse feature difference between background and target more efficiently than a discriminative over-complete dictionary learned offline and classified manually. The target and background clutter can be sparsely decomposed over their corresponding over-complete dictionaries, yet couldn’t be sparsely decomposed based on their opposite over-complete dictionary, so their residuals after reconstruction by the prescribed number of target and background atoms differ very visibly. Some experiments are included and the results show that this proposed approach could not only improve the sparsity more efficiently, but also enhance the performance of small target detection more effectively. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Detection and Tracking of Targets in Forward-Looking InfraRed (FLIR) Imagery)

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18 pages, 904 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Calculation of Target-Specific Point Distribution for 2D Mobile Laser Scanners

by Conor Cahalane^*

, Conor P. McElhinney, Paul Lewis and Tim McCarthy

National Centre for Geocomputation, Iontas, NUI Maynooth, Maynooth, Co. Kildare, Ireland

Sensors 2014, 14(6), 9471-9488; https://doi.org/10.3390/s140609471 - 27 May 2014

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 6406

Abstract

The current generation of Mobile Mapping Systems (MMSs) capture high density spatial data in a short time-frame. The quantity of data is difficult to predict as there is no concrete understanding of the point density that different scanner configurations and hardware settings will [...] Read more.

The current generation of Mobile Mapping Systems (MMSs) capture high density spatial data in a short time-frame. The quantity of data is difficult to predict as there is no concrete understanding of the point density that different scanner configurations and hardware settings will exhibit for objects at specific distances. Obtaining the required point density impacts survey time, processing time, data storage and is also the underlying limit of automated algorithms. This paper details a novel method for calculating point and profile information for terrestrial MMSs which are required for any point density calculation. Through application of algorithms utilising 3D surface normals and 2D geometric formulae, the theoretically optimal profile spacing and point spacing are calculated on targets. Both of these elements are a major factor in calculating point density on arbitrary objects, such as road signs, poles or buildings-all important features in asset management surveys. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Remote Sensors)

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Graphical abstract

16 pages, 3230 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Novel Pseudo-Wavelet Function for MMG Signal Extraction during Dynamic Fatiguing Contractions

by Mohammed R. Al-Mulla^1,* and Francisco Sepulveda²

¹ College of Computing Science and Engineering, Kuwait University, P.O. Box 5969, Safat 13060, Kuwait

² School of Computer Science and Electronic Engineering, University of Essex, Colchester CO4 3SQ, UK

Sensors 2014, 14(6), 9489-9504; https://doi.org/10.3390/s140609489 - 28 May 2014

Cited by 18 | Viewed by 7583

Abstract

The purpose of this study was to develop an algorithm to classify muscle fatigue content in sports related scenarios. Mechanomyography (MMG) signals of the biceps muscle were recorded from thirteen subjects performing dynamic contractions until fatigue. For training and testing purposes, the signals [...] Read more.

The purpose of this study was to develop an algorithm to classify muscle fatigue content in sports related scenarios. Mechanomyography (MMG) signals of the biceps muscle were recorded from thirteen subjects performing dynamic contractions until fatigue. For training and testing purposes, the signals were labeled in two classes (Non-Fatigue and Fatigue). A genetic algorithm was used to evolve a pseudo-wavelet function for optimizing the detection of muscle fatigue. Tuning of the generalized evolved pseudo-wavelet function was based on the decomposition of 70% of the conducted MMG trials. After completing 25 independent pseudo-wavelet evolution runs, the best run was selected and then tested on the remaining 30% of the data to measure the classification performance. Results show that the evolved pseudo-wavelet improved the classification rate of muscle fatigue by 4.70 percentage points to 16.61 percentage points when compared to other standard wavelet functions, giving an average correct classification of 80.63%, with statistical significance (p < 0:05). Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biomedical Sensors and Systems)

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17 pages, 848 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Compact Microelectrode Array Chip with Multiple Measuring Sites for Electrochemical Applications

by Maria Dimaki^1,*, Marco Vergani², Arto Heiskanen¹, Dorota Kwasny¹, Luigi Sasso^1,3, Marco Carminati², Juliet A. Gerrard³, Jenny Emneus¹ and Winnie E. Svendsen¹

¹ DTU Nanotech, Technical University of Denmark, Oersteds Plads, Bldg 345E, 2800 Kgs. Lyngby, Denmark

² Dipartimento di Elettronica e Informazione, Politecnico di Milano, Piazza Leonardo da Vinci 32, I-20133 Milano, Italy

³ The MacDiarmid Institute for Advanced Materials and Nanotechnology, Biomolecular Interaction Centre, School of Biological Sciences, University of Canterbury, Private Bag 4800, Christchurch 8140, New Zealand

Sensors 2014, 14(6), 9505-9521; https://doi.org/10.3390/s140609505 - 28 May 2014

Cited by 28 | Viewed by 10497

Abstract

In this paper we demonstrate the fabrication and electrochemical characterization of a microchip with 12 identical but individually addressable electrochemical measuring sites, each consisting of a set of interdigitated electrodes acting as a working electrode as well as two circular electrodes functioning as [...] Read more.

In this paper we demonstrate the fabrication and electrochemical characterization of a microchip with 12 identical but individually addressable electrochemical measuring sites, each consisting of a set of interdigitated electrodes acting as a working electrode as well as two circular electrodes functioning as a counter and reference electrode in close proximity. The electrodes are made of gold on a silicon oxide substrate and are passivated by a silicon nitride membrane. A method for avoiding the creation of high edges at the electrodes (known as lift-off ears) is presented. The microchip design is highly symmetric to accommodate easy electronic integration and provides space for microfluidic inlets and outlets for integrated custom-made microfluidic systems on top. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue On-Chip Sensors)

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Graphical abstract

24 pages, 7298 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Audio-Visual Perception System for a Humanoid Robotic Head

by Raquel Viciana-Abad^1,*, Rebeca Marfil², Jose M. Perez-Lorenzo¹, Juan P. Bandera², Adrian Romero-Garces² and Pedro Reche-Lopez¹

¹ University of Jaén, Multimedia and Multimodal Processing Group, Polytechnic School of Linares, University of Jaén Alfonso X El Sabio, 28, 23700, Linares, Spain

² Dpto. Tecnología Electrónica, University of Málaga, Campus de Teatinos - 29071 Málaga, Spain

Sensors 2014, 14(6), 9522-9545; https://doi.org/10.3390/s140609522 - 28 May 2014

Cited by 21 | Viewed by 9380

Abstract

One of the main issues within the field of social robotics is to endow robots with the ability to direct attention to people with whom they are interacting. Different approaches follow bio-inspired mechanisms, merging audio and visual cues to localize a person using [...] Read more.

One of the main issues within the field of social robotics is to endow robots with the ability to direct attention to people with whom they are interacting. Different approaches follow bio-inspired mechanisms, merging audio and visual cues to localize a person using multiple sensors. However, most of these fusion mechanisms have been used in fixed systems, such as those used in video-conference rooms, and thus, they may incur difficulties when constrained to the sensors with which a robot can be equipped. Besides, within the scope of interactive autonomous robots, there is a lack in terms of evaluating the benefits of audio-visual attention mechanisms, compared to only audio or visual approaches, in real scenarios. Most of the tests conducted have been within controlled environments, at short distances and/or with off-line performance measurements. With the goal of demonstrating the benefit of fusing sensory information with a Bayes inference for interactive robotics, this paper presents a system for localizing a person by processing visual and audio data. Moreover, the performance of this system is evaluated and compared via considering the technical limitations of unimodal systems. The experiments show the promise of the proposed approach for the proactive detection and tracking of speakers in a human-robot interactive framework. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue State-of-the-Art Sensors Technology in Spain 2013)

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Graphical abstract

16 pages, 596 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Robust Sensing of Approaching Vehicles Relying on Acoustic Cues

by Mitsunori Mizumachi^1,*, Atsunobu Kaminuma², Nobutaka Ono³ and Shigeru Ando⁴

¹ Kyushu Institute of Technology, 1-1 Sensui-cho, Tobata-ku, Kitakyushu, Fukuoka 804-8550, Japan

² Nissan Motor Co., Ltd., 1-1 Aoyama, Morinosato, Atsugi, Kanagawa 243-0123, Japan

³ National Institute of Informatics, 2-1-2 Hitotsubashi, Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo 101-8430, Japan

⁴ The University of Tokyo, 7-3-1 Hongo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-8656, Japan

Sensors 2014, 14(6), 9546-9561; https://doi.org/10.3390/s140609546 - 30 May 2014

Cited by 15 | Viewed by 6364

Abstract

The latest developments in automobile design have allowed them to be equipped with various sensing devices. Multiple sensors such as cameras and radar systems can be simultaneously used for active safety systems in order to overcome blind spots of individual sensors. This paper [...] Read more.

The latest developments in automobile design have allowed them to be equipped with various sensing devices. Multiple sensors such as cameras and radar systems can be simultaneously used for active safety systems in order to overcome blind spots of individual sensors. This paper proposes a novel sensing technique for catching up and tracking an approaching vehicle relying on an acoustic cue. First, it is necessary to extract a robust spatial feature from noisy acoustical observations. In this paper, the spatio-temporal gradient method is employed for the feature extraction. Then, the spatial feature is filtered out through sequential state estimation. A particle filter is employed to cope with a highly non-linear problem. Feasibility of the proposed method has been confirmed with real acoustical observations, which are obtained by microphones outside a cruising vehicle. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Selected Papers from 2014 International Symposium on Computer, Consumer and Control (IS3C 2014))

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20 pages, 860 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Novel Algorithm for Identifying and Fusing Conflicting Data in Wireless Sensor Networks

by Zhenjiang Zhang^*

, Tonghuan Liu, Dong Chen and Wenyu Zhang

School of Electronic and Information Engineering, Key Laboratory of Communication and Information Systems, Beijing Municipal Commission of Education, Beijing Jiaotong University, Beijing 100044, China

Sensors 2014, 14(6), 9562-9581; https://doi.org/10.3390/s140609562 - 30 May 2014

Cited by 94 | Viewed by 6538

Abstract

There is continuously increasing interest in research on multi-sensor data fusion technology. Because Dempster’s rule of combination can be problematic when dealing with conflicting data, there are numerous issues that make data fusion a challenging task, including the exponential explosion, Zadeh Paradox, and [...] Read more.

There is continuously increasing interest in research on multi-sensor data fusion technology. Because Dempster’s rule of combination can be problematic when dealing with conflicting data, there are numerous issues that make data fusion a challenging task, including the exponential explosion, Zadeh Paradox, and one-vote veto. These issues lead to a great difference between the fusion results and real results. This paper applies the idea of analyzing distance-based evidence conflicts, introduces the concept of vector space, and proposes a new cosine theorem-based method of identifying and expressing conflicting data. In addition, this paper proposes a new data fusion algorithm based on the degree of mutual support between beliefs, which is based on the Jousselme distance-based combination rule proposed by Deng et al. Simulation results demonstrate that the presented algorithm achieves great improvements in both the accuracy of identifying conflicting data and that of fusing conflicting data. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Sensor Networks)

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33 pages, 5384 KiB

Open AccessArticle

How can We Tackle Energy Efficiency in IoT BasedSmart Buildings?

by M. Victoria Moreno^*, Benito Úbeda, Antonio F. Skarmeta

and Miguel A. Zamora

Department of Information and Communications Engineering, University of Murcia, 30100 Murcia, Spain

Sensors 2014, 14(6), 9582-9614; https://doi.org/10.3390/s140609582 - 30 May 2014

Cited by 112 | Viewed by 20347

Abstract

Nowadays, buildings are increasingly expected to meet higher and more complex performance requirements. Among these requirements, energy efficiency is recognized as an international goal to promote energy sustainability of the planet. Different approaches have been adopted to address this goal, the most recent [...] Read more.

Nowadays, buildings are increasingly expected to meet higher and more complex performance requirements. Among these requirements, energy efficiency is recognized as an international goal to promote energy sustainability of the planet. Different approaches have been adopted to address this goal, the most recent relating consumption patterns with human occupancy. In this work, we analyze what are the main parameters that should be considered to be included in any building energy management. The goal of this analysis is to help designers to select the most relevant parameters to control the energy consumption of buildings according to their context, selecting them as input data of the management system. Following this approach, we select three reference smart buildings with different contexts, and where our automation platform for energy monitoring is deployed. We carry out some experiments in these buildings to demonstrate the influence of the parameters identified as relevant in the energy consumption of the buildings. Then, in two of these buildings are applied different control strategies to save electrical energy. We describe the experiments performed and analyze the results. The first stages of this evaluation have already resulted in energy savings of about 23% in a real scenario. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Select Papers from UCAmI & IWAAL 2013 - the 7th International Conference on Ubiquitous Computing and Ambient Intelligence & the 5th International Workshop on Ambient Assisted Living (UCAmI & IWAAL 2013: Pervasive Sensing Solutions)

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13 pages, 775 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Novel Micro- and Nano-Scale Positioning Sensor Based on Radio Frequency Resonant Cavities

by Estibaliz Asua^1,*, Victor Etxebarria¹, Alfredo García-Arribas^1,2, Jorge Feutchwanger¹, Joaquín Portilla¹ and Julio Lucas³

¹ Departamento de Electricidad y Electrónica, Universidad del País Vasco UPV/EHU Bº Sarriena s/n Leioa 48940, Spain

² BCMaterials, Universidad del País Vasco UPV/EHU, Bº Sarriena s/n Leioa 48940, Spain

³ Elytt Energy, Paseo de la Castellana 114, 3º, 728046 Madrid, Spain

Sensors 2014, 14(6), 9615-9627; https://doi.org/10.3390/s140609615 - 30 May 2014

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 6715

Abstract

In many micro- and nano-scale technological applications high sensitivity displacement sensors are needed, especially in ultraprecision metrology and manufacturing. In this work a new way of sensing displacement based on radio frequency resonant cavities is presented and experimentally demonstrated using a first laboratory [...] Read more.

In many micro- and nano-scale technological applications high sensitivity displacement sensors are needed, especially in ultraprecision metrology and manufacturing. In this work a new way of sensing displacement based on radio frequency resonant cavities is presented and experimentally demonstrated using a first laboratory prototype. The principle of operation of the new transducer is summarized and tested. Furthermore, an electronic interface that can be used together with the displacement transducer is designed and proved. It has been experimentally demonstrated that very high and linear sensitivity characteristic curves, in the range of some kHz/nm; are easily obtainable using this kind of transducer when it is combined with a laboratory network analyzer. In order to replace a network analyzer and provide a more affordable, self-contained, compact solution, an electronic interface has been designed, preserving as much as possible the excellent performance of the transducer, and turning it into a true standalone positioning sensor. The results obtained using the transducer together with a first prototype of the electronic interface built with cheap discrete elements show that positioning accuracies in the micrometer range are obtainable using this cost-effective solution. Better accuracies would also be attainable but using more involved and costly electronics interfaces. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue State-of-the-Art Sensors Technology in Spain 2013)

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Graphical abstract

41 pages, 754 KiB

Open AccessReview

Context Representation and Fusion: Advancements and Opportunities

by Asad Masood Khattak¹, Noman Akbar¹, Mohammad Aazam¹, Taqdir Ali¹, Adil Mehmood Khan^2,*, Seokhee Jeon¹, Myunggwon Hwang³ and Sungyoung Lee¹

¹ Department of Computer Engineering, Kyung Hee University, Yongin-si 446-701, Korea

² Division of Information and Computer Engineering, Ajou University, Suwon-si 443-749, Korea

³ Department of Computer Intelligence Research, Korea Institute of Science and Technology Information (KISTI), Daejeon-si 305-806, Korea

Sensors 2014, 14(6), 9628-9668; https://doi.org/10.3390/s140609628 - 30 May 2014

Cited by 29 | Viewed by 8936

Abstract

The acceptance and usability of context-aware systems have given them the edge of wide use in various domains and has also attracted the attention of researchers in the area of context-aware computing. Making user context information available to such systems is the center [...] Read more.

The acceptance and usability of context-aware systems have given them the edge of wide use in various domains and has also attracted the attention of researchers in the area of context-aware computing. Making user context information available to such systems is the center of attention. However, there is very little emphasis given to the process of context representation and context fusion which are integral parts of context-aware systems. Context representation and fusion facilitate in recognizing the dependency/relationship of one data source on another to extract a better understanding of user context. The problem is more critical when data is emerging from heterogeneous sources of diverse nature like sensors, user profiles, and social interactions and also at different timestamps. Both the processes of context representation and fusion are followed in one way or another; however, they are not discussed explicitly for the realization of context-aware systems. In other words most of the context-aware systems underestimate the importance context representation and fusion. This research has explicitly focused on the importance of both the processes of context representation and fusion and has streamlined their existence in the overall architecture of context-aware systems’ design and development. Various applications of context representation and fusion in context-aware systems are also highlighted in this research. A detailed review on both the processes is provided in this research with their applications. Future research directions (challenges) are also highlighted which needs proper attention for the purpose of achieving the goal of realizing context-aware systems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sensors Data Fusion for Healthcare)

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23 pages, 2295 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Precise Calibration of a GNSS Antenna Array for Adaptive Beamforming Applications

by Saeed Daneshmand^*, Negin Sokhandan, Mohammad Zaeri-Amirani and Gérard Lachapelle

Department of Geomatics Engineering, University of Calgary, Schulich School of Engineering, Position Location and Navigation (PLAN) Group, 2500 University Drive, N.W., Calgary, AB T2N 1N4, Canada

Sensors 2014, 14(6), 9669-9691; https://doi.org/10.3390/s140609669 - 30 May 2014

Cited by 55 | Viewed by 9833

Abstract

The use of global navigation satellite system (GNSS) antenna arrays for applications such as interference counter-measure, attitude determination and signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) enhancement is attracting significant attention. However, precise antenna array calibration remains a major challenge. This paper proposes a new method for [...] Read more.

The use of global navigation satellite system (GNSS) antenna arrays for applications such as interference counter-measure, attitude determination and signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) enhancement is attracting significant attention. However, precise antenna array calibration remains a major challenge. This paper proposes a new method for calibrating a GNSS antenna array using live signals and an inertial measurement unit (IMU). Moreover, a second method that employs the calibration results for the estimation of steering vectors is also proposed. These two methods are applied to the receiver in two modes, namely calibration and operation. In the calibration mode, a two-stage optimization for precise calibration is used; in the first stage, constant uncertainties are estimated while in the second stage, the dependency of each antenna element gain and phase patterns to the received signal direction of arrival (DOA) is considered for refined calibration. In the operation mode, a low-complexity iterative and fast-converging method is applied to estimate the satellite signal steering vectors using the calibration results. This makes the technique suitable for real-time applications employing a precisely calibrated antenna array. The proposed calibration method is applied to GPS signals to verify its applicability and assess its performance. Furthermore, the data set is used to evaluate the proposed iterative method in the receiver operation mode for two different applications, namely attitude determination and SNR enhancement. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue State-of-the-Art Sensors in Canada 2014)

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28 pages, 5290 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Multimodal Wireless Sensor Network-Based Ambient Assisted Living in Real Homes with Multiple Residents

by Can Tunca^1,*

, Hande Alemdar¹, Halil Ertan¹, Ozlem Durmaz Incel² and Cem Ersoy¹

¹ NETLAB, Computer Networks Research Laboratory, Department of Computer Engineering, Bogazici University, Bebek, Istanbul 34342, Turkey

² PeraLab, Pervasive Computing Laboratory, Department of Computer Engineering, Galatasaray University, Ortakoy, Istanbul 34349, Turkey

Sensors 2014, 14(6), 9692-9719; https://doi.org/10.3390/s140609692 - 30 May 2014

Cited by 59 | Viewed by 21636

Abstract

Human activity recognition and behavior monitoring in a home setting using wireless sensor networks (WSNs) provide a great potential for ambient assisted living (AAL) applications, ranging from health and wellbeing monitoring to resource consumption monitoring. However, due to the limitations of the sensor [...] Read more.

Human activity recognition and behavior monitoring in a home setting using wireless sensor networks (WSNs) provide a great potential for ambient assisted living (AAL) applications, ranging from health and wellbeing monitoring to resource consumption monitoring. However, due to the limitations of the sensor devices, challenges in wireless communication and the challenges in processing large amounts of sensor data in order to recognize complex human activities, WSN-based AAL systems are not effectively integrated in the home environment. Additionally, given the variety of sensor types and activities, selecting the most suitable set of sensors in the deployment is an important task. In order to investigate and propose solutions to such challenges, we introduce a WSN-based multimodal AAL system compatible for homes with multiple residents. Particularly, we focus on the details of the system architecture, including the challenges of sensor selection, deployment, networking and data collection and provide guidelines for the design and deployment of an effective AAL system. We also present the details of the field study we conducted, using the systems deployed in two different real home environments with multiple residents. With these systems, we are able to collect ambient sensor data from multiple homes. This data can be used to assess the wellbeing of the residents and identify deviations from everyday routines, which may be indicators of health problems. Finally, in order to elaborate on the possible applications of the proposed AAL system and to exemplify directions for processing the collected data, we provide the results of several human activity inference experiments, along with examples on how such results could be interpreted. We believe that the experiences shared in this work will contribute towards accelerating the acceptance of WSN-based AAL systems in the home setting. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Ambient Assisted Living (AAL): Sensors, Architectures and Applications)

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18 pages, 333 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Analysis of Benzo[a]pyrene in Vegetable Oils Using Molecularly Imprinted Solid Phase Extraction (MISPE) Coupled with Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA)

by Michael Pschenitza¹, Rudolf Hackenberg², Reinhard Niessner¹ and Dietmar Knopp^1,*

¹ Institute of Hydrochemistry and Chemical Balneology, Chair for Analytical Chemistry, Technische Universität München, Marchioninistrasse 17, 81377 Munich, Germany

² Bundesamt für Verbraucherschutz und Lebensmittelsicherheit, Standort Marienfelde, Diedersdorfer Weg 1, 12277 Berlin, Germany

Sensors 2014, 14(6), 9720-9737; https://doi.org/10.3390/s140609720 - 30 May 2014

Cited by 35 | Viewed by 10343

Abstract

This paper describes the development of a molecularly imprinted polymer-based solid phase extraction (MISPE) method coupled with enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) for determination of the PAH benzo[a]pyrene (B[a]P) in vegetable oils. Different molecularly imprinted polymers (MIPs) were prepared using non-covalent 4-vinylpyridine/divinylbenzene co-polymerization at [...] Read more.

This paper describes the development of a molecularly imprinted polymer-based solid phase extraction (MISPE) method coupled with enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) for determination of the PAH benzo[a]pyrene (B[a]P) in vegetable oils. Different molecularly imprinted polymers (MIPs) were prepared using non-covalent 4-vinylpyridine/divinylbenzene co-polymerization at different ratios and dichloromethane as porogen. Imprinting was done with a template mixture of phenanthrene and pyrene yielding a broad-specific polymer for PAHs with a maximum binding capacity (Q) of ~32 μg B[a]P per 50 mg of polymer. The vegetable oil/n-hexane mixture (1:1, (v/v)) was pre-extracted with acetonitrile, the solvent evaporated, the residue reconstituted in n-hexane and subjected to MISPE. The successive washing with n-hexane and isopropanol revealed most suitable to remove lipid matrix constituents. After elution of bound PAHs from MISPE column with dichloromethane, the solvent was evaporated, the residue reconstituted with dimethyl sulfoxide and diluted 100-fold with methanol/water (10:90, (v/v)) for analysis of B[a]P equivalents with an ELISA. The B[a]P recovery rates in spiked vegetable oil samples of different fatty acid composition were determined between 63% and 114%. The presence of multiple PAHs in the oil sample, because of MIP selectivity and cross-reactivity of the ELISA, could yield overestimated B[a]P values. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biomimetic Receptors and Sensors)

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17 pages, 777 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Electrical Impedance Spectroscopy for Electro-Mechanical Characterization of Conductive Fabrics

by Tushar Kanti Bera¹, Youssoufa Mohamadou², Kyounghun Lee¹, Hun Wi², Tong In Oh^2,*, Eung Je Woo², Manuchehr Soleimani³ and Jin Keun Seo¹

¹ Department of Computational Science and Engineering, Yonsei University, Seoul 120-749, Korea

² Department of Biomedical Engineering, Kyung Hee University, Yongin 446-701, Korea

³ Department of Electronic and Electrical Engineering, University of Bath, Bath BA2 7AY, UK

Sensors 2014, 14(6), 9738-9754; https://doi.org/10.3390/s140609738 - 2 Jun 2014

Cited by 31 | Viewed by 10308

Abstract

When we use a conductive fabric as a pressure sensor, it is necessary to quantitatively understand its electromechanical property related with the applied pressure. We investigated electromechanical properties of three different conductive fabrics using the electrical impedance spectroscopy (EIS). We found that their [...] Read more.

When we use a conductive fabric as a pressure sensor, it is necessary to quantitatively understand its electromechanical property related with the applied pressure. We investigated electromechanical properties of three different conductive fabrics using the electrical impedance spectroscopy (EIS). We found that their electrical impedance spectra depend not only on the electrical properties of the conductive yarns, but also on their weaving structures. When we apply a mechanical tension or compression, there occur structural deformations in the conductive fabrics altering their apparent electrical impedance spectra. For a stretchable conductive fabric, the impedance magnitude increased or decreased under tension or compression, respectively. For an almost non-stretchable conductive fabric, both tension and compression resulted in decreased impedance values since the applied tension failed to elongate the fabric. To measure both tension and compression separately, it is desirable to use a stretchable conductive fabric. For any conductive fabric chosen as a pressure-sensing material, its resistivity under no loading conditions must be carefully chosen since it determines a measurable range of the impedance values subject to different amounts of loadings. We suggest the EIS method to characterize the electromechanical property of a conductive fabric in designing a thin and flexible fabric pressure sensor. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Physical Sensors)

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21 pages, 2027 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Flexible Microcontroller-Based Data Acquisition Device

by Darko Hercog^*

and Bojan Gergič

Institute of Automation, Faculty of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, University of Maribor, Smetanova ulica 17, Maribor 2000, Slovenia

Sensors 2014, 14(6), 9755-9775; https://doi.org/10.3390/s140609755 - 2 Jun 2014

Cited by 23 | Viewed by 17090

Abstract

This paper presents a low-cost microcontroller-based data acquisition device. The key component of the presented solution is a configurable microcontroller-based device with an integrated USB transceiver and a 12-bit analogue-to-digital converter (ADC). The presented embedded DAQ device contains a preloaded program (firmware) that [...] Read more.

This paper presents a low-cost microcontroller-based data acquisition device. The key component of the presented solution is a configurable microcontroller-based device with an integrated USB transceiver and a 12-bit analogue-to-digital converter (ADC). The presented embedded DAQ device contains a preloaded program (firmware) that enables easy acquisition and generation of analogue and digital signals and data transfer between the device and the application running on a PC via USB bus. This device has been developed as a USB human interface device (HID). This USB class is natively supported by most of the operating systems and therefore any installation of additional USB drivers is unnecessary. The input/output peripheral of the presented device is not static but rather flexible, and could be easily configured to customised needs without changing the firmware. When using the developed configuration utility, a majority of chip pins can be configured as analogue input, digital input/output, PWM output or one of the SPI lines. In addition, LabVIEW drivers have been developed for this device. When using the developed drivers, data acquisition and signal processing algorithms as well as graphical user interface (GUI), can easily be developed using a well-known, industry proven, block oriented LabVIEW programming environment. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Physical Sensors)

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37 pages, 1324 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Multi-Collaborative Ambient Assisted Living Service Description Tool

by Jorge L. Falcó^*

, Esteban Vaquerizo and José Ignacio Artigas

Grupo de Investigación Tecnodiscap-welltech, I3A, Universidad de Zaragoza, María de Luna 1, Zaragoza 50018, Spain

Sensors 2014, 14(6), 9776-9812; https://doi.org/10.3390/s140609776 - 3 Jun 2014

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 18665

Abstract

Collaboration among different stakeholders is a key factor in the design of Ambient Assisted Living (AAL) environments and services. Throughout several AAL projects we have found repeated difficulties in this collaboration and have learned lessons by the experience of solving real situations. This [...] Read more.

Collaboration among different stakeholders is a key factor in the design of Ambient Assisted Living (AAL) environments and services. Throughout several AAL projects we have found repeated difficulties in this collaboration and have learned lessons by the experience of solving real situations. This paper highlights identified critical items for collaboration among technicians, users, company and institutional stakeholders and proposes as a communication tool for a project steering committee a service description tool which includes information from the different fields in comprehensible format for the others. It was first generated in the MonAMI project to promote understanding among different workgroups, proven useful there, and further tested later in some other smaller AAL projects. The concept of scalable service description has proven useful for understanding of different disciplines and for participatory decision making throughout the projects to adapt to singularities and partial successes or faults of each action. This paper introduces such tool, relates with existing methodologies in cooperation in AAL and describes it with a example to offer to AAL community. Further work on this tool will significantly improve results in user-centered design of sustainable services in AAL. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Ambient Assisted Living (AAL): Sensors, Architectures and Applications)

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20 pages, 848 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A New Dusts Sensor for Cultural Heritage Applications Based on Image Processing

by Andrea Proietti¹, Fabio Leccese^2,*

, Maurizio Caciotta², Fabio Morresi³, Ulderico Santamaria³ and Carmela Malomo⁴

¹ Department of Information Engineering, Electronics and Telecommunications (DIET), University of Rome "La Sapienza", Via Eudossiana 18, 00184 Rome, Italy

² Science Department, University of "Roma Tre", via della Vasca Navale 84, 00146 Rome, Italy

³ Vatican Museums, viale Vaticano, 00165, Roma, Italy

⁴ ProArt s.r.l., via Boccioni n.5, 00100, Rome, Italy

Sensors 2014, 14(6), 9813-9832; https://doi.org/10.3390/s140609813 - 4 Jun 2014

Cited by 34 | Viewed by 8184

Abstract

In this paper, we propose a new sensor for the detection and analysis of dusts (seen as powders and fibers) in indoor environments, especially designed for applications in the field of Cultural Heritage or in other contexts where the presence of dust requires [...] Read more.

In this paper, we propose a new sensor for the detection and analysis of dusts (seen as powders and fibers) in indoor environments, especially designed for applications in the field of Cultural Heritage or in other contexts where the presence of dust requires special care (surgery, clean rooms, etc.). The presented system relies on image processing techniques (enhancement, noise reduction, segmentation, metrics analysis) and it allows obtaining both qualitative and quantitative information on the accumulation of dust. This information aims to identify the geometric and topological features of the elements of the deposit. The curators can use this information in order to design suitable prevention and maintenance actions for objects and environments. The sensor consists of simple and relatively cheap tools, based on a high-resolution image acquisition system, a preprocessing software to improve the captured image and an analysis algorithm for the feature extraction and the classification of the elements of the dust deposit. We carried out some tests in order to validate the system operation. These tests were performed within the Sistine Chapel in the Vatican Museums, showing the good performance of the proposed sensor in terms of execution time and classification accuracy. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sensors for Cultural Heritage Diagnostics)

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45 pages, 2067 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Flexible Unicast-Based Group Communication for CoAP-Enabled Devices

by Isam Ishaq^1,2,*, Jeroen Hoebeke¹

, Floris Van den Abeele¹, Jen Rossey¹, Ingrid Moerman¹

and Piet Demeester¹

¹ Department of Information Technology (INTEC), Ghent University - iMinds, Gaston Crommenlaan 8 Bus 201, Ghent 9050, Belgium

² Said Khoury IT Center of Excellence (SKITCE), Al-Quds University, Abu Deis, Jerusalem 51000, Palestine

Sensors 2014, 14(6), 9833-9877; https://doi.org/10.3390/s140609833 - 4 Jun 2014

Cited by 24 | Viewed by 14403

Abstract

Smart embedded objects will become an important part of what is called the Internet of Things. Applications often require concurrent interactions with several of these objects and their resources. Existing solutions have several limitations in terms of reliability, flexibility and manageability of such [...] Read more.

Smart embedded objects will become an important part of what is called the Internet of Things. Applications often require concurrent interactions with several of these objects and their resources. Existing solutions have several limitations in terms of reliability, flexibility and manageability of such groups of objects. To overcome these limitations we propose an intermediately level of intelligence to easily manipulate a group of resources across multiple smart objects, building upon the Constrained Application Protocol (CoAP). We describe the design of our solution to create and manipulate a group of CoAP resources using a single client request. Furthermore we introduce the concept of profiles for the created groups. The use of profiles allows the client to specify in more detail how the group should behave. We have implemented our solution and demonstrate that it covers the complete group life-cycle, i.e., creation, validation, flexible usage and deletion. Finally, we quantitatively analyze the performance of our solution and compare it against multicast-based CoAP group communication. The results show that our solution improves reliability and flexibility with a trade-off in increased communication overhead. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Wireless Sensor Networks and the Internet of Things)

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11 pages, 774 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Solution-Based Temperature Sensor Using the Organic Compound CuTsPc

by Shahino Mah Abdullah

, Zubair Ahmad and Khaulah Sulaiman^*

Low Dimensional Materials Research Centre, Department of Physics, Faculty of Science, University of Malaya, 50603 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia

Sensors 2014, 14(6), 9878-9888; https://doi.org/10.3390/s140609878 - 4 Jun 2014

Cited by 19 | Viewed by 7113

Abstract

An electrochemical cell using an organic compound, copper (II) phthalocyanine-tetrasulfonic acid tetrasodium salt (CuTsPc,) has been fabricated and investigated as a solution-based temperature sensor. The capacitance and resistance of the ITO/CuTsPc solution/ITO chemical cell has been characterized as a function of temperature in [...] Read more.

An electrochemical cell using an organic compound, copper (II) phthalocyanine-tetrasulfonic acid tetrasodium salt (CuTsPc,) has been fabricated and investigated as a solution-based temperature sensor. The capacitance and resistance of the ITO/CuTsPc solution/ITO chemical cell has been characterized as a function of temperature in the temperature range of 25–80 °C. A linear response with minimal hysteresis is observed. The fabricated temperature sensor has shown high consistency and sensitive response towards a specific range of temperature values. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Physical Sensors)

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11 pages, 844 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Sensitivity of Pressure Sensors Enhanced by Doping Silver Nanowires

by Baozhang Li, Chengyi Xu, Jianming Zheng and Chunye Xu^*

CAS Key Laboratory of Soft Matter Chemistry, Department of Polymer Science and Engineering, Hefei National Laboratory for Physical Sciences at the Microscale, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei 230026, China

Sensors 2014, 14(6), 9889-9899; https://doi.org/10.3390/s140609889 - 4 Jun 2014

Cited by 71 | Viewed by 9471

Abstract

We have developed a highly sensitive flexible pressure sensor based on a piezopolymer and silver nanowires (AgNWs) composite. The composite nanofiber webs are made by electrospinning mixed solutions of poly(inylidene fluoride) (PVDF) and Ag NWs in a cosolvent mixture of dimethyl formamide and [...] Read more.

We have developed a highly sensitive flexible pressure sensor based on a piezopolymer and silver nanowires (AgNWs) composite. The composite nanofiber webs are made by electrospinning mixed solutions of poly(inylidene fluoride) (PVDF) and Ag NWs in a cosolvent mixture of dimethyl formamide and acetone. The diameter of the fibers ranges from 200 nm to 500 nm, as demonstrated by SEM images. FTIR and XRD results reveal that doping Ag NWs into PVDF greatly enhances the content of β phase in PVDF. This β phase increase can be attributed to interactions between the Ag NWs and the PVDF matrix, which forces the polymer chains to be embedded into the β phase crystalline. The sensitivity of the pressure sensors agrees well with the FTIR and XRD characteristics. In our experiments, the measured sensitivity reached up to 30 pC/N for the nanofiber webs containing 1.5 wt% Ag NWs, which is close to that of poly(vinylidene fluoride-trifluoroethylene) [P(VDF-TrFE), (77/23)]. This study may provide a new method of fabricating high performance flexible sensors at relatively low cost compared with sensors based on [P(VDF-TrFE), (77/23)]. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymeric Micro Sensors and Actuators)

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22 pages, 1087 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Monitoring and Detection Platform to Prevent Anomalous Situations in Home Care

by Gabriel Villarrubia¹

, Javier Bajo²

, Juan F. De Paz^1,* and Juan M. Corchado¹

¹ Departamento de Informática y Automática, Universidad de Salamanca, Plaza de la Merced s/n, 37008 Salamanca, Spain

² Departamento de Inteligencia Artificial, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, Madrid 28660, Spain

Sensors 2014, 14(6), 9900-9921; https://doi.org/10.3390/s140609900 - 5 Jun 2014

Cited by 68 | Viewed by 7957

Abstract

Monitoring and tracking people at home usually requires high cost hardware installations, which implies they are not affordable in many situations. This study/paper proposes a monitoring and tracking system for people with medical problems. A virtual organization of agents based on the PANGEA [...] Read more.

Monitoring and tracking people at home usually requires high cost hardware installations, which implies they are not affordable in many situations. This study/paper proposes a monitoring and tracking system for people with medical problems. A virtual organization of agents based on the PANGEA platform, which allows the easy integration of different devices, was created for this study. In this case, a virtual organization was implemented to track and monitor patients carrying a Holter monitor. The system includes the hardware and software required to perform: ECG measurements, monitoring through accelerometers and WiFi networks. Furthermore, the use of interactive television can moderate interactivity with the user. The system makes it possible to merge the information and facilitates patient tracking efficiently with low cost. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Ambient Assisted Living (AAL): Sensors, Architectures and Applications)

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27 pages, 9918 KiB

Open AccessArticle

“SmartMonitor”— An Intelligent Security System for the Protection of Individuals and Small Properties with the Possibility of Home Automation

by Dariusz Frejlichowski^1,*, Katarzyna Gościewska^1,2, Paweł Forczmański¹

and Radosław Hofman²

¹ Faculty of Computer Science and Information Technology, West Pomeranian University of Technology, Szczecin, Żołnierska 52,71-210 Szczecin, Poland

² Smart Monitor sp. z o.o., Niemierzyńska 17a, 71-441 Szczecin, Poland

Sensors 2014, 14(6), 9922-9948; https://doi.org/10.3390/s140609922 - 5 Jun 2014

Cited by 17 | Viewed by 9403

Abstract

“SmartMonitor” is an intelligent security system based on image analysis that combines the advantages of alarm, video surveillance and home automation systems. The system is a complete solution that automatically reacts to every learned situation in a pre-specified way and has various applications, [...] Read more.

“SmartMonitor” is an intelligent security system based on image analysis that combines the advantages of alarm, video surveillance and home automation systems. The system is a complete solution that automatically reacts to every learned situation in a pre-specified way and has various applications, e.g., home and surrounding protection against unauthorized intrusion, crime detection or supervision over ill persons. The software is based on well-known and proven methods and algorithms for visual content analysis (VCA) that were appropriately modified and adopted to fit specific needs and create a video processing model which consists of foreground region detection and localization, candidate object extraction, object classification and tracking. In this paper, the “SmartMonitor” system is presented along with its architecture, employed methods and algorithms, and object analysis approach. Some experimental results on system operation are also provided. In the paper, focus is put on one of the aforementioned functionalities of the system, namely supervision over ill persons. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Ambient Assisted Living (AAL): Sensors, Architectures and Applications)

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12 pages, 806 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Rapid Determination of the Chemical Oxygen Demand of Water Using a Thermal Biosensor

by Na Yao, Jinqi Wang and Yikai Zhou^*

Institute of Environmental Medicine, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, 430030 Wuhan, China

Sensors 2014, 14(6), 9949-9960; https://doi.org/10.3390/s140609949 - 6 Jun 2014

Cited by 39 | Viewed by 9545

Abstract

In this paper we describe a thermal biosensor with a flow injection analysis system for the determination of the chemical oxygen demand (COD) of water samples. Glucose solutions of different concentrations and actual water samples were tested, and their COD values were determined [...] Read more.

In this paper we describe a thermal biosensor with a flow injection analysis system for the determination of the chemical oxygen demand (COD) of water samples. Glucose solutions of different concentrations and actual water samples were tested, and their COD values were determined by measuring the heat generated when the samples passed through a column containing periodic acid. The biosensor exhibited a large linear range (5 to 3000 mg/L) and a low detection limit (1.84 mg/L). It could tolerate the presence of chloride ions in concentrations of 0.015 M without requiring a masking agent. The sensor was successfully used for detecting the COD values of actual samples. The COD values of water samples from various sources were correlated with those obtained by the standard dichromate method; the linear regression coefficient was found to be 0.996. The sensor is environmentally friendly, economical, and highly stable, and exhibits good reproducibility and accuracy. In addition, its response time is short, and there is no danger of hazardous emissions or external contamination. Finally, the samples to be tested do not have to be pretreated. These results suggest that the biosensor is suitable for the continuous monitoring of the COD values of actual wastewater samples. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sensors for Bioprocess Monitoring and Control)

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23 pages, 1135 KiB

Open AccessArticle

An Adaptive 6-DOF Tracking Method by Hybrid Sensing for Ultrasonic Endoscopes

by Chengyang Du, Xiaodong Chen^*, Yi Wang, Junwei Li and Daoyin Yu

Key Laboratory of Opto-Electronics Information Technology of Ministry of Education, College of Precision Instrument and Opto-Electronics Engineering, Tianjin University, Tianjin 300072, China

Sensors 2014, 14(6), 9961-9983; https://doi.org/10.3390/s140609961 - 6 Jun 2014

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 6537

Abstract

In this paper, a novel hybrid sensing method for tracking an ultrasonic endoscope within the gastrointestinal (GI) track is presented, and the prototype of the tracking system is also developed. We implement 6-DOF localization by sensing integration and information fusion. On the hardware [...] Read more.

In this paper, a novel hybrid sensing method for tracking an ultrasonic endoscope within the gastrointestinal (GI) track is presented, and the prototype of the tracking system is also developed. We implement 6-DOF localization by sensing integration and information fusion. On the hardware level, a tri-axis gyroscope and accelerometer, and a magnetic angular rate and gravity (MARG) sensor array are attached at the end of endoscopes, and three symmetric cylindrical coils are placed around patients’ abdomens. On the algorithm level, an adaptive fast quaternion convergence (AFQC) algorithm is introduced to determine the orientation by fusing inertial/magnetic measurements, in which the effects of magnetic disturbance and acceleration are estimated to gain an adaptive convergence output. A simplified electro-magnetic tracking (SEMT) algorithm for dimensional position is also implemented, which can easily integrate the AFQC’s results and magnetic measurements. Subsequently, the average position error is under 0.3 cm by reasonable setting, and the average orientation error is 1° without noise. If magnetic disturbance or acceleration exists, the average orientation error can be controlled to less than 3.5°. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Physical Sensors)

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11 pages, 649 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Electrocatalytic miRNA Detection Using Cobalt Porphyrin-Modified Reduced Graphene Oxide

by Camille De Souza, Samia Zrig, Dengjun Wang, Minh-Chau Pham and Benoit Piro^*

University Paris Diderot, Sorbonne Paris Cité, ITODYS, UMR 7086 CNRS, 15 rue J-A de Baïf, 75205 Paris Cedex 13, France

Sensors 2014, 14(6), 9984-9994; https://doi.org/10.3390/s140609984 - 6 Jun 2014

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 7308

Abstract

Metalated porphyrins have been described to bind nucleic acids. Additionally, cobalt porphyrins present catalytic properties towards oxygen reduction. In this work, a carboxylic acid-functionalized cobalt porphyrin was physisorbed on reduced graphene oxide, then immobilized on glassy carbon electrodes. The carboxylic groups were used [...] Read more.

Metalated porphyrins have been described to bind nucleic acids. Additionally, cobalt porphyrins present catalytic properties towards oxygen reduction. In this work, a carboxylic acid-functionalized cobalt porphyrin was physisorbed on reduced graphene oxide, then immobilized on glassy carbon electrodes. The carboxylic groups were used to covalently graft amino-terminated oligonucleotide probes which are complementary to a short microRNA target. It was shown that the catalytic oxygen electroreduction on cobalt porphyrin increases upon hybridization of miRNA strand (“signal-on” response). Current changes are amplified compared to non-catalytic amperometric system. Apart from oxygen, no added reagent is necessary. A limit of detection in the sub-nanomolar range was reached. This approach has never been described in the literature. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue State-of-the-Art Sensors Technology in France)

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29 pages, 6856 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Dealing with the Effects of Sensor Displacement in Wearable Activity Recognition

by Oresti Banos^1,*, Mate Attila Toth², Miguel Damas¹

, Hector Pomares¹ and Ignacio Rojas¹

¹ Department of Computer Architecture and Computer Technology, Research Center for Information and Communications Technologies-University of Granada (CITIC-UGR), C/Calle Periodista RafaelGomez Montero 2, Granada E18071, Spain

² Language and Speech Laboratory, University of the Basque Country, Paseo de la Universidad 5,Vitoria E01006, Spain

Sensors 2014, 14(6), 9995-10023; https://doi.org/10.3390/s140609995 - 6 Jun 2014

Cited by 136 | Viewed by 14380

Abstract

Most wearable activity recognition systems assume a predefined sensor deployment that remains unchanged during runtime. However, this assumption does not reflect real-life conditions. During the normal use of such systems, users may place the sensors in a position different from the predefined sensor [...] Read more.

Most wearable activity recognition systems assume a predefined sensor deployment that remains unchanged during runtime. However, this assumption does not reflect real-life conditions. During the normal use of such systems, users may place the sensors in a position different from the predefined sensor placement. Also, sensors may move from their original location to a different one, due to a loose attachment. Activity recognition systems trained on activity patterns characteristic of a given sensor deployment may likely fail due to sensor displacements. In this work, we innovatively explore the effects of sensor displacement induced by both the intentional misplacement of sensors and self-placement by the user. The effects of sensor displacement are analyzed for standard activity recognition techniques, as well as for an alternate robust sensor fusion method proposed in a previous work. While classical recognition models show little tolerance to sensor displacement, the proposed method is proven to have notable capabilities to assimilate the changes introduced in the sensor position due to self-placement and provides considerable improvements for large misplacements. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Select Papers from UCAmI & IWAAL 2013 - the 7th International Conference on Ubiquitous Computing and Ambient Intelligence & the 5th International Workshop on Ambient Assisted Living (UCAmI & IWAAL 2013: Pervasive Sensing Solutions)

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18 pages, 1093 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Spatial and Temporal Patterns of Apparent Electrical Conductivity: DUALEM vs. Veris Sensors for Monitoring Soil Properties

by João Serrano^*

, Shakib Shahidian and José Marques da Silva

University of Évora, ICAAM, Apartado 94, 7002-554 Évora, Portugal

Sensors 2014, 14(6), 10024-10041; https://doi.org/10.3390/s140610024 - 6 Jun 2014

Cited by 45 | Viewed by 9243

Abstract

The main objective of this study was to compare two apparent soil electrical conductivity (EC_a) sensors (Veris 2000 XA and DUALEM 1S) for mapping variability of soil properties in a Mediterranean shallow soil. This study also aims at studying the effect [...] Read more.

The main objective of this study was to compare two apparent soil electrical conductivity (EC_a) sensors (Veris 2000 XA and DUALEM 1S) for mapping variability of soil properties in a Mediterranean shallow soil. This study also aims at studying the effect of soil cover vegetation on the EC_a measurement by the two types of sensors. The study was based on two surveys carried out under two very different situations: in February of 2012, with low soil moisture content (SMC) and with high and differentiated vegetation development (non grazed pasture), and in February of 2013, with high SMC and with short and relatively homogeneous vegetation development (grazed pasture). The greater temporal stability of Veris sensor, despite the wide variation in the SMC and vegetation ground cover indicates the suitability of using this sensor for monitoring soil properties in permanent pastures. The survey carried out with the DUALEM sensor in 2012 might have been affected by the presence of a 0.20 m vegetation layer at the soil surface, masking the soil properties. These differences should be considered in the selection of EC_a sensing systems for a particular application. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Agriculture and Forestry: Sensors, Technologies and Procedures)

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30 pages, 1279 KiB

Open AccessReview

Flexible Carbon Nanotube Films for High Performance Strain Sensors

by Olfa Kanoun^1,*, Christian Müller¹, Abderahmane Benchirouf¹, Abdulkadir Sanli¹, Trong Nghia Dinh¹, Ammar Al-Hamry¹

, Lei Bu¹, Carina Gerlach¹ and Ayda Bouhamed^1,2

¹ Technische Universität Chemnitz, Chair for Measurement and Sensor Technology, 09107 Chemnitz, Germany

² Higher Engineering School of Sfax (ENIS), University of Sfax, Sfax w.3038, Tunisia

Sensors 2014, 14(6), 10042-10071; https://doi.org/10.3390/s140610042 - 6 Jun 2014

Cited by 279 | Viewed by 22280

Abstract

Compared with traditional conductive fillers, carbon nanotubes (CNTs) have unique advantages, i.e., excellent mechanical properties, high electrical conductivity and thermal stability. Nanocomposites as piezoresistive films provide an interesting approach for the realization of large area strain sensors with high sensitivity and low [...] Read more.

Compared with traditional conductive fillers, carbon nanotubes (CNTs) have unique advantages, i.e., excellent mechanical properties, high electrical conductivity and thermal stability. Nanocomposites as piezoresistive films provide an interesting approach for the realization of large area strain sensors with high sensitivity and low manufacturing costs. A polymer-based nanocomposite with carbon nanomaterials as conductive filler can be deposited on a flexible substrate of choice and this leads to mechanically flexible layers. Such sensors allow the strain measurement for both integral measurement on a certain surface and local measurement at a certain position depending on the sensor geometry. Strain sensors based on carbon nanostructures can overcome several limitations of conventional strain sensors, e.g., sensitivity, adjustable measurement range and integral measurement on big surfaces. The novel technology allows realizing strain sensors which can be easily integrated even as buried layers in material systems. In this review paper, we discuss the dependence of strain sensitivity on different experimental parameters such as composition of the carbon nanomaterial/polymer layer, type of polymer, fabrication process and processing parameters. The insights about the relationship between film parameters and electromechanical properties can be used to improve the design and fabrication of CNT strain sensors. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymeric Micro Sensors and Actuators)

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9 pages, 781 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Characteristics Verification of an Independently Controllable Electromagnetic Spherical Motor

by Shuhei Maeda^*, Katsuhiro Hirata and Noboru Niguchi

Department of Adaptive Machine Systems, Graduate School of Engineering, Osaka University, 2-1 Yamadaoka Suita, Osaka 565-0871, Japan

Sensors 2014, 14(6), 10072-10080; https://doi.org/10.3390/s140610072 - 10 Jun 2014

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 5684

Abstract

We have been developing electromagnetic spherical actuators capable of three-degree-of-freedom rotation. However, these actuators require complex control to realize simultaneous triaxial drive, because rotation around one axis interferes with rotation around another. In this paper, we propose a new three-degree-of-freedom actuator where 3-axes [...] Read more.

We have been developing electromagnetic spherical actuators capable of three-degree-of-freedom rotation. However, these actuators require complex control to realize simultaneous triaxial drive, because rotation around one axis interferes with rotation around another. In this paper, we propose a new three-degree-of-freedom actuator where 3-axes rotation can be controlled easily. The basic structure and the operating principle of the actuator are described. Then the torque characteristics and the dynamic characteristics are computed by employing 3D-FEM and the effectiveness of this actuator is clarified. Finally, the experimental results using the prototype of the actuator are shown to verify the dynamic performance. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Electromagnetic Components of Mechatronics and Micro-Electro-Mechanical-Systems (MEMS) – Modeling and Design)

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26 pages, 452 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Security Enhanced User Authentication Protocol for Wireless Sensor Networks Using Elliptic Curves Cryptography

by Younsung Choi¹, Donghoon Lee¹, Jiye Kim¹, Jaewook Jung¹

, Junghyun Nam² and Dongho Won^1,*

¹ College of Information and Communication Engineering, Sungkyunkwan University, Jangangu, Suwonsi, Gyeonggido 440-746, Korea

² Department of Computer Engineering, Konkuk University, 268 Chungwondaero, Chungju, Chungcheongbukdo 380-701, Korea

Sensors 2014, 14(6), 10081-10106; https://doi.org/10.3390/s140610081 - 10 Jun 2014

Cited by 211 | Viewed by 9820

Abstract

Wireless sensor networks (WSNs) consist of sensors, gateways and users. Sensors are widely distributed to monitor various conditions, such as temperature, sound, speed and pressure but they have limited computational ability and energy. To reduce the resource use of sensors and enhance the [...] Read more.

Wireless sensor networks (WSNs) consist of sensors, gateways and users. Sensors are widely distributed to monitor various conditions, such as temperature, sound, speed and pressure but they have limited computational ability and energy. To reduce the resource use of sensors and enhance the security of WSNs, various user authentication protocols have been proposed. In 2011, Yeh et al. first proposed a user authentication protocol based on elliptic curve cryptography (ECC) for WSNs. However, it turned out that Yeh et al.’s protocol does not provide mutual authentication, perfect forward secrecy, and key agreement between the user and sensor. Later in 2013, Shi et al. proposed a new user authentication protocol that improves both security and efficiency of Yeh et al.’s protocol. However, Shi et al.’s improvement introduces other security weaknesses. In this paper, we show that Shi et al.’s improved protocol is vulnerable to session key attack, stolen smart card attack, and sensor energy exhausting attack. In addition, we propose a new, security-enhanced user authentication protocol using ECC for WSNs. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Sensor Networks)

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17 pages, 1082 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Affine Transform to Reform Pixel Coordinates of EOG Signals for Controlling Robot Manipulators Using Gaze Motions

by Muhammad Ilhamdi Rusydi^1,2, Minoru Sasaki^1,* and Satoshi Ito¹

¹ Department of Mechanical Engineering, Gifu University, 1-1 Yanagido, Gifu City, 501-1193, Japan

² Department of Electrical Engineering, Andalas University, Limau Manis, Padang City, 25163, Indonesia

Sensors 2014, 14(6), 10107-10123; https://doi.org/10.3390/s140610107 - 10 Jun 2014

Cited by 17 | Viewed by 7334

Abstract

Biosignals will play an important role in building communication between machines and humans. One of the types of biosignals that is widely used in neuroscience are electrooculography (EOG) signals. An EOG has a linear relationship with eye movement displacement. Experiments were performed to [...] Read more.

Biosignals will play an important role in building communication between machines and humans. One of the types of biosignals that is widely used in neuroscience are electrooculography (EOG) signals. An EOG has a linear relationship with eye movement displacement. Experiments were performed to construct a gaze motion tracking method indicated by robot manipulator movements. Three operators looked at 24 target points displayed on a monitor that was 40 cm in front of them. Two channels (Ch1 and Ch2) produced EOG signals for every single eye movement. These signals were converted to pixel units by using the linear relationship between EOG signals and gaze motion distances. The conversion outcomes were actual pixel locations. An affine transform method is proposed to determine the shift of actual pixels to target pixels. This method consisted of sequences of five geometry processes, which are translation-1, rotation, translation-2, shear and dilatation. The accuracy was approximately 0.86° ± 0.67° in the horizontal direction and 0.54° ± 0.34° in the vertical. This system successfully tracked the gaze motions not only in direction, but also in distance. Using this system, three operators could operate a robot manipulator to point at some targets. This result shows that the method is reliable in building communication between humans and machines using EOGs. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Physical Sensors)

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22 pages, 2692 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Joint Target Tracking, Recognition and Segmentation for Infrared Imagery Using a Shape Manifold-Based Level Set

by Jiulu Gong¹, Guoliang Fan^2,*, Liangjiang Yu², Joseph P. Havlicek³, Derong Chen¹ and Ningjun Fan¹

¹ School of Mechatronical Engineering, Beijing Institute of Technology, No. 5, Zhongguancun South Street, Haidian District, Beijing 100081, China

² School of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Oklahoma State University, 202 Engineering South, Stillwater, OK 74078, USA

³ School of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Oklahoma, 110 West Boyd, DEH 150Norman, OK 73019, USA

Sensors 2014, 14(6), 10124-10145; https://doi.org/10.3390/s140610124 - 10 Jun 2014

Cited by 17 | Viewed by 8319

Abstract

We propose a new integrated target tracking, recognition and segmentation algorithm, called ATR-Seg, for infrared imagery. ATR-Seg is formulated in a probabilistic shape-aware level set framework that incorporates a joint view-identity manifold (JVIM) for target shape modeling. As a shape generative model, JVIM [...] Read more.

We propose a new integrated target tracking, recognition and segmentation algorithm, called ATR-Seg, for infrared imagery. ATR-Seg is formulated in a probabilistic shape-aware level set framework that incorporates a joint view-identity manifold (JVIM) for target shape modeling. As a shape generative model, JVIM features a unified manifold structure in the latent space that is embedded with one view-independent identity manifold and infinite identity-dependent view manifolds. In the ATR-Seg algorithm, the ATR problem formulated as a sequential level-set optimization process over the latent space of JVIM, so that tracking and recognition can be jointly optimized via implicit shape matching where target segmentation is achieved as a by-product without any pre-processing or feature extraction. Experimental results on the recently released SENSIAC ATR database demonstrate the advantages and effectiveness of ATR-Seg over two recent ATR algorithms that involve explicit shape matching. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Detection and Tracking of Targets in Forward-Looking InfraRed (FLIR) Imagery)

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31 pages, 1491 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Fusion of Smartphone Motion Sensors for Physical Activity Recognition

by Muhammad Shoaib^1,*, Stephan Bosch¹, Ozlem Durmaz Incel², Hans Scholten¹ and Paul J. M. Havinga¹

¹ Pervasive Systems Group, Department of Computer Science, Zilverling Building, PO-Box 217,7500 AE Enschede, The Netherlands

² Department of Computer Engineering, Galatasaray University, Ortakoy, Istanbul 34349, Turkey

Sensors 2014, 14(6), 10146-10176; https://doi.org/10.3390/s140610146 - 10 Jun 2014

Cited by 474 | Viewed by 25723

Abstract

For physical activity recognition, smartphone sensors, such as an accelerometer and a gyroscope, are being utilized in many research studies. So far, particularly, the accelerometer has been extensively studied. In a few recent studies, a combination of a gyroscope, a magnetometer (in a [...] Read more.

For physical activity recognition, smartphone sensors, such as an accelerometer and a gyroscope, are being utilized in many research studies. So far, particularly, the accelerometer has been extensively studied. In a few recent studies, a combination of a gyroscope, a magnetometer (in a supporting role) and an accelerometer (in a lead role) has been used with the aim to improve the recognition performance. How and when are various motion sensors, which are available on a smartphone, best used for better recognition performance, either individually or in combination? This is yet to be explored. In order to investigate this question, in this paper, we explore how these various motion sensors behave in different situations in the activity recognition process. For this purpose, we designed a data collection experiment where ten participants performed seven different activities carrying smart phones at different positions. Based on the analysis of this data set, we show that these sensors, except the magnetometer, are each capable of taking the lead roles individually, depending on the type of activity being recognized, the body position, the used data features and the classification method employed (personalized or generalized). We also show that their combination only improves the overall recognition performance when their individual performances are not very high, so that there is room for performance improvement. We have made our data set and our data collection application publicly available, thereby making our experiments reproducible. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sensors Data Fusion for Healthcare)

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10 pages, 296 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Quorum Sensing Activity in Pandoraea pnomenusa RB38

by Robson Ee, Yan-Lue Lim, Lin-Xin Kin, Wai-Fong Yin and Kok-Gan Chan^*

Division of Genetics and Molecular Biology, Institute of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Science, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur 50603, Malaysia

Sensors 2014, 14(6), 10177-10186; https://doi.org/10.3390/s140610177 - 10 Jun 2014

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 6303

Abstract

Strain RB38 was recovered from a former dumping area in Malaysia. MALDI-TOF mass spectrometry and genomic analysis identified strain RB-38 as Pandoraea pnomenusa. Various biosensors confirmed its quorum sensing properties. High resolution triple quadrupole liquid chromatography–mass spectrometry analysis was subsequently used to [...] Read more.

Strain RB38 was recovered from a former dumping area in Malaysia. MALDI-TOF mass spectrometry and genomic analysis identified strain RB-38 as Pandoraea pnomenusa. Various biosensors confirmed its quorum sensing properties. High resolution triple quadrupole liquid chromatography–mass spectrometry analysis was subsequently used to characterize the N-acyl homoserine lactone production profile of P. pnomenusa strain RB38, which validated that this isolate produced N-octanoyl homoserine lactone as a quorum sensing molecule. This is the first report of the production of N-octanoyl homoserine lactone by P. pnomenusa strain RB38. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Biosensors)

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16 pages, 720 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Thermal Physical Property-Based Fusion of Geostationary Meteorological Satellite Visible and Infrared Channel Images

by Lei Han^1,2,*, Lu Shi¹, Yiling Yang¹ and Dalei Song^3,*

¹ School of Information Science and Engineering, Ocean University of China, 238 Songling Road, Qingdao 266100, China

² State Key Laboratory of Severe Weather, Chinese Academy of Meteorological Sciences, Beijing 100081, China

³ College of Engineering, Ocean University of China, 238 Songling Road, Qingdao 266100, China

Sensors 2014, 14(6), 10187-10202; https://doi.org/10.3390/s140610187 - 10 Jun 2014

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 6067

Abstract

Geostationary meteorological satellite infrared (IR) channel data contain important spectral information for meteorological research and applications, but their spatial resolution is relatively low. The objective of this study is to obtain higher-resolution IR images. One common method of increasing resolution fuses the IR [...] Read more.

Geostationary meteorological satellite infrared (IR) channel data contain important spectral information for meteorological research and applications, but their spatial resolution is relatively low. The objective of this study is to obtain higher-resolution IR images. One common method of increasing resolution fuses the IR data with high-resolution visible (VIS) channel data. However, most existing image fusion methods focus only on visual performance, and often fail to take into account the thermal physical properties of the IR images. As a result, spectral distortion occurs frequently. To tackle this problem, we propose a thermal physical properties-based correction method for fusing geostationary meteorological satellite IR and VIS images. In our two-step process, the high-resolution structural features of the VIS image are first extracted and incorporated into the IR image using regular multi-resolution fusion approach, such as the multiwavelet analysis. This step significantly increases the visual details in the IR image, but fake thermal information may be included. Next, the Stefan-Boltzmann Law is applied to correct the distortion, to retain or recover the thermal infrared nature of the fused image. The results of both the qualitative and quantitative evaluation demonstrate that the proposed physical correction method both improves the spatial resolution and preserves the infrared thermal properties. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Remote Sensors)

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10 pages, 212 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Application of an Electrochemical Immunosensor with a MWCNT/PDAA Modified Electrode for Detection of Serum Trypsin

by Qiang Yi¹, Qicai Liu^1,*, Feng Gao², Qingquan Chen³ and Guina Wang³

¹ Department of Laboratory Medicine, the 1st Affiliated Hospital, Fujian Medical University, Fuzhou 350005, China

² Department of Pathology, the 1st Affiliated Hospital, Fujian Medical University, Fuzhou 350005, China

³ Department of Laboratory Medicine, College of Medical Technology and Engineering, Fujian Medical University, Fuzhou 350005, China

Sensors 2014, 14(6), 10203-10212; https://doi.org/10.3390/s140610203 - 10 Jun 2014

Cited by 19 | Viewed by 6494

Abstract

Objective: To establish an electrochemical immunosensor for the determination of serum trypsin levels using a multiwall carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs)-composite-modified electrode. Method: A MWCNT composite coated on the surface of bare gold electrodes was used for fixation of an anti-trypsin antibody. The [...] Read more.

Objective: To establish an electrochemical immunosensor for the determination of serum trypsin levels using a multiwall carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs)-composite-modified electrode. Method: A MWCNT composite coated on the surface of bare gold electrodes was used for fixation of an anti-trypsin antibody. The assembly process and the performance indicators, including sensitivity, linear range of detection, anti-jamming performance, and stability, of the electrochemical immunosensor were examined by cyclic voltammetry (CV) and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS). Results: With optimized experimental conditions, the difference of the current value measured by differential pulse voltammetry (DPV) showed a linear relationship with the concentration of serum trypsin within 0.10–100 ng/mL. The detection limit for trypsin using this sensor was 0.002 ng/mL. Conclusions: The electrochemical immunosensor built using the MWCNT-composite-modified electrode is simple to operate and has a fast response time, along with a wide linear range, high sensitivity, and accuracy, making it suitable for serum trypsin detection. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Biosensors)

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21 pages, 1260 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Preliminary Evaluation of a Personal Healthcare System Prototype for Cognitive eRehabilitation in a Living Assistance Domain

by Matteo Pastorino^1,*

, Alessio Fioravanti¹, Maria Teresa Arredondo¹, José M. Cogollor², Javier Rojo², Manuel Ferre², Marta Bienkiewicz³, Joachim Hermsdörfer³, Evangelia Fringi⁴ and Alan M. Wing⁴

¹ Life Supporting Technologies, Universidad Politecnica de Madrid, Avenida Complutense 30, Madrid 28040, Spain

² Centre for Automation and Robotics UPM-CSIC, Universidad Politecnica de Madrid, Calle de José Gutiérrez Abascal 2, Madrid 28006, Spain

³ Institute of Movement Science, Department of Sport and Health Science, Technische Universität München, Munich 80992, Germany

⁴ School of Psychology, the University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, Birmingham B15 2TT, UK

Sensors 2014, 14(6), 10213-10233; https://doi.org/10.3390/s140610213 - 11 Jun 2014

Cited by 17 | Viewed by 8297

Abstract

The integration of rehabilitation systems in an ambient assisted living environment can provide a powerful and versatile tool for long-term stroke rehabilitation goals. This paper introduces a novel concept of a personalized cognitive rehabilitation system in a naturalistic setting. The proposed platform was [...] Read more.

The integration of rehabilitation systems in an ambient assisted living environment can provide a powerful and versatile tool for long-term stroke rehabilitation goals. This paper introduces a novel concept of a personalized cognitive rehabilitation system in a naturalistic setting. The proposed platform was developed within the CogWatch project, with the intent of fostering independence in activities of daily living in patients with apraxia and action disorganization syndrome. Technical usability was evaluated in a series of pilot experiments, which illustrate how this approach may help to retrain patients in activities of daily living. The first system prototype has been tested with 36 participants divided into three groups, providing an exploratory evaluation of the usability of this solution and its acceptability. The technical solutions used within the CogWatch project are targeted to meet both the end users’ needs from the interaction and usability point of views and the clinical requirements associated with the use of such systems. The challenges behind the development of ambient assisted living systems for cognitive rehabilitation are discussed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Ambient Assisted Living (AAL): Sensors, Architectures and Applications)

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24 pages, 1702 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Normalized GNSS Interference Pattern Technique for Altimetry

by Miguel Angel Ribot^1,*, Jean-Christophe Kucwaj², Cyril Botteron¹, Serge Reboul², Georges Stienne², Jérôme Leclère¹, Jean-Bernard Choquel²

, Pierre-André Farine¹ and Mohammed Benjelloun²

¹ Electronics and Signal Processing Laboratory (ESPLAB), École Polytechnique Fédéralede Lausanne (EPFL), Maladière 71B (Microcity), CH-2002 Neuchâtel, Switzerland

² Laboratoire d'Informatique, Signal et Image de la Côte d'Opale (LISIC), Univ Lille Nord de France, F-59000 Lille, France. Université du Littoral Côte d'Opale (ULCO), 50, rue Ferdinand Buisson,BP719-62228 Calais cedex, France

Sensors 2014, 14(6), 10234-10257; https://doi.org/10.3390/s140610234 - 11 Jun 2014

Cited by 18 | Viewed by 8203

Abstract

It is well known that reflected signals from Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSS) can be used for altimetry applications, such as monitoring of water levels and determining snow height. Due to the interference of these reflected signals and the motion of satellites in [...] Read more.

It is well known that reflected signals from Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSS) can be used for altimetry applications, such as monitoring of water levels and determining snow height. Due to the interference of these reflected signals and the motion of satellites in space, the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) measured at the receiver slowly oscillates. The oscillation rate is proportional to the change in the propagation path difference between the direct and reflected signals, which depends on the satellite elevation angle. Assuming a known receiver position, it is possible to compute the distance between the antenna and the surface of reflection from the measured oscillation rate. This technique is usually known as the interference pattern technique (IPT). In this paper, we propose to normalize the measurements in order to derive an alternative model of the SNR variations. From this model, we define a maximum likelihood estimate of the antenna height that reduces the estimation time to a fraction of one period of the SNR variation. We also derive the Cramér–Rao lower bound for the IPT and use it to assess the sensitivity of different parameters to the estimation of the antenna height. Finally, we propose an experimental framework, and we use it to assess our approach with real GPS L1 C/A signals. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Remote Sensors)

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15 pages, 881 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Augmented GNSS Differential Corrections Minimum Mean Square Error Estimation Sensitivity to Spatial Correlation Modeling Errors

by Nazelie Kassabian^1,*, Letizia Lo Presti¹ and Francesco Rispoli²

¹ Department of Electronics and Telecommunications, Politecnico di Torino,Corso Duca degli Abruzzi 24, 10129 Turin, Italy

² Ansaldo STS, S.p.A, Via Paolo Mantovani 3-5, 16151 Genoa, Italy

Sensors 2014, 14(6), 10258-10272; https://doi.org/10.3390/s140610258 - 11 Jun 2014

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 7093

Abstract

Railway signaling is a safety system that has evolved over the last couple of centuries towards autonomous functionality. Recently, great effort is being devoted in this field, towards the use and exploitation of Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) signals and GNSS augmentation systems [...] Read more.

Railway signaling is a safety system that has evolved over the last couple of centuries towards autonomous functionality. Recently, great effort is being devoted in this field, towards the use and exploitation of Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) signals and GNSS augmentation systems in view of lower railway track equipments and maintenance costs, that is a priority to sustain the investments for modernizing the local and regional lines most of which lack automatic train protection systems and are still manually operated. The objective of this paper is to assess the sensitivity of the Linear Minimum Mean Square Error (LMMSE) algorithm to modeling errors in the spatial correlation function that characterizes true pseudorange Differential Corrections (DCs). This study is inspired by the railway application; however, it applies to all transportation systems, including the road sector, that need to be complemented by an augmentation system in order to deliver accurate and reliable positioning with integrity specifications. A vector of noisy pseudorange DC measurements are simulated, assuming a Gauss-Markov model with a decay rate parameter inversely proportional to the correlation distance that exists between two points of a certain environment. The LMMSE algorithm is applied on this vector to estimate the true DC, and the estimation error is compared to the noise added during simulation. The results show that for large enough correlation distance to Reference Stations (RSs) distance separation ratio values, the LMMSE brings considerable advantage in terms of estimation error accuracy and precision. Conversely, the LMMSE algorithm may deteriorate the quality of the DC measurements whenever the ratio falls below a certain threshold. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Positioning and Tracking Sensors and Technologies in Road Transport)

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19 pages, 1752 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Innovative Pressure Sensor Platform and Its Integration with an End-User Application

by Antonio Flores-Caballero^1,*, Dorin Copaci¹, María Dolores Blanco¹, Luis Moreno¹, Jaime Herrán², Iván Fernández², Estíbaliz Ochoteco², German Cabañero² and Hans Grande²

¹ Universidad Carlos III de Madrid, Avda. Universidad 30, 28911 Leganés, Madrid, Spain

² IK4-Cidetec, Po Miramón 196, 20009 San Sebastián, Spain

Sensors 2014, 14(6), 10273-10291; https://doi.org/10.3390/s140610273 - 11 Jun 2014

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 9084

Abstract

This paper describes the fully integration of an innovative and low-cost pressure sensor sheet based on a bendable and printed electronics technology. All integration stages are covered, from most low-level functional system, like physical analog sensor data acquisition, followed by embedded data processing, [...] Read more.

This paper describes the fully integration of an innovative and low-cost pressure sensor sheet based on a bendable and printed electronics technology. All integration stages are covered, from most low-level functional system, like physical analog sensor data acquisition, followed by embedded data processing, to end user interactive visual application. Data acquisition embedded software and hardware was developed using a Rapid Control Prototyping (RCP). Finally, after first electronic prototype successful testing, a Taylor-made electronics was developed, reducing electronics volume to 3.5 cm × 6 cm × 2 cm with a maximum power consumption of 765 mW for both electronics and pressure sensor sheet. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue State-of-the-Art Sensors Technology in Spain 2013)

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14 pages, 401 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Design, Fabrication and Characterization of a Transparent Atom Chip

by Ho-Chiao Chuang^1,*, Chia-Shiuan Huang¹, Hung-Pin Chen²

, Chi-Sheng Huang³ and Yu-Hsin Lin²

¹ Department of Mechanical Engineering, National Taipei University of Technology, Taipei 10608, Taiwan

² Vacuum Technology and Nanofabrication Division, Instrument Technology Research Center, National Applied Research Laboratories, Hsin-Chu 30076, Taiwan

³ Opto-Electro-Mechanical System Division, Instrument Technology Research Center, National Applied Research Laboratories, Hsin-Chu 30076, Taiwan

Sensors 2014, 14(6), 10292-10305; https://doi.org/10.3390/s140610292 - 11 Jun 2014

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 6248

Abstract

This study describes the design and fabrication of transparent atom chips for atomic physics experiments. A fabrication process was developed to define the wire patterns on a transparent glass substrate to create the desired magnetic field for atom trapping experiments. An area on [...] Read more.

This study describes the design and fabrication of transparent atom chips for atomic physics experiments. A fabrication process was developed to define the wire patterns on a transparent glass substrate to create the desired magnetic field for atom trapping experiments. An area on the chip was reserved for the optical access, so that the laser light can penetrate directly through the glass substrate for the laser cooling process. Furthermore, since the thermal conductivity of the glass substrate is poorer than other common materials for atom chip substrate, for example silicon, silicon carbide, aluminum nitride. Thus, heat dissipation copper blocks are designed on the front and back of the glass substrate to improve the electrical current conduction. The testing results showed that a maximum burnout current of 2 A was measured from the wire pattern (with a width of 100 μm and a height of 20 μm) without any heat dissipation design and it can increase to 2.5 A with a heat dissipation design on the front side of the atom chips. Therefore, heat dissipation copper blocks were designed and fabricated on the back of the glass substrate just under the wire patterns which increases the maximum burnout current to 4.5 A. Moreover, a maximum burnout current of 6 A was achieved when the entire backside glass substrate was recessed and a thicker copper block was electroplated, which meets most requirements of atomic physics experiments. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Electromagnetic Components of Mechatronics and Micro-Electro-Mechanical-Systems (MEMS) – Modeling and Design)

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40 pages, 910 KiB

Open AccessReview

A Comprehensive Study on Technologies of Tyre Monitoring Systems and Possible Energy Solutions

by Ali E. Kubba^1,* and Kyle Jiang²

¹ Fusion Innovations Ltd, Research and Innovation Services, Birmingham Research Park, Vincent Drive, Edgbaston, Birmingham, B15 2SQ, UK

² School of Mechanical Engineering, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, Birmingham, B15 2TT, UK

Sensors 2014, 14(6), 10306-10345; https://doi.org/10.3390/s140610306 - 11 Jun 2014

Cited by 74 | Viewed by 16594

Abstract

This article presents an overview on the state of the art of Tyre Pressure Monitoring System related technologies. This includes examining the latest pressure sensing methods and comparing different types of pressure transducers, particularly their power consumption and measuring range. Having the aim [...] Read more.

This article presents an overview on the state of the art of Tyre Pressure Monitoring System related technologies. This includes examining the latest pressure sensing methods and comparing different types of pressure transducers, particularly their power consumption and measuring range. Having the aim of this research to investigate possible means to obtain a tyre condition monitoring system (TCMS) powered by energy harvesting, various approaches of energy harvesting techniques were evaluated to determine which approach is the most applicable for generating energy within the pneumatic tyre domain and under rolling tyre dynamic conditions. This article starts with an historical review of pneumatic tyre development and demonstrates the reasons and explains the need for using a tyre condition monitoring system. Following this, different tyre pressure measurement approaches are compared in order to determine what type of pressure sensor is best to consider in the research proposal plan. Then possible energy harvesting means inside land vehicle pneumatic tyres are reviewed. Following this, state of the art battery-less tyre pressure monitoring systems developed by individual researchers or by world leading tyre manufacturers are presented. Finally conclusions are drawn based on the reviewed documents cited in this article and a research proposal plan is presented. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Physical Sensors)

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15 pages, 832 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Smartphone-Based Hearing Screening in Noisy Environments

by Youngmin Na¹, Hyo Sung Joo¹, Hyejin Yang¹, Soojin Kang¹, Sung Hwa Hong² and Jihwan Woo^1,*

¹ School of Electrical Engineering, Biomedical Engineering, University of Ulsan, Ulsan 680-749, Korea

² Department of Otorhinolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, Samsung Medical Center, Sungkyunkwan University, Seoul 330-714, Korea

Sensors 2014, 14(6), 10346-10360; https://doi.org/10.3390/s140610346 - 12 Jun 2014

Cited by 21 | Viewed by 8549

Abstract

It is important and recommended to detect hearing loss as soon as possible. If it is found early, proper treatment may help improve hearing and reduce the negative consequences of hearing loss. In this study, we developed smartphone-based hearing screening methods that can [...] Read more.

It is important and recommended to detect hearing loss as soon as possible. If it is found early, proper treatment may help improve hearing and reduce the negative consequences of hearing loss. In this study, we developed smartphone-based hearing screening methods that can ubiquitously test hearing. However, environmental noise generally results in the loss of ear sensitivity, which causes a hearing threshold shift (HTS). To overcome this limitation in the hearing screening location, we developed a correction algorithm to reduce the HTS effect. A built-in microphone and headphone were calibrated to provide the standard units of measure. The HTSs in the presence of either white or babble noise were systematically investigated to determine the mean HTS as a function of noise level. When the hearing screening application runs, the smartphone automatically measures the environmental noise and provides the HTS value to correct the hearing threshold. A comparison to pure tone audiometry shows that this hearing screening method in the presence of noise could closely estimate the hearing threshold. We expect that the proposed ubiquitous hearing test method could be used as a simple hearing screening tool and could alert the user if they suffer from hearing loss. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biomedical Sensors and Systems)

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20 pages, 626 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Defect Profile Estimation from Magnetic Flux Leakage Signal via Efficient Managing Particle Swarm Optimization

by Wenhua Han^1,*, Jun Xu¹, Ping Wang² and Guiyun Tian³

¹ College of Automation Engineering, Shanghai University of Electric Power, Shanghai 200090, China

² College of Automation Engineering, Nanjing University of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Nanjing 210016, China

³ School of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, NE1 7RU, UK

Sensors 2014, 14(6), 10361-10380; https://doi.org/10.3390/s140610361 - 12 Jun 2014

Cited by 40 | Viewed by 6805

Abstract

In this paper, efficient managing particle swarm optimization (EMPSO) for high dimension problem is proposed to estimate defect profile from magnetic flux leakage (MFL) signal. In the proposed EMPSO, in order to strengthen exchange of information among particles, particle pair model was built. [...] Read more.

In this paper, efficient managing particle swarm optimization (EMPSO) for high dimension problem is proposed to estimate defect profile from magnetic flux leakage (MFL) signal. In the proposed EMPSO, in order to strengthen exchange of information among particles, particle pair model was built. For more efficient searching when facing different landscapes of problems, velocity updating scheme including three velocity updating models was also proposed. In addition, for more chances to search optimum solution out, automatic particle selection for re-initialization was implemented. The optimization results of six benchmark functions show EMPSO performs well when optimizing 100-D problems. The defect simulation results demonstrate that the inversing technique based on EMPSO outperforms the one based on self-learning particle swarm optimizer (SLPSO), and the estimated profiles are still close to the desired profiles with the presence of low noise in MFL signal. The results estimated from real MFL signal by EMPSO-based inversing technique also indicate that the algorithm is capable of providing an accurate solution of the defect profile with real signal. Both the simulation results and experiment results show the computing time of the EMPSO-based inversing technique is reduced by 20%–30% than that of the SLPSO-based inversing technique. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Physical Sensors)

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14 pages, 1050 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Respiratory Monitoring by a Field Ionization Sensor Based on Trichel Pulses

by Fucheng Deng, Lingyun Ye^* and Kaichen Song

College of Biomedical Engineering and Instrument Science, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310027, China

Sensors 2014, 14(6), 10381-10394; https://doi.org/10.3390/s140610381 - 12 Jun 2014

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 5608

Abstract

In this paper, a novel method for respiratory monitoring is presented. The method is based on Trichel pulses (TPs) using a simple field ionization sensor which consists of a needle electrode and a plate electrode. Experiments have been conducted to demonstrate that different [...] Read more.

In this paper, a novel method for respiratory monitoring is presented. The method is based on Trichel pulses (TPs) using a simple field ionization sensor which consists of a needle electrode and a plate electrode. Experiments have been conducted to demonstrate that different respiratory patterns, including normal, ultra-fast, deep breaths, and apnea could be easily monitored in real time by detecting the changes in the TP frequency. The vital capacity could also be assessed by calculating the variation of TP frequency. It is found that the operation principle of the proposed sensor is based on the effects of breath airflow and the atomized water in exhaled air on the TP frequency by changing the ionization process and the dynamics of charged particles in the short gap. The influences of applied voltage and ambient parameters have also been investigated. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Physical Sensors)

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Graphical abstract

17 pages, 668 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Use of Screen-Printed Electrodes in a Proof of Concept Electrochemical Estimation of Homocysteine and Glutathione in the Presence of Cysteine Using Catechol

by Patricia T. Lee¹, Denise Lowinsohn² and Richard G. Compton^1,*

¹ Department of Chemistry, Physical and Theoretical Chemistry Laboratory, Oxford University, South Parks Road, Oxford OX1 3QZ, UK

² Department of Chemistry, Instituto de Ciências Exatas, Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora, 36036-330 Juiz de Fora, MG, Brazil

Sensors 2014, 14(6), 10395-10411; https://doi.org/10.3390/s140610395 - 12 Jun 2014

Cited by 49 | Viewed by 10852

Abstract

Screen printed electrodes were employed in a proof of concept determination of homocysteine and glutathione using electrochemically oxidized catechol via a 1,4-Michael addition reaction in the absence and presence of cysteine, and each other. Using cyclic voltammetry, the Michael reaction introduces a new [...] Read more.

Screen printed electrodes were employed in a proof of concept determination of homocysteine and glutathione using electrochemically oxidized catechol via a 1,4-Michael addition reaction in the absence and presence of cysteine, and each other. Using cyclic voltammetry, the Michael reaction introduces a new adduct peak which is analytically useful in detecting thiols. The proposed procedure relies on the different rates of reaction of glutathione and homocysteine with oxidized catechol so that at fast voltage scan rates only homocysteine is detected in cyclic voltammetry. At slower scan rates, both glutathione and homocysteine are detected. The combination of the two sets of data provides quantification for homocysteine and glutathione. The presence of cysteine is shown not to interfere provided sufficient high concentrations of catechol are used. Calibration curves were determined for each homocysteine and glutathione detection; where the sensitivities are 0.019 µA·µM⁻¹ and 0.0019 µA·µM⁻¹ and limit of detections are ca. 1.2 µM and 0.11 µM for homocysteine and glutathione, respectively, within the linear range. This work presents results with potential and beneficial use in re-useable and/or disposable point-of-use sensors for biological and medical applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Printed Sensors)

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20 pages, 10781 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Stereo Camera Based Virtual Cane System with Identifiable Distance Tactile Feedback for the Blind

by Donghun Kim¹, Kwangtaek Kim^2,* and Sangyoun Lee^2,*

¹ School of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47906, USA

² Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, Institute of BioMed-IT, Energy-IT and Smart-ITTechnology (Best), Yonsei University, Yonsei-ro, Seodaemun-gu, Seoul 120-749, Korea

Sensors 2014, 14(6), 10412-10431; https://doi.org/10.3390/s140610412 - 13 Jun 2014

Cited by 26 | Viewed by 8197

Abstract

In this paper, we propose a new haptic-assisted virtual cane system operated by a simple finger pointing gesture. The system is developed by two stages: development of visual information delivery assistant (VIDA) with a stereo camera and adding a tactile feedback interface with [...] Read more.

In this paper, we propose a new haptic-assisted virtual cane system operated by a simple finger pointing gesture. The system is developed by two stages: development of visual information delivery assistant (VIDA) with a stereo camera and adding a tactile feedback interface with dual actuators for guidance and distance feedbacks. In the first stage, user’s pointing finger is automatically detected using color and disparity data from stereo images and then a 3D pointing direction of the finger is estimated with its geometric and textural features. Finally, any object within the estimated pointing trajectory in 3D space is detected and the distance is then estimated in real time. For the second stage, identifiable tactile signals are designed through a series of identification experiments, and an identifiable tactile feedback interface is developed and integrated into the VIDA system. Our approach differs in that navigation guidance is provided by a simple finger pointing gesture and tactile distance feedbacks are perfectly identifiable to the blind. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Physical Sensors)

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22 pages, 302 KiB

Open AccessReview

Disposable Screen Printed Electrochemical Sensors: Tools for Environmental Monitoring

by Akhtar Hayat^1,2 and Jean Louis Marty^1,*

¹ Images, Universite´De Perpignan Via Domitia, 52 Avenue Paul Alduy, Perpignan Cedex 66860, France

² Interdisciplinary Research Centre in Biomedical Materials (IRCBM), COMSATS Institute of Information Technology (CIIT), Lahore 54000, Pakistan

Sensors 2014, 14(6), 10432-10453; https://doi.org/10.3390/s140610432 - 13 Jun 2014

Cited by 353 | Viewed by 24747

Abstract

Screen printing technology is a widely used technique for the fabrication of electrochemical sensors. This methodology is likely to underpin the progressive drive towards miniaturized, sensitive and portable devices, and has already established its route from “lab-to-market” for a plethora of sensors. The [...] Read more.

Screen printing technology is a widely used technique for the fabrication of electrochemical sensors. This methodology is likely to underpin the progressive drive towards miniaturized, sensitive and portable devices, and has already established its route from “lab-to-market” for a plethora of sensors. The application of these sensors for analysis of environmental samples has been the major focus of research in this field. As a consequence, this work will focus on recent important advances in the design and fabrication of disposable screen printed sensors for the electrochemical detection of environmental contaminants. Special emphasis is given on sensor fabrication methodology, operating details and performance characteristics for environmental applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Printed Sensors)

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25 pages, 10669 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Occupancy Grid Mapping in Urban Environments from a Moving On-Board Stereo-Vision System

by You Li^* and Yassine Ruichek

IRTES-SET, Université de Technologie de Belfort-Montbéliard, Belfort Cedex 90010, France

Sensors 2014, 14(6), 10454-10478; https://doi.org/10.3390/s140610454 - 13 Jun 2014

Cited by 35 | Viewed by 11231

Abstract

Occupancy grid map is a popular tool for representing the surrounding environments of mobile robots/intelligent vehicles. Its applications can be dated back to the 1980s, when researchers utilized sonar or LiDAR to illustrate environments by occupancy grids. However, in the literature, research on [...] Read more.

Occupancy grid map is a popular tool for representing the surrounding environments of mobile robots/intelligent vehicles. Its applications can be dated back to the 1980s, when researchers utilized sonar or LiDAR to illustrate environments by occupancy grids. However, in the literature, research on vision-based occupancy grid mapping is scant. Furthermore, when moving in a real dynamic world, traditional occupancy grid mapping is required not only with the ability to detect occupied areas, but also with the capability to understand dynamic environments. The paper addresses this issue by presenting a stereo-vision-based framework to create a dynamic occupancy grid map, which is applied in an intelligent vehicle driving in an urban scenario. Besides representing the surroundings as occupancy grids, dynamic occupancy grid mapping could provide the motion information of the grids. The proposed framework consists of two components. The first is motion estimation for the moving vehicle itself and independent moving objects. The second is dynamic occupancy grid mapping, which is based on the estimated motion information and the dense disparity map. The main benefit of the proposed framework is the ability of mapping occupied areas and moving objects at the same time. This is very practical in real applications. The proposed method is evaluated using real data acquired by our intelligent vehicle platform “SeTCar” in urban environments. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Positioning and Tracking Sensors and Technologies in Road Transport)

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18 pages, 544 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Suitability Evaluation of Multipoint Simultaneous CO₂ Sampling Wireless Sensors for Livestock Buildings

by Salvador Calvet², José Carlos Campelo¹

, Fernando Estellés², Angel Perles^1,*

, Ricardo Mercado¹ and Juan José Serrano¹

¹ Institute for the Applications of Advanced Information and Communications Technologies (ITACA), Universitat Politècnica de Valencia, Camino de Vera, 46022 Valencia, Spain

² Institute of Animal Science and Technology, Universitat Politècnica de València, Camino de Vera, 46022 Valencia, Spain

Sensors 2014, 14(6), 10479-10496; https://doi.org/10.3390/s140610479 - 13 Jun 2014

Cited by 14 | Viewed by 6693

Abstract

The environment in livestock buildings must be controlled to ensure the health and welfare of both workers and animals, as well as to restrict the emission of pollutants to the atmosphere. Among the pollutants generated inside these premises, carbon dioxide (CO₂) [...] Read more.

The environment in livestock buildings must be controlled to ensure the health and welfare of both workers and animals, as well as to restrict the emission of pollutants to the atmosphere. Among the pollutants generated inside these premises, carbon dioxide (CO₂) is of great interest in terms of animal welfare and ventilation control. The use of inexpensive sensors means that complete systems can be designed with a number of sensors located around the building. This paper describes a study of the suitability of multipoint simultaneous CO₂ sensors operating in a wireless sensor network, which was found to operate satisfactorily under laboratory conditions and was found to be the best alternative for these applications. The sensors showed a highly linear response to CO₂ concentrations, ranging from 500 to 5000 ppm. However, individual sensor response was found to differ, which made it necessary to calibrate each one separately. Sensor precision ranged between 80 and 110 ppm CO₂, and sensor response to register a 95% change in concentration was estimated at around 5 min. These features mean this type of sensor network can be used to monitor animal welfare and also for environmental control in poorly ventilated livestock premises. According to the tests conducted in this study, a temporal drift may occur and therefore a regular calibration of sensors would be needed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Sensor Networks)

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Graphical abstract

17 pages, 1111 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Simulation and Implementation of a Morphology-Tuned Gold Nano-Islands Integrated Plasmonic Sensor

by Jayan Ozhikandathil^* and Muthukumaran Packirisamy

Optical Bio-Microsystems Laboratory, Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering, Concordia University, Montreal H3G 1M8, Canada

Sensors 2014, 14(6), 10497-10513; https://doi.org/10.3390/s140610497 - 13 Jun 2014

Cited by 29 | Viewed by 6943

Abstract

This work presents simulation, analysis and implementation of morphology tuning of gold nano-island structures deposited by a novel convective assembly technique. The gold nano-islands were simulated using 3D Finite-Difference Time-Domain (FDTD) techniques to investigate the effect of morphological changes and adsorption of protein [...] Read more.

This work presents simulation, analysis and implementation of morphology tuning of gold nano-island structures deposited by a novel convective assembly technique. The gold nano-islands were simulated using 3D Finite-Difference Time-Domain (FDTD) techniques to investigate the effect of morphological changes and adsorption of protein layers on the localized surface plasmon resonance (LSPR) properties. Gold nano-island structures were deposited on glass substrates by a novel and low-cost convective assembly process. The structure formed by an uncontrolled deposition method resulted in a nano-cluster morphology, which was annealed at various temperatures to tune the optical absorbance properties by transforming the nano-clusters to a nano-island morphology by modifying the structural shape and interparticle separation distances. The dependence of the size and the interparticle separation distance of the nano-islands on the LSPR properties were analyzed in the simulation. The effect of adsorption of protein layer on the nano-island structures was simulated and a relation between the thickness and the refractive index of the protein layer on the LSPR peak was presented. Further, the sensitivity of the gold nano-island integrated sensor against refractive index was computed and compared with the experimental results. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Opto-Microfluidics for Bio Applications)

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13 pages, 941 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Improving Short Term Instability for Quantitative Analyses with Portable Electronic Noses

by Miguel Macías Macías^1,*, J. Enrique Agudo¹, Antonio García Manso², Carlos Javier García Orellana³, Horacio Manuel González Velasco² and Ramón Gallardo Caballero²

¹ University Center of Merida, University of Extremadura, Sta. Teresa de Jornet, 38, Mérida 06800, Spain

² Polytechnic School, University of Extremadura, Cáceres 10003, Spain

³ Faculty of Science, University of Extremadura, Avda, Elvas s/n, Badajoz 06006, Spain

Sensors 2014, 14(6), 10514-10526; https://doi.org/10.3390/s140610514 - 13 Jun 2014

Cited by 19 | Viewed by 6526

Abstract

One of the main problems when working with electronic noses is the lack of reproducibility or repeatability of the sensor response, so that, if this problem is not properly considered, electronic noses can be useless, especially for quantitative analyses. On the other hand, [...] Read more.

One of the main problems when working with electronic noses is the lack of reproducibility or repeatability of the sensor response, so that, if this problem is not properly considered, electronic noses can be useless, especially for quantitative analyses. On the other hand, irreproducibility is increased with portable and low cost electronic noses where laboratory equipment like gas zero generators cannot be used. In this work, we study the reproducibility of two portable electronic noses, the PEN3 (commercial) and CAPINose (a proprietary design) by using synthetic wine samples. We show that in both cases short term instability associated to the sensors’ response to the same sample and under the same conditions represents a major problem and we propose an internal normalization technique that, in both cases, reduces the variability of the sensors’ response. Finally, we show that the normalization proposed seems to be more effective in the CAPINose case, reducing, for example, the variability associated to the TGS2602 sensor from 12.19% to 2.2%. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Chemical Sensors)

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11 pages, 224 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Freshwater-Borne Bacteria Isolated from a Malaysian Rainforest Waterfall Exhibiting Quorum Sensing Properties

by Wen-Si Tan, Nina Yusrina Muhamad Yunos, Pui-Wan Tan, Nur Izzati Mohamad, Tan-Guan-Sheng Adrian, Wai-Fong Yin and Kok-Gan Chan^*

Division of Genetics and Molecular Biology, Institute of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Science, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur 50603, Malaysia

Sensors 2014, 14(6), 10527-10537; https://doi.org/10.3390/s140610527 - 13 Jun 2014

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 9057

Abstract

One obvious requirement for concerted action by a bacterial population is for an individual to be aware of and respond to the other individuals of the same species in order to form a response in unison. The term “quorum sensing” (QS) was coined [...] Read more.

One obvious requirement for concerted action by a bacterial population is for an individual to be aware of and respond to the other individuals of the same species in order to form a response in unison. The term “quorum sensing” (QS) was coined to describe bacterial communication that is able to stimulate expression of a series of genes when the concentration of the signaling molecules has reached a threshold level. Here we report the isolation from aquatic environment of a bacterium that was later identified as Enterobacter sp.. Chromobacterium violaceum CV026 and Escherichia coli [pSB401] were used for preliminary screening of N-acyl homoserine lactone (AHL) production. The Enterobacter sp. isolated was shown to produce two types of AHLs as confirmed by analysis using high resolution tandem mass spectrometry. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first documentation of an Enterobacter sp. that produced both 3-oxo-C6-HSL and 3-oxo-C8-HSL as QS signaling molecules. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Biosensors)

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24 pages, 1360 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Framework for a Context-Aware Elderly Entertainment Support System

by M. Anwar Hossain^1,*, Atif Alamri¹

, Ahmad S. Almogren¹

, SK Alamgir Hossain² and Jorge Parra³

¹ College of Computer and Information Sciences (CCIS), King Saud University, 11543 Riyadh, Saudi Arabia

² Computer Science and Engineering Discipline, Khulna University, Khulna, Bangladesh

³ Ikerlan-IK4 Technological Research Centre, Arrasate-Mondragón 20500, Spain

Sensors 2014, 14(6), 10538-10561; https://doi.org/10.3390/s140610538 - 16 Jun 2014

Cited by 20 | Viewed by 10014

Abstract

Elderly people constitute a major portion of world’s population. Many of them are physically and mentally vulnerable and need continuous support for their health and well-being. There is a growing trend that these elderly people are placed in an ambient assisted living environment [...] Read more.

Elderly people constitute a major portion of world’s population. Many of them are physically and mentally vulnerable and need continuous support for their health and well-being. There is a growing trend that these elderly people are placed in an ambient assisted living environment (AAL) with an aim to receive better care and support. In such settings, a lot of attention has been given to continuous health monitoring for maintaining physical health status. However, much less attention has been given toward understanding the entertainment needs of the elderly people, which is an important factor relevant to their mental health and joyful living. This paper thus addresses the entertainment needs of the elderly and proposes a framework of an elderly entertainment support system. The proposed framework enables different categories of residents (e.g., elderly people and caregivers) to access various media services in both implicit and explicit manner in order to enhance the quality of their living experience in different contexts. Our experimental results demonstrate the viability of the proposed framework. We believe that the proposed approach will establish the need to develop entertainment systems and services for the elderly people and allow us to sensibly address the problems associated with their independent, happy and active living. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Ambient Assisted Living (AAL): Sensors, Architectures and Applications)

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16 pages, 412 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Diffusion Maps for Multimodal Registration

by Gemma Piella

Department of Information & Communication Technologies, Universitat Pompeu Fabra, Barcelona 08018, Spain

Sensors 2014, 14(6), 10562-10577; https://doi.org/10.3390/s140610562 - 16 Jun 2014

Cited by 17 | Viewed by 6138

Abstract

Multimodal image registration is a difficult task, due to the significant intensity variations between the images. A common approach is to use sophisticated similarity measures, such as mutual information, that are robust to those intensity variations. However, these similarity measures are computationally expensive [...] Read more.

Multimodal image registration is a difficult task, due to the significant intensity variations between the images. A common approach is to use sophisticated similarity measures, such as mutual information, that are robust to those intensity variations. However, these similarity measures are computationally expensive and, moreover, often fail to capture the geometry and the associated dynamics linked with the images. Another approach is the transformation of the images into a common space where modalities can be directly compared. Within this approach, we propose to register multimodal images by using diffusion maps to describe the geometric and spectral properties of the data. Through diffusion maps, the multimodal data is transformed into a new set of canonical coordinates that reflect its geometry uniformly across modalities, so that meaningful correspondences can be established between them. Images in this new representation can then be registered using a simple Euclidean distance as a similarity measure. Registration accuracy was evaluated on both real and simulated brain images with known ground-truth for both rigid and non-rigid registration. Results showed that the proposed approach achieved higher accuracy than the conventional approach using mutual information. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Physical Sensors)

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20 pages, 1198 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Railway Crossing Risk Area Detection Using Linear Regression and Terrain Drop Compensation Techniques

by Wen-Yuan Chen^1,*, Mei Wang^1,2 and Zhou-Xing Fu²

¹ Department of Electronic Engineering, National Chin-Yi University of Technology 57, Sec. 2, Zhongshan Rd., Taiping Dist., Taichung 41170, Taiwan

² College of Electric and Control Engineering, Xi'an University of Science and Technology, 58 Yan-Ta Road, Xi'an City 710054, Shaanxi Province, China

Sensors 2014, 14(6), 10578-10597; https://doi.org/10.3390/s140610578 - 16 Jun 2014

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 6160

Abstract

Most railway accidents happen at railway crossings. Therefore, how to detect humans or objects present in the risk area of a railway crossing and thus prevent accidents are important tasks. In this paper, three strategies are used to detect the risk area of [...] Read more.

Most railway accidents happen at railway crossings. Therefore, how to detect humans or objects present in the risk area of a railway crossing and thus prevent accidents are important tasks. In this paper, three strategies are used to detect the risk area of a railway crossing: (1) we use a terrain drop compensation (TDC) technique to solve the problem of the concavity of railway crossings; (2) we use a linear regression technique to predict the position and length of an object from image processing; (3) we have developed a novel strategy called calculating local maximum Y-coordinate object points (CLMYOP) to obtain the ground points of the object. In addition, image preprocessing is also applied to filter out the noise and successfully improve the object detection. From the experimental results, it is demonstrated that our scheme is an effective and corrective method for the detection of railway crossing risk areas. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Selected Papers from 2014 International Symposium on Computer, Consumer and Control (IS3C 2014))

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21 pages, 685 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Vibration Sensor-Based Bearing Fault Diagnosis Using Ellipsoid-ARTMAP and Differential Evolution Algorithms

by Chang Liu, Guofeng Wang^*, Qinglu Xie and Yanchao Zhang

Key Laboratory of Mechanism Theory and Equipment Design of Ministry of Education, Tianjin University, Tianjin 300072, China

Sensors 2014, 14(6), 10598-10618; https://doi.org/10.3390/s140610598 - 16 Jun 2014

Cited by 18 | Viewed by 6902

Abstract

Effective fault classification of rolling element bearings provides an important basis for ensuring safe operation of rotating machinery. In this paper, a novel vibration sensor-based fault diagnosis method using an Ellipsoid-ARTMAP network (EAM) and a differential evolution (DE) algorithm is proposed. The original [...] Read more.

Effective fault classification of rolling element bearings provides an important basis for ensuring safe operation of rotating machinery. In this paper, a novel vibration sensor-based fault diagnosis method using an Ellipsoid-ARTMAP network (EAM) and a differential evolution (DE) algorithm is proposed. The original features are firstly extracted from vibration signals based on wavelet packet decomposition. Then, a minimum-redundancy maximum-relevancy algorithm is introduced to select the most prominent features so as to decrease feature dimensions. Finally, a DE-based EAM (DE-EAM) classifier is constructed to realize the fault diagnosis. The major characteristic of EAM is that the sample distribution of each category is realized by using a hyper-ellipsoid node and smoothing operation algorithm. Therefore, it can depict the decision boundary of disperse samples accurately and effectively avoid over-fitting phenomena. To optimize EAM network parameters, the DE algorithm is presented and two objectives, including both classification accuracy and nodes number, are simultaneously introduced as the fitness functions. Meanwhile, an exponential criterion is proposed to realize final selection of the optimal parameters. To prove the effectiveness of the proposed method, the vibration signals of four types of rolling element bearings under different loads were collected. Moreover, to improve the robustness of the classifier evaluation, a two-fold cross validation scheme is adopted and the order of feature samples is randomly arranged ten times within each fold. The results show that DE-EAM classifier can recognize the fault categories of the rolling element bearings reliably and accurately. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Physical Sensors)

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Graphical abstract

25 pages, 5484 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Distributed Air Index Based on Maximum Boundary Rectangle over Grid-Cells for Wireless Non-Flat Spatial Data Broadcast

by Seokjin Im¹ and JinTak Choi^2,*

¹ Department of Computer Engineering, Sungkyul University, 53, SungkyulDaehak-Ro, Manan-Gu,Anyang, Gyeonggi-Do 430-742, Korea

² Department of Computer Engineering, Incheon National University, 119 Academy-Ro, Yeonsu-Gu,Incheon 406-772, Korea

Sensors 2014, 14(6), 10619-10643; https://doi.org/10.3390/s140610619 - 17 Jun 2014

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 5001

Abstract

In the pervasive computing environment using smart devices equipped with various sensors, a wireless data broadcasting system for spatial data items is a natural way to efficiently provide a location dependent information service, regardless of the number of clients. A non-flat wireless broadcast [...] Read more.

In the pervasive computing environment using smart devices equipped with various sensors, a wireless data broadcasting system for spatial data items is a natural way to efficiently provide a location dependent information service, regardless of the number of clients. A non-flat wireless broadcast system can support the clients in accessing quickly their preferred data items by disseminating the preferred data items more frequently than regular data on the wireless channel. To efficiently support the processing of spatial window queries in a non-flat wireless data broadcasting system, we propose a distributed air index based on a maximum boundary rectangle (MaxBR) over grid-cells (abbreviated DAIM), which uses MaxBRs for filtering out hot data items on the wireless channel. Unlike the existing index that repeats regular data items in close proximity to hot items at same frequency as hot data items in a broadcast cycle, DAIM makes it possible to repeat only hot data items in a cycle and reduces the length of the broadcast cycle. Consequently, DAIM helps the clients access the desired items quickly, improves the access time, and reduces energy consumption. In addition, a MaxBR helps the clients decide whether they have to access regular data items or not. Simulation studies show the proposed DAIM outperforms existing schemes with respect to the access time and energy consumption. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Selected Papers from 2014 International Symposium on Computer, Consumer and Control (IS3C 2014))

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6 pages, 316 KiB

Open AccessShort Note

A Magnetic Sensor with Amorphous Wire

by Dongfeng He^* and Mitsuharu Shiwa

National Institute for Materials Science, 1-2-1 Sengen, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-0047, Japan

Sensors 2014, 14(6), 10644-10649; https://doi.org/10.3390/s140610644 - 17 Jun 2014

Cited by 39 | Viewed by 8194

Abstract

Using a FeCoSiB amorphous wire and a coil wrapped around it, we have developed a sensitive magnetic sensor. When a 5 mm long amorphous wire with the diameter of 0.1 mm was used, the magnetic field noise spectrum of the sensor was about [...] Read more.

Using a FeCoSiB amorphous wire and a coil wrapped around it, we have developed a sensitive magnetic sensor. When a 5 mm long amorphous wire with the diameter of 0.1 mm was used, the magnetic field noise spectrum of the sensor was about 30 pT/ÖHz above 30 Hz. To show the sensitivity and the spatial resolution, the magnetic field of a thousand Japanese yen was scanned with the magnetic sensor. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Physical Sensors)

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14 pages, 852 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Voltammetric Detection of S100B Protein Using His-Tagged Receptor Domains for Advanced Glycation End Products (RAGE) Immobilized onto a Gold Electrode Surface

by Edyta Mikuła¹, Aleksandra Wysłouch-Cieszyńska², Liliya Zhukova², Monika Puchalska², Peter Verwilst³, Wim Dehaen³

, Jerzy Radecki¹ and Hanna Radecka^1,*

¹ Institute of Animal Reproduction and Food Research of Polish Academy of Sciences, Tuwima 10, 10-748 Olsztyn, Poland

² Institute of Biochemistry and Biophysics of Polish Academy of Sciences, Pawińskiego 5a, 02-106 Warsaw, Poland

³ Chemistry Department, University of Leuven, Celestijnenlaan 200F, B-3001 Leuven, Belgium

Sensors 2014, 14(6), 10650-10663; https://doi.org/10.3390/s140610650 - 17 Jun 2014

Cited by 18 | Viewed by 6727

Abstract

In this work we report on an electrochemical biosensor for the determination of the S100B protein. The His-tagged VC1 domains of Receptors for Advanced Glycation End (RAGE) products used as analytically active molecules were covalently immobilized on a monolayer of a thiol derivative [...] Read more.

In this work we report on an electrochemical biosensor for the determination of the S100B protein. The His-tagged VC1 domains of Receptors for Advanced Glycation End (RAGE) products used as analytically active molecules were covalently immobilized on a monolayer of a thiol derivative of pentetic acid (DPTA) complex with Cu(II) deposited on a gold electrode surface. The recognition processes between the RAGE VC1 domain and the S100B protein results in changes in the redox activity of the DPTA-Cu(II) centres which were measured by Osteryoung square-wave voltammetry (OSWV). In order to verify whether the observed analytical signal originates from the recognition process between the His₆–RAGE VC1 domains and the S100B protein, the electrode modified with the His₆–RAGE C2 and His₆–RAGE VC1 deleted domains which have no ability to bind S100B peptides were applied. The proposed biosensor was quite sensitive, with a detection limit of 0.52 pM recorded in the buffer solution. The presence of diluted human plasma and 10 nM Aβ_1-40 have no influence on the biosensor performance. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Biosensors)

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16 pages, 320 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Sparse Fusion Imaging for a Moving Target in T/R-R Configuration

by Shougang Chai, Weidong Chen^* and Chang Chen

Key Laboratory of Electromagnetic Space Information, Chinese Academy of Sciences, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei 230027, China

Sensors 2014, 14(6), 10664-10679; https://doi.org/10.3390/s140610664 - 17 Jun 2014

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 5612

Abstract

For high resolution imaging of a non-cooperative moving target, this paper proposes a sparse fusion imaging method. The imaging system contains two radar stations, which are separated by a certain bistatic angle and configured in a transmitter/receiver-receiver (T/R-R) manner. Consequently, two synthetic apertures [...] Read more.

For high resolution imaging of a non-cooperative moving target, this paper proposes a sparse fusion imaging method. The imaging system contains two radar stations, which are separated by a certain bistatic angle and configured in a transmitter/receiver-receiver (T/R-R) manner. Consequently, two synthetic apertures are obtained at the same time from different aspect angles. By coherently fusing the echoes of the two radars, a virtual aperture spanned by these two sub-apertures can be constructed, which is larger than either of the sub-apertures; thus, the cross-range resolution of the image is enhanced. Moreover, the fusion of the echoes is realized by exploiting the sparse scattering property of the target. Then, based on the maximum a posteriori (MAP) criterion, the T/R-R fusion imaging problem is converted into a sparse signal recovery problem with unknown parameters. Finally, it is solved in an iterative manner, which contains two steps, i.e., sparse imaging and parameter estimation. Simulation results show that the proposed sparse fusion imaging method can improve the cross-range resolution significantly compared to inverse synthetic aperture radar (ISAR) within the same coherent processing interval (CPI). Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Physical Sensors)

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11 pages, 539 KiB

Open AccessArticle

WO₃/W Nanopores Sensor for Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) Determination under Visible Light

by Xuejin Li, Jing Bai, Qiang Liu, Jianyong Li and Baoxue Zhou^*

School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, No. 800 Dongchuan Rd, Shanghai 200240, China

Sensors 2014, 14(6), 10680-10690; https://doi.org/10.3390/s140610680 - 17 Jun 2014

Cited by 20 | Viewed by 6352

Abstract

A sensor of a WO₃ nanopores electrode combined with a thin layer reactor was proposed to develop a Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) determination method and solve the problem that the COD values are inaccurately determined by the standard method. The visible spectrum, [...] Read more.

A sensor of a WO₃ nanopores electrode combined with a thin layer reactor was proposed to develop a Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) determination method and solve the problem that the COD values are inaccurately determined by the standard method. The visible spectrum, e.g., 420 nm, could be used as light source in the sensor we developed, which represents a breakthrough by limiting of UV light source in the photoelectrocatalysis process. The operation conditions were optimized in this work, and the results showed that taking NaNO₃ solution at the concentration of 2.5 mol·L⁻¹ as electrolyte under the light intensity of 214 μW·cm⁻² and applied bias of 2.5 V, the proposed method is accurate and well reproducible, even in a wide range of pH values. Furthermore, the COD values obtained by the WO₃ sensor were fitted well with the theoretical COD value in the range of 3–60 mg·L⁻¹ with a limit value of 1 mg·L⁻¹, which reveals that the proposed sensor may be a practical device for monitoring and controlling surface water quality as well as slightly polluted water. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Nanopore Sensors: Fabrications, Properties and Applications)

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18 pages, 597 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Detecting Falls with Wearable Sensors Using Machine Learning Techniques

by Ahmet Turan Özdemir¹ and Billur Barshan^2,*

¹ Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Erciyes University, Melikgazi, Kayseri TR-38039, Turkey

² Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Bilkent University, Bilkent, Ankara TR-06800, Turkey

Sensors 2014, 14(6), 10691-10708; https://doi.org/10.3390/s140610691 - 18 Jun 2014

Cited by 323 | Viewed by 47012

Abstract

Falls are a serious public health problem and possibly life threatening for people in fall risk groups. We develop an automated fall detection system with wearable motion sensor units fitted to the subjects’ body at six different positions. Each unit comprises three tri-axial [...] Read more.

Falls are a serious public health problem and possibly life threatening for people in fall risk groups. We develop an automated fall detection system with wearable motion sensor units fitted to the subjects’ body at six different positions. Each unit comprises three tri-axial devices (accelerometer, gyroscope, and magnetometer/compass). Fourteen volunteers perform a standardized set of movements including 20 voluntary falls and 16 activities of daily living (ADLs), resulting in a large dataset with 2520 trials. To reduce the computational complexity of training and testing the classifiers, we focus on the raw data for each sensor in a 4 s time window around the point of peak total acceleration of the waist sensor, and then perform feature extraction and reduction. Most earlier studies on fall detection employ rule-based approaches that rely on simple thresholding of the sensor outputs. We successfully distinguish falls from ADLs using six machine learning techniques (classifiers): the k-nearest neighbor (k-NN) classifier, least squares method (LSM), support vector machines (SVM), Bayesian decision making (BDM), dynamic time warping (DTW), and artificial neural networks (ANNs). We compare the performance and the computational complexity of the classifiers and achieve the best results with the k-NN classifier and LSM, with sensitivity, specificity, and accuracy all above 99%. These classifiers also have acceptable computational requirements for training and testing. Our approach would be applicable in real-world scenarios where data records of indeterminate length, containing multiple activities in sequence, are recorded. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Physical Sensors)

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16 pages, 3782 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Application of an Electronic Nose Instrument to Fast Classification of Polish Honey Types

by Tomasz Dymerski^1,*, Jacek Gębicki², Waldemar Wardencki¹ and Jacek Namieśnik¹

¹ Department of Analytical Chemistry, Chemical Faculty, Gdansk University of Technology, 11/12 G. Narutowicza Str., 80-233 Gdańsk, Poland

² Department of Chemical and Process Engineering, Chemical Faculty, Gdansk University of Technology, 11/12 G. Narutowicza Str., 80-233 Gdańsk, Poland

Sensors 2014, 14(6), 10709-10724; https://doi.org/10.3390/s140610709 - 18 Jun 2014

Cited by 56 | Viewed by 7910

Abstract

The paper presents practical utilization of an electronic nose prototype, based on the FIGARO semiconductor sensors, in fast classification of Polish honey types—acacia flower, linden flower, rape, buckwheat and honeydew ones. A set of thermostating modules of the prototype provided gradient temperature characteristics [...] Read more.

The paper presents practical utilization of an electronic nose prototype, based on the FIGARO semiconductor sensors, in fast classification of Polish honey types—acacia flower, linden flower, rape, buckwheat and honeydew ones. A set of thermostating modules of the prototype provided gradient temperature characteristics of barbotage-prepared gas mixtures and stable measurement conditions. Three chemometric data analysis methods were employed for the honey samples classification: principal component analysis (PCA), linear discriminant analysis (LDA) and cluster analysis (CA) with the furthest neighbour method. The investigation confirmed usefulness of this type of instrument in correct classification of all aforementioned honey types. In order to provide optimum measurement conditions during honey samples classification the following parameters were selected: volumetric flow rate of carrier gas—15 L/h, barbotage temperature—35 °C, time of sensor signal acquisition since barbotage process onset—60 s. Chemometric analysis allowed discrimination of three honey types using PCA and CA and all five honey types with LDA. The reproducibility of 96% of the results was within the range 4.9%–8.6% CV. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Chemical Sensors)

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28 pages, 1572 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Ubiquitous Sensor Network Platform for Integrating Smart Devices into the Semantic Sensor Web

by David Díaz Pardo de Vera^1,*, Álvaro Sigüenza Izquierdo¹, Jesús Bernat Vercher² and Luis Alfonso Hernández Gómez¹

¹ Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, GAPS-SSR, E.T.S.I. Telecomunicación, Avda. Complutense 30, 28040 Madrid, Spain

² Telefónica I+D, Ronda de la Comunicación, s/n, 28050 Madrid, Spain

Sensors 2014, 14(6), 10725-10752; https://doi.org/10.3390/s140610725 - 18 Jun 2014

Cited by 19 | Viewed by 10437

Abstract

Ongoing Sensor Web developments make a growing amount of heterogeneous sensor data available to smart devices. This is generating an increasing demand for homogeneous mechanisms to access, publish and share real-world information. This paper discusses, first, an architectural solution based on Next Generation [...] Read more.

Ongoing Sensor Web developments make a growing amount of heterogeneous sensor data available to smart devices. This is generating an increasing demand for homogeneous mechanisms to access, publish and share real-world information. This paper discusses, first, an architectural solution based on Next Generation Networks: a pilot Telco Ubiquitous Sensor Network (USN) Platform that embeds several OGC^® Sensor Web services. This platform has already been deployed in large scale projects. Second, the USN-Platform is extended to explore a first approach to Semantic Sensor Web principles and technologies, so that smart devices can access Sensor Web data, allowing them also to share richer (semantically interpreted) information. An experimental scenario is presented: a smart car that consumes and produces real-world information which is integrated into the Semantic Sensor Web through a Telco USN-Platform. Performance tests revealed that observation publishing times with our experimental system were well within limits compatible with the adequate operation of smart safety assistance systems in vehicles. On the other hand, response times for complex queries on large repositories may be inappropriate for rapid reaction needs. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue State-of-the-Art Sensors Technology in Spain 2013)

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30 pages, 1061 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Obstacle Classification and 3D Measurement in Unstructured Environments Based on ToF Cameras

by Hongshan Yu^1,2,3,*, Jiang Zhu^1,4, Yaonan Wang¹, Wenyan Jia², Mingui Sun² and Yandong Tang³

¹ College of Electrical and Information Engineering, Hunan University, Changsha 410082, China

² Laboratory for Computational Neuroscience, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, USA

³ State Key Laboratory of Robotics, Shenyang 110016, China

⁴ College of Information Engineering, Xiangtan University, Xiangtan 411105, China

Sensors 2014, 14(6), 10753-10782; https://doi.org/10.3390/s140610753 - 18 Jun 2014

Cited by 30 | Viewed by 9695

Abstract

Inspired by the human 3D visual perception system, we present an obstacle detection and classification method based on the use of Time-of-Flight (ToF) cameras for robotic navigation in unstructured environments. The ToF camera provides 3D sensing by capturing an image along with per-pixel [...] Read more.

Inspired by the human 3D visual perception system, we present an obstacle detection and classification method based on the use of Time-of-Flight (ToF) cameras for robotic navigation in unstructured environments. The ToF camera provides 3D sensing by capturing an image along with per-pixel 3D space information. Based on this valuable feature and human knowledge of navigation, the proposed method first removes irrelevant regions which do not affect robot’s movement from the scene. In the second step, regions of interest are detected and clustered as possible obstacles using both 3D information and intensity image obtained by the ToF camera. Consequently, a multiple relevance vector machine (RVM) classifier is designed to classify obstacles into four possible classes based on the terrain traversability and geometrical features of the obstacles. Finally, experimental results in various unstructured environments are presented to verify the robustness and performance of the proposed approach. We have found that, compared with the existing obstacle recognition methods, the new approach is more accurate and efficient. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Physical Sensors)

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21 pages, 997 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Active Optical Sensors for Tree Stem Detection and Classification in Nurseries

by Miguel Garrido^1,*

, Manuel Perez-Ruiz², Constantino Valero¹

, Chris J. Gliever³, Bradley D. Hanson³ and David C. Slaughter³

¹ Laboratorio de Propiedades Físicas (LPF)-TAGRALIA, Technical University of Madrid, Madrid 28040, Spain

² Aerospace Engineering and Fluids Mechanics Department, University of Seville, Ctra. Sevilla-Utrera km 1, 41013 Seville, Spain

³ Department of Plant Sciences and Biological and Agricultural Engineering, Sensor and Instrumentation Lab, University of California, Davis, One Shields Ave, Davis, CA 95616, USA

Sensors 2014, 14(6), 10783-10803; https://doi.org/10.3390/s140610783 - 19 Jun 2014

Cited by 20 | Viewed by 8588

Abstract

Active optical sensing (LIDAR and light curtain transmission) devices mounted on a mobile platform can correctly detect, localize, and classify trees. To conduct an evaluation and comparison of the different sensors, an optical encoder wheel was used for vehicle odometry and provided a [...] Read more.

Active optical sensing (LIDAR and light curtain transmission) devices mounted on a mobile platform can correctly detect, localize, and classify trees. To conduct an evaluation and comparison of the different sensors, an optical encoder wheel was used for vehicle odometry and provided a measurement of the linear displacement of the prototype vehicle along a row of tree seedlings as a reference for each recorded sensor measurement. The field trials were conducted in a juvenile tree nursery with one-year-old grafted almond trees at Sierra Gold Nurseries, Yuba City, CA, United States. Through these tests and subsequent data processing, each sensor was individually evaluated to characterize their reliability, as well as their advantages and disadvantages for the proposed task. Test results indicated that 95.7% and 99.48% of the trees were successfully detected with the LIDAR and light curtain sensors, respectively. LIDAR correctly classified, between alive or dead tree states at a 93.75% success rate compared to 94.16% for the light curtain sensor. These results can help system designers select the most reliable sensor for the accurate detection and localization of each tree in a nursery, which might allow labor-intensive tasks, such as weeding, to be automated without damaging crops. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Agriculture and Forestry: Sensors, Technologies and Procedures)

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25 pages, 955 KiB

Open AccessArticle

EPMOSt: An Energy-Efficient Passive Monitoring System for Wireless Sensor Networks

by Fernando P. Garcia^1,2,*, Rossana M. C. Andrade², Carina T. Oliveira² and José Neuman De Souza²

¹ Federal Institute of Education, Science and Technology (IFCE), CEP 60040-215, Fortaleza, Ceará, Brazil

² Group of Computer Networks, Software Engineering and Systems (GREat), Federal University of Ceará, CEP 60455-760, Fortaleza, Ceará, Brazil

Sensors 2014, 14(6), 10804-10828; https://doi.org/10.3390/s140610804 - 19 Jun 2014

Cited by 22 | Viewed by 9318

Abstract

Monitoring systems are important for debugging and analyzing Wireless Sensor Networks (WSN). In passive monitoring, a monitoring network needs to be deployed in addition to the network to be monitored, named the target network. The monitoring network captures and analyzes packets transmitted by [...] Read more.

Monitoring systems are important for debugging and analyzing Wireless Sensor Networks (WSN). In passive monitoring, a monitoring network needs to be deployed in addition to the network to be monitored, named the target network. The monitoring network captures and analyzes packets transmitted by the target network. An energy-efficient passive monitoring system is necessary when we need to monitor a WSN in a real scenario because the lifetime of the monitoring network is extended and, consequently, the target network benefits from the monitoring for a longer time. In this work, we have identified, analyzed and compared the main passive monitoring systems proposed for WSN. During our research, we did not identify any passive monitoring system for WSN that aims to reduce the energy consumption of the monitoring network. Therefore, we propose an Energy-efficient Passive MOnitoring SysTem for WSN named EPMOSt that provides monitoring information using a Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP) agent. Thus, any management tool that supports the SNMP protocol can be integrated with this monitoring system. Experiments with real sensors were performed in several scenarios. The results obtained show the energy efficiency of the proposed monitoring system and the viability of using it to monitor WSN in real scenarios. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Sensor Networks)

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17 pages, 393 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Detection and Tracking of a Moving Target Using SAR Images with the Particle Filter-Based Track-Before-Detect Algorithm

by Han Gao^* and Jingwen Li

School of Electronic and Information Engineering, Beihang University, Beijing 100191, China

Sensors 2014, 14(6), 10829-10845; https://doi.org/10.3390/s140610829 - 19 Jun 2014

Cited by 28 | Viewed by 6792

Abstract

A novel approach to detecting and tracking a moving target using synthetic aperture radar (SAR) images is proposed in this paper. Achieved with the particle filter (PF) based track-before-detect (TBD) algorithm, the approach is capable of detecting and tracking the low signal-to-noise ratio [...] Read more.

A novel approach to detecting and tracking a moving target using synthetic aperture radar (SAR) images is proposed in this paper. Achieved with the particle filter (PF) based track-before-detect (TBD) algorithm, the approach is capable of detecting and tracking the low signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) moving target with SAR systems, which the traditional track-after-detect (TAD) approach is inadequate for. By incorporating the signal model of the SAR moving target into the algorithm, the ambiguity in target azimuth position and radial velocity is resolved while tracking, which leads directly to the true estimation. With the sub-area substituted for the whole area to calculate the likelihood ratio and a pertinent choice of the number of particles, the computational efficiency is improved with little loss in the detection and tracking performance. The feasibility of the approach is validated and the performance is evaluated with Monte Carlo trials. It is demonstrated that the proposed approach is capable to detect and track a moving target with SNR as low as 7 dB, and outperforms the traditional TAD approach when the SNR is below 14 dB. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Remote Sensors)

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18 pages, 1025 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Isolation and Epitope Mapping of Staphylococcal Enterotoxin B Single-Domain Antibodies

by Kendrick B. Turner¹, Dan Zabetakis², Patricia Legler², Ellen R. Goldman² and George P. Anderson^2,*

¹ American Society for Engineering Education, Postdoctoral Fellow at the Naval Research Laboratory, Washington, DC 20375, USA

² Center for Biomolecular Science and Engineering, Naval Research Laboratory, Washington, DC 20375, USA

Sensors 2014, 14(6), 10846-10863; https://doi.org/10.3390/s140610846 - 19 Jun 2014

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 7755

Abstract

Single-domain antibodies (sdAbs), derived from the heavy chain only antibodies found in camelids such as llamas have the potential to provide rugged detection reagents with high affinities, and the ability to refold after denaturation. We have isolated and characterized sdAbs specific to staphylococcal [...] Read more.

Single-domain antibodies (sdAbs), derived from the heavy chain only antibodies found in camelids such as llamas have the potential to provide rugged detection reagents with high affinities, and the ability to refold after denaturation. We have isolated and characterized sdAbs specific to staphylococcal enterotoxin B (SEB) which bind to two distinct epitopes and are able to function in a sandwich immunoassay for toxin detection. Characterization of these sdAbs revealed that each exhibited nanomolar binding affinities or better. Melting temperatures for the sdAbs ranged from approximately 60 °C to over 70 °C, with each demonstrating at least partial refolding after denaturation and several were able to completely refold. A first set of sdAbs was isolated by panning the library using adsorbed antigen, all of which recognized the same epitope on SEB. Epitope mapping suggested that these sdAbs bind to a particular fragment of SEB (VKSIDQFLYFDLIYSI) containing position L45 (underlined), which is involved in binding to the major histocompatibility complex (MHC). Differences in the binding affinities of the sdAbs to SEB and a less-toxic vaccine immunogen, SEBv (L45R/Y89A/Y94A) were also consistent with binding to this epitope. A sandwich panning strategy was utilized to isolate sdAbs which bind a second epitope. This epitope differed from the initial one obtained or from that recognized by previously isolated anti-SEB sdAb A3. Using SEB-toxin spiked milk we demonstrated that these newly isolated sdAbs could be utilized in sandwich-assays with each other, A3, and with various monoclonal antibodies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Chemo- and Biosensors for Security and Defense)

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12 pages, 530 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A New Surface Plasmon Resonance-Based Immunoassay for Rapid, Reproducible and Sensitive Quantification of Pentraxin-3 in Human Plasma

by Mara Canovi^1,†, Jacopo Lucchetti^1,†, Matteo Stravalaci¹, Sonia Valentino², Barbara Bottazzi², Mario Salmona¹, Antonio Bastone¹ and Marco Gobbi^1,*

¹ Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Pharmacology, IRCCS-Istituto di Ricerche Farmacologiche "Mario Negri", Milan 20156, Italy

² Humanitas Clinical and Research Hospital, Rozzano, Milan 20089, Italy

^† These authors contributed equally to this work.

Sensors 2014, 14(6), 10864-10875; https://doi.org/10.3390/s140610864 - 19 Jun 2014

Cited by 21 | Viewed by 7897

Abstract

A new immunoassay based on surface plasmon resonance (SPR) for the rapid, reproducible and sensitive determination of pentraxin-3 (PTX3) levels in human plasma has been developed and characterized. The method involves a 3-min flow of plasma over a sensor chip pre-coated with a [...] Read more.

A new immunoassay based on surface plasmon resonance (SPR) for the rapid, reproducible and sensitive determination of pentraxin-3 (PTX3) levels in human plasma has been developed and characterized. The method involves a 3-min flow of plasma over a sensor chip pre-coated with a monoclonal anti-PTX3 antibody (MNB4), followed by a 3-min flow of a polyclonal anti-PTX3 antibody (pAb), required for specific recognition of captured PTX3. The SPR signal generated with this secondary antibody linearly correlates with the plasma PTX3 concentration, in the range of 5–1500 ng/mL, with a lowest limit of detection of 5 ng/mL. The PTX3 concentrations determined with the SPR-based immunoassay in the plasma of 21 patients with sepsis, ranging 15–1600 ng/mL, were superimposable to those found in a classic ELISA immunoassay. Since the PTX3 concentration in the plasma of healthy subjects is <2 ng/mL, but markedly rises in certain medical conditions, the method is useful to quantify pathological levels of this important biomarker, with important diagnostic applications. In comparison with the classic ELISA, the SPR-based approach is much faster (30 min versus 4–5 h) and could be exploited for the development of new cost-effective SPR devices for point-of-care diagnosis. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Immunosensors 2014)

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19 pages, 1001 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Optical Characteristic Research on Fiber Bragg Gratings Utilizing Finite Element and Eigenmode Expansion Methods

by Yuejing He^*

and Xuanyang Chen

Electronic Engineering Department, National Chin-Yi University of Technology, Taichung 41170, Taiwan

Sensors 2014, 14(6), 10876-10894; https://doi.org/10.3390/s140610876 - 19 Jun 2014

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 5574

Abstract

Compared with coupled-mode theory (CMT), which is widely used for studies involving optical fiber Bragg gratings (FBGs), the proposed investigation scheme is visualized, diagrammatic, and simple. This method combines the finite element method (FEM) and eigenmode expansion method (EEM). The function of the [...] Read more.

Compared with coupled-mode theory (CMT), which is widely used for studies involving optical fiber Bragg gratings (FBGs), the proposed investigation scheme is visualized, diagrammatic, and simple. This method combines the finite element method (FEM) and eigenmode expansion method (EEM). The function of the FEM is to calculate all guided modes that match the boundary conditions of optical fiber waveguides. Moreover, the FEM is used for implementing power propagation for HE₁₁ in optical fiber devices. How the periodic characteristic of FBG causes this novel scheme to be substantially superior to CMT is explained in detail. Regarding current numerical calculation techniques, the scheme proposed in this paper is the only method capable of the 3D design and analysis of large periodic components. Additionally, unlike CMT, in which deviations exist between the designed wavelength λ_D and the maximal reflection wavelength λ_max, the proposed method performs rapid scans of the periods of optical FBG. Therefore, once the operating wavelength is set for the component design, the maximal reflection wavelength of the final products can be accurately limited to that of the original design, such as λ = 1550 nm. Furthermore, a comparison between the period scan plot and the optical spectra plot for FBG indicated an inverse relationship between the periods and wavelengths. Consequently, this property can be used to predict the final FBG spectra before implementing time-consuming calculations. By employing this novel investigation scheme involving a rigorous design procedure, the graphical and simple calculation method reduces the studying time and professional expertise required for researching and applying optical FBG. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Physical Sensors)

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34 pages, 821 KiB

Open AccessReview

The Theory and Fundamentals of Bioimpedance Analysis in Clinical Status Monitoring and Diagnosis of Diseases

by Sami F. Khalil^1,2,3

, Mas S. Mohktar^1,2 and Fatimah Ibrahim^1,2,*

¹ Department of Biomedical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, University of Malaya, 50603 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia

² Centre for Innovation in Medical Engineering (CIME), Faculty of Engineering, University of Malaya, 50603 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia

³ Department of Biomedical Engineering, College of Engineering, Sudan University of Science and Technology, 407, Khartoum, Sudan

Sensors 2014, 14(6), 10895-10928; https://doi.org/10.3390/s140610895 - 19 Jun 2014

Cited by 511 | Viewed by 36153

Abstract

Bioimpedance analysis is a noninvasive, low cost and a commonly used approach for body composition measurements and assessment of clinical condition. There are a variety of methods applied for interpretation of measured bioimpedance data and a wide range of utilizations of bioimpedance in [...] Read more.

Bioimpedance analysis is a noninvasive, low cost and a commonly used approach for body composition measurements and assessment of clinical condition. There are a variety of methods applied for interpretation of measured bioimpedance data and a wide range of utilizations of bioimpedance in body composition estimation and evaluation of clinical status. This paper reviews the main concepts of bioimpedance measurement techniques including the frequency based, the allocation based, bioimpedance vector analysis and the real time bioimpedance analysis systems. Commonly used prediction equations for body composition assessment and influence of anthropometric measurements, gender, ethnic groups, postures, measurements protocols and electrode artifacts in estimated values are also discussed. In addition, this paper also contributes to the deliberations of bioimpedance analysis assessment of abnormal loss in lean body mass and unbalanced shift in body fluids and to the summary of diagnostic usage in different kinds of conditions such as cardiac, pulmonary, renal, and neural and infection diseases. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biomedical Sensors and Systems)

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23 pages, 684 KiB

Open AccessReview

Application of Wireless Power Transmission Systems in Wireless Capsule Endoscopy: An Overview

by Md Rubel Basar¹, Mohd Yazed Ahmad^1,*

, Jongman Cho² and Fatimah Ibrahim³

¹ Department of Biomedical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur 50603, Malaysia

² Department of Biomedical Engineering, Inje University, Gimhae 621-749, Korea

³ Center of Innovation in Medical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur 50603, Malaysia

Sensors 2014, 14(6), 10929-10951; https://doi.org/10.3390/s140610929 - 19 Jun 2014

Cited by 96 | Viewed by 15837

Abstract

Wireless capsule endoscopy (WCE) is a promising technology for direct diagnosis of the entire small bowel to detect lethal diseases, including cancer and obscure gastrointestinal bleeding (OGIB). To improve the quality of diagnosis, some vital specifications of WCE such as image resolution, frame [...] Read more.

Wireless capsule endoscopy (WCE) is a promising technology for direct diagnosis of the entire small bowel to detect lethal diseases, including cancer and obscure gastrointestinal bleeding (OGIB). To improve the quality of diagnosis, some vital specifications of WCE such as image resolution, frame rate and working time need to be improved. Additionally, future multi-functioning robotic capsule endoscopy (RCE) units may utilize advanced features such as active system control over capsule motion, drug delivery systems, semi-surgical tools and biopsy. However, the inclusion of the above advanced features demands additional power that make conventional power source methods impractical. In this regards, wireless power transmission (WPT) system has received attention among researchers to overcome this problem. Systematic reviews on techniques of using WPT for WCE are limited, especially when involving the recent technological advancements. This paper aims to fill that gap by providing a systematic review with emphasis on the aspects related to the amount of transmitted power, the power transmission efficiency, the system stability and patient safety. It is noted that, thus far the development of WPT system for this WCE application is still in initial stage and there is room for improvements, especially involving system efficiency, stability, and the patient safety aspects. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biomedical Sensors and Systems)

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25 pages, 717 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Computational Intelligence Techniques for Tactile Sensing Systems

by Paolo Gastaldo^*

, Luigi Pinna, Lucia Seminara, Maurizio Valle

and Rodolfo Zunino

Department of Electric, Electronic, Telecommunication Engineering and Naval Architecture, DITEN, University of Genoa, Via Opera Pia 11a, 16145 Genova, Italy

Sensors 2014, 14(6), 10952-10976; https://doi.org/10.3390/s140610952 - 19 Jun 2014

Cited by 31 | Viewed by 8662

Abstract

Tactile sensing helps robots interact with humans and objects effectively in real environments. Piezoelectric polymer sensors provide the functional building blocks of the robotic electronic skin, mainly thanks to their flexibility and suitability for detecting dynamic contact events and for recognizing the touch [...] Read more.

Tactile sensing helps robots interact with humans and objects effectively in real environments. Piezoelectric polymer sensors provide the functional building blocks of the robotic electronic skin, mainly thanks to their flexibility and suitability for detecting dynamic contact events and for recognizing the touch modality. The paper focuses on the ability of tactile sensing systems to support the challenging recognition of certain qualities/modalities of touch. The research applies novel computational intelligence techniques and a tensor-based approach for the classification of touch modalities; its main results consist in providing a procedure to enhance system generalization ability and architecture for multi-class recognition applications. An experimental campaign involving 70 participants using three different modalities in touching the upper surface of the sensor array was conducted, and confirmed the validity of the approach. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Tactile Sensors and Sensing Systems)

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24 pages, 844 KiB

Open AccessReview

Frequency-Shifted Interferometry — A Versatile Fiber-Optic Sensing Technique

by Fei Ye¹, Yiwei Zhang¹, Bing Qi² and Li Qian^1,*

¹ The Edward S. Rogers Sr. Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Toronto, 10 King's College Road, Toronto, Ontario M5S 3G4, Canada

² Quantum Information Science Group, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, 1 Bethel Valley Road, Oak Ridge, TN 37830, USA

Sensors 2014, 14(6), 10977-11000; https://doi.org/10.3390/s140610977 - 20 Jun 2014

Cited by 16 | Viewed by 8470

Abstract

Fiber-optic sensing is a field that is developing at a fast pace. Novel fiber-optic sensor designs and sensing principles constantly open doors for new opportunities. In this paper, we review a fiber-optic sensing technique developed in our research group called frequency-shifted interferometry (FSI). [...] Read more.

Fiber-optic sensing is a field that is developing at a fast pace. Novel fiber-optic sensor designs and sensing principles constantly open doors for new opportunities. In this paper, we review a fiber-optic sensing technique developed in our research group called frequency-shifted interferometry (FSI). This technique uses a continuous-wave light source, an optical frequency shifter, and a slow detector. We discuss the operation principles of several FSI implementations and show their applications in fiber length and dispersion measurement, locating weak reflections along a fiber link, fiber-optic sensor multiplexing, and high-sensitivity cavity ring-down measurement. Detailed analysis of FSI system parameters is also presented. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue State-of-the-Art Sensors in Canada 2014)

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15 pages, 832 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Magnetic Field Feature Extraction and Selection for Indoor Location Estimation

by Carlos E. Galván-Tejada^*

, Juan Pablo García-Vázquez and Ramon F. Brena

Instituto Tecnologico de Monterrey, CETEC South Tower, 5th floor, Avenue. E. Garza Sada 2501, 64849, Monterrey NL, Mexico

Sensors 2014, 14(6), 11001-11015; https://doi.org/10.3390/s140611001 - 20 Jun 2014

Cited by 57 | Viewed by 8935

Abstract

User indoor positioning has been under constant improvement especially with the availability of new sensors integrated into the modern mobile devices, which allows us to exploit not only infrastructures made for everyday use, such as WiFi, but also natural infrastructure, as is the [...] Read more.

User indoor positioning has been under constant improvement especially with the availability of new sensors integrated into the modern mobile devices, which allows us to exploit not only infrastructures made for everyday use, such as WiFi, but also natural infrastructure, as is the case of natural magnetic field. In this paper we present an extension and improvement of our current indoor localization model based on the feature extraction of 46 magnetic field signal features. The extension adds a feature selection phase to our methodology, which is performed through Genetic Algorithm (GA) with the aim of optimizing the fitness of our current model. In addition, we present an evaluation of the final model in two different scenarios: home and office building. The results indicate that performing a feature selection process allows us to reduce the number of signal features of the model from 46 to 5 regardless the scenario and room location distribution. Further, we verified that reducing the number of features increases the probability of our estimator correctly detecting the user’s location (sensitivity) and its capacity to detect false positives (specificity) in both scenarios. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Select Papers from UCAmI & IWAAL 2013 - the 7th International Conference on Ubiquitous Computing and Ambient Intelligence & the 5th International Workshop on Ambient Assisted Living (UCAmI & IWAAL 2013: Pervasive Sensing Solutions)

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15 pages, 900 KiB

Open AccessCommunication

Array Formatting of the Heat-Transfer Method (HTM) for the Detection of Small Organic Molecules by Molecularly Imprinted Polymers

by Gideon Wackers^1,†, Thijs Vandenryt^1,†, Peter Cornelis¹, Evelien Kellens^1,2, Ronald Thoelen^1,2

, Ward De Ceuninck^1,2,*, Patricia Losada-Pérez^1,2, Bart Van Grinsven^1,2,3

, Marloes Peeters^1,2 and Patrick Wagner^1,2

¹ Institute for Materials Research, Hasselt University, Wetenschapspark 1, B-3590 Diepenbeek, Belgium

² IMEC vzw—Division IMOMEC, Wetenschapspark 1, B-3590 Diepenbeek, Belgium

³ Maastricht Science Programme, Maastricht University, 6200 MD Maastricht, The Netherlands

^† These authors contributed equally to this work.

Sensors 2014, 14(6), 11016-11030; https://doi.org/10.3390/s140611016 - 20 Jun 2014

Cited by 23 | Viewed by 9349

Abstract

In this work we present the first steps towards a molecularly imprinted polymer (MIP)-based biomimetic sensor array for the detection of small organic molecules via the heat-transfer method (HTM). HTM relies on the change in thermal resistance upon binding of the target molecule [...] Read more.

In this work we present the first steps towards a molecularly imprinted polymer (MIP)-based biomimetic sensor array for the detection of small organic molecules via the heat-transfer method (HTM). HTM relies on the change in thermal resistance upon binding of the target molecule to the MIP-type receptor. A flow-through sensor cell was developed, which is segmented into four quadrants with a volume of 2.5 μL each, allowing four measurements to be done simultaneously on a single substrate. Verification measurements were conducted, in which all quadrants received a uniform treatment and all four channels exhibited a similar response. Subsequently, measurements were performed in quadrants, which were functionalized with different MIP particles. Each of these quadrants was exposed to the same buffer solution, spiked with different molecules, according to the MIP under analysis. With the flow cell design we could discriminate between similar small organic molecules and observed no significant cross-selectivity. Therefore, the MIP array sensor platform with HTM as a readout technique, has the potential to become a low-cost analysis tool for bioanalytical applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biomimetic Receptors and Sensors)

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Graphical abstract

14 pages, 512 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Mobile Device System for Early Warning of ECG Anomalies

by Adam Szczepański and Khalid Saeed^*

AGH University of Science and Technology, Faculty of Physics and Applied Computer Science, 30 Mickiewicza Av., PL-30059, Krakow 004812, Poland

Sensors 2014, 14(6), 11031-11044; https://doi.org/10.3390/s140611031 - 20 Jun 2014

Cited by 30 | Viewed by 19479

Abstract

With the rapid increase in computational power of mobile devices the amount of ambient intelligence-based smart environment systems has increased greatly in recent years. A proposition of such a solution is described in this paper, namely real time monitoring of an electrocardiogram (ECG) [...] Read more.

With the rapid increase in computational power of mobile devices the amount of ambient intelligence-based smart environment systems has increased greatly in recent years. A proposition of such a solution is described in this paper, namely real time monitoring of an electrocardiogram (ECG) signal during everyday activities for identification of life threatening situations. The paper, being both research and review, describes previous work of the authors, current state of the art in the context of the authors’ work and the proposed aforementioned system. Although parts of the solution were described in earlier publications of the authors, the whole concept is presented completely for the first time along with the prototype implementation on mobile device—a Windows 8 tablet with Modern UI. The system has three main purposes. The first goal is the detection of sudden rapid cardiac malfunctions and informing the people in the patient’s surroundings, family and friends and the nearest emergency station about the deteriorating health of the monitored person. The second goal is a monitoring of ECG signals under non-clinical conditions to detect anomalies that are typically not found during diagnostic tests. The third goal is to register and analyze repeatable, long-term disturbances in the regular signal and finding their patterns. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Ambient Assisted Living (AAL): Sensors, Architectures and Applications)

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4 pages, 138 KiB

Open AccessEditorial

Introduction to the Special Issue on “State-of-the-Art Sensor Technology in Japan 2012”

by Kouji Harada and Yoshiteru Ishida^*

Department of Computer Science and Engineering, Toyohashi University of Technology, 1-1 Hibarigaoka, Tempaku-cho, Toyohashi, Aichi 441-8580, Japan

Sensors 2014, 14(6), 11045-11048; https://doi.org/10.3390/s140611045 - 23 Jun 2014

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 5392

Abstract

Since the previous special issue: State-of-the-Art Sensor Technology in Japan in 2008, which collected papers on sensing technology for monitoring of humans and the environment, we have experienced the Great East Japan Earthquake, Tsunami on 11 March 2011. This special issue, while aiming [...] Read more.

Since the previous special issue: State-of-the-Art Sensor Technology in Japan in 2008, which collected papers on sensing technology for monitoring of humans and the environment, we have experienced the Great East Japan Earthquake, Tsunami on 11 March 2011. This special issue, while aiming in the same direction, focuses on technologies for: (1) accuracy and sensitivity, (2) wireless functions, (3) real-time response, (4) portability (miniaturization), and (5) privacy preservation to promote sensor and sensing technologies for disaster prevention and resilient systems. [...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue State-of-the-Art Sensors Technology in Japan 2012)

21 pages, 438 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Spike Detection Based on Normalized Correlation with Automatic Template Generation

by Wen-Jyi Hwang^*

, Szu-Huai Wang and Ya-Tzu Hsu

Department of Computer Science and Information Engineering, National Taiwan Normal University,Taipei 116, Taiwan

Sensors 2014, 14(6), 11049-11069; https://doi.org/10.3390/s140611049 - 23 Jun 2014

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 7501

Abstract

A novel feedback-based spike detection algorithm for noisy spike trains is presented in this paper. It uses the information extracted from the results of spike classification for the enhancement of spike detection. The algorithm performs template matching for spike detection by a normalized [...] Read more.

A novel feedback-based spike detection algorithm for noisy spike trains is presented in this paper. It uses the information extracted from the results of spike classification for the enhancement of spike detection. The algorithm performs template matching for spike detection by a normalized correlator. The detected spikes are then sorted by the OSortalgorithm. The mean of spikes of each cluster produced by the OSort algorithm is used as the template of the normalized correlator for subsequent detection. The automatic generation and updating of templates enhance the robustness of the spike detection to input trains with various spike waveforms and noise levels. Experimental results show that the proposed algorithm operating in conjunction with OSort is an efficient design for attaining high detection and classification accuracy for spike sorting. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Physical Sensors)

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27 pages, 1390 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Model-Based Approach for Bridging Virtual and Physical Sensor Nodes in a Hybrid Simulation Framework

by Mohammad Mozumdar^1,*, Zhen Yu Song², Luciano Lavagno²

and Alberto L. Sangiovanni-Vincentelli³

¹ Electrical Engineering, California State University Long Beach, 1250 N. Bellflower Blvd., Long Beach, CA 90840, USA

² Department of Electronics, Politecnico di Torino, Corso Duca degli Abruzzi 24, Turin 10129, Italy

³ EECS Department, University of California at Berkeley, Cory Hall, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA

Sensors 2014, 14(6), 11070-11096; https://doi.org/10.3390/s140611070 - 23 Jun 2014

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 7562

Abstract

The Model Based Design (MBD) approach is a popular trend to speed up application development of embedded systems, which uses high-level abstractions to capture functional requirements in an executable manner, and which automates implementation code generation. Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs) are an emerging [...] Read more.

The Model Based Design (MBD) approach is a popular trend to speed up application development of embedded systems, which uses high-level abstractions to capture functional requirements in an executable manner, and which automates implementation code generation. Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs) are an emerging very promising application area for embedded systems. However, there is a lack of tools in this area, which would allow an application developer to model a WSN application by using high level abstractions, simulate it mapped to a multi-node scenario for functional analysis, and finally use the refined model to automatically generate code for different WSN platforms. Motivated by this idea, in this paper we present a hybrid simulation framework that not only follows the MBD approach for WSN application development, but also interconnects a simulated sub-network with a physical sub-network and then allows one to co-simulate them, which is also known as Hardware-In-the-Loop (HIL) simulation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Wireless Sensor Networks and the Internet of Things)

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13 pages, 645 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Doped Polyaniline Modified Electrode Amperometric Biosensor for Gluconic Acid Determination in Grapes

by Donatella Albanese^1,*

, Francesca Malvano¹, Adriana Sannini¹, Roberto Pilloton² and Marisa Di Matteo¹

¹ Department of Industrial Engineering, University of Salerno, Via Giovanni Paolo II, 132, 84084 Fisciano (SA), Italy

² Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche, Institute of Atmospheric Pollution Research, Via Salaria Montelibretti, Roma 00015, Italy

Sensors 2014, 14(6), 11097-11109; https://doi.org/10.3390/s140611097 - 23 Jun 2014

Cited by 14 | Viewed by 7459

Abstract

In winemaking gluconic acid is an important marker for quantitative evaluation of grape infection by Botrytis cinerea. A screen-printed amperometric bienzymatic sensor for the determination of gluconic acid based on gluconate kinase (GK) and 6-phospho-D-gluconate dehydrogenase (6PGDH) coimmobilized onto polyaniline/poly (2-acrylamido-2-methyl-1-propanesulfonic acid; [...] Read more.

In winemaking gluconic acid is an important marker for quantitative evaluation of grape infection by Botrytis cinerea. A screen-printed amperometric bienzymatic sensor for the determination of gluconic acid based on gluconate kinase (GK) and 6-phospho-D-gluconate dehydrogenase (6PGDH) coimmobilized onto polyaniline/poly (2-acrylamido-2-methyl-1-propanesulfonic acid; PANI-PAAMPSA) is reported in this study. The conductive polymer electrodeposed on the working electrode surface allowed the detection of NADH at low potential (0.1 V) with a linear range from 4 × 10⁻³ to 1 mM (R² = 0.99) and a sensitivity of 419.44 nA∙mM⁻¹. The bienzymatic sensor has been optimized with regard to GK/6PGDH enzymatic unit ratio and ATP/NADP⁺ molar ratio which resulted equal to 0.33 and 1.2, respectively. Under these conditions a sensitivity of 255.2 nA∙mM⁻¹, a limit of detection of 5 μM and a Relative Standard Deviation (RSD) of 4.2% (n = 5) have been observed. Finally, the biosensor has been applied for gluconic acid measurements in must grape samples and the matrix effect has been taken into consideration. The results have been compared with those obtained on the same samples with a commercial kit based on a spectrophotometric enzyme assay and were in good agreement, showing the capability of the bienzymatic PANI-PAAMPSA biosensor for gluconic acid measurements and thus for the evaluation of Botrytis cinerea infection in grapes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Amperometric Biosensors)

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25 pages, 1170 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Context Graphs as an Efficient and User-Friendly Method of Describing and Recognizing a Situation in AAL

by Andrei Olaru^* and Adina Magda Florea

Computer Science Department, University Politehnica of Bucharest, 313 Splaiul Independentei, 060042 Bucharest, Romania

Sensors 2014, 14(6), 11110-11134; https://doi.org/10.3390/s140611110 - 23 Jun 2014

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 6365

Abstract

In the field of ambient assisted living, the best results are achieved with systems that are less intrusive and more intelligent, that can easily integrate both formal and informal caregivers and that can easily adapt to the changes in the situation of the [...] Read more.

In the field of ambient assisted living, the best results are achieved with systems that are less intrusive and more intelligent, that can easily integrate both formal and informal caregivers and that can easily adapt to the changes in the situation of the elderly or disabled person. This paper presents a graph-based representation for context information and a simple and intuitive method for situation recognition. Both the input and the results are easy to visualize, understand and use. Experiments have been performed on several AAL-specific scenarios. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Ambient Assisted Living (AAL): Sensors, Architectures and Applications)

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18 pages, 784 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Proximal Sensing of Plant-Pathogen Interactions in Spring Barley with Three Fluorescence Techniques

by Georg Leufen, Georg Noga and Mauricio Hunsche^*

Department of Horticultural Science, Institute of Crop Science and Resource Conservation, University of Bonn, Auf dem Huegel 6, Bonn D-53121, Germany

Sensors 2014, 14(6), 11135-11152; https://doi.org/10.3390/s140611135 - 24 Jun 2014

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 7506

Abstract

In the last years fluorescence spectroscopy has come to be viewed as an essential approach in key research fields of applied plant sciences. However, the quantity and particularly the quality of information produced by different equipment might vary considerably. In this study we [...] Read more.

In the last years fluorescence spectroscopy has come to be viewed as an essential approach in key research fields of applied plant sciences. However, the quantity and particularly the quality of information produced by different equipment might vary considerably. In this study we investigate the potential of three optical devices for the proximal sensing of plant-pathogen interactions in four genotypes of spring barley. For this purpose, the fluorescence lifetime, the image-resolved multispectral fluorescence and selected indices of a portable multiparametric fluorescence device were recorded at 3, 6, and 9 days after inoculation (dai) from healthy leaves as well as from leaves inoculated with powdery mildew (Blumeria graminis) or leaf rust (Puccinia hordei). Genotype-specific responses to pathogen infections were revealed already at 3 dai by higher fluorescence mean lifetimes in the spectral range from 410 to 560 nm in the less susceptible varieties. Noticeable pathogen-induced modifications were also revealed by the ‘Blue-to-Far-Red Fluorescence Ratio’ and the ‘Simple Fluorescence Ratio’. Particularly in the susceptible varieties the differences became more evident in the time-course of the experiment i.e., following the pathogen development. The relevance of the blue and green fluorescence to exploit the plant-pathogen interaction was demonstrated by the multispectral fluorescence imaging system. As shown, mildewed leaves were characterized by exceptionally high blue fluorescence, contrasting the values observed in rust inoculated leaves. Further, we confirm that the intensity of green fluorescence depends on the pathogen infection and the stage of disease development; this information might allow a differentiation of both diseases. Moreover, our results demonstrate that the detection area might influence the quality of the information, although it had a minor impact only in the current study. Finally, we highlight the relevance of different excitation-emission channels to better understand and evaluate plant-physiological alterations due to pathogen infections. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Biosensors)

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26 pages, 1110 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Enhancing Evacuation Plans with a Situation Awareness System Based on End-User Knowledge Provision

by Augusto Morales^1,*, Ramon Alcarria²

, Diego Martin¹ and Tomas Robles¹

¹ Department of Telematics Engineering, Technical University of Madrid, Av. Complutense 30, Ciudad Universitaria, 28040 Madrid, Spain

² Department of Topographic and Cartographic Engineering, Technical University of Madrid, Av. del Mediterráneo km 7.0 (Calle Mercator 2), 28031 Madrid, Spain

Sensors 2014, 14(6), 11153-11178; https://doi.org/10.3390/s140611153 - 24 Jun 2014

Cited by 26 | Viewed by 10343

Abstract

Recent disasters have shown that having clearly defined preventive procedures and decisions is a critical component that minimizes evacuation hazards and ensures a rapid and successful evolution of evacuation plans. In this context, we present our Situation-Aware System for enhancing Evacuation Plans (SASEP) [...] Read more.

Recent disasters have shown that having clearly defined preventive procedures and decisions is a critical component that minimizes evacuation hazards and ensures a rapid and successful evolution of evacuation plans. In this context, we present our Situation-Aware System for enhancing Evacuation Plans (SASEP) system, which allows creating end-user business rules that technically support the specific events, conditions and actions related to evacuation plans. An experimental validation was carried out where 32 people faced a simulated emergency situation, 16 of them using SASEP and the other 16 using a legacy system based on static signs. From the results obtained, we compare both techniques and discuss in which situations SASEP offers a better evacuation route option, confirming that it is highly valuable when there is a threat in the evacuation route. In addition, a study about user satisfaction using both systems is presented showing in which cases the systems are assessed as satisfactory, relevant and not frustrating. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Sensor Networks)

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Graphical abstract

25 pages, 1731 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Smart Sensors Enable Smart Air Conditioning Control

by Chin-Chi Cheng and Dasheng Lee^*

Department of Energy and Refrigerating Air-Conditioning Engineering, National Taipei University of Technology, Taipei 10608, Taiwan

Sensors 2014, 14(6), 11179-11203; https://doi.org/10.3390/s140611179 - 24 Jun 2014

Cited by 64 | Viewed by 35078

Abstract

In this study, mobile phones, wearable devices, temperature and human motion detectors are integrated as smart sensors for enabling smart air conditioning control. Smart sensors obtain feedback, especially occupants’ information, from mobile phones and wearable devices placed on human body. The information can [...] Read more.

In this study, mobile phones, wearable devices, temperature and human motion detectors are integrated as smart sensors for enabling smart air conditioning control. Smart sensors obtain feedback, especially occupants’ information, from mobile phones and wearable devices placed on human body. The information can be used to adjust air conditioners in advance according to humans’ intentions, in so-called intention causing control. Experimental results show that the indoor temperature can be controlled accurately with errors of less than ±0.1 °C. Rapid cool down can be achieved within 2 min to the optimized indoor capacity after occupants enter a room. It’s also noted that within two-hour operation the total compressor output of the smart air conditioner is 48.4% less than that of the one using On-Off control. The smart air conditioner with wearable devices could detect the human temperature and activity during sleep to determine the sleeping state and adjusting the sleeping function flexibly. The sleeping function optimized by the smart air conditioner with wearable devices could reduce the energy consumption up to 46.9% and keep the human health. The presented smart air conditioner could provide a comfortable environment and achieve the goals of energy conservation and environmental protection. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Physical Sensors)

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21 pages, 1918 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Medical Cloud-Based Platform for Respiration Rate Measurement and Hierarchical Classification of Breath Disorders

by Atena Roshan Fekr^*, Majid Janidarmian, Katarzyna Radecka and Zeljko Zilic

Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, McGill University, 3480 University Street Montreal H3A 0E9, Canada

Sensors 2014, 14(6), 11204-11224; https://doi.org/10.3390/s140611204 - 24 Jun 2014

Cited by 59 | Viewed by 13497

Abstract

The measurement of human respiratory signals is crucial in cyberbiological systems. A disordered breathing pattern can be the first symptom of different physiological, mechanical, or psychological dysfunctions. Therefore, a real-time monitoring of the respiration patterns, as well as respiration rate is a critical [...] Read more.

The measurement of human respiratory signals is crucial in cyberbiological systems. A disordered breathing pattern can be the first symptom of different physiological, mechanical, or psychological dysfunctions. Therefore, a real-time monitoring of the respiration patterns, as well as respiration rate is a critical need in medical applications. There are several methods for respiration rate measurement. However, despite their accuracy, these methods are expensive and could not be integrated in a body sensor network. In this work, we present a real-time cloud-based platform for both monitoring the respiration rate and breath pattern classification, remotely. The proposed system is designed particularly for patients with breathing problems (e.g., respiratory complications after surgery) or sleep disorders. Our system includes calibrated accelerometer sensor, Bluetooth Low Energy (BLE) and cloud-computing model. We also suggest a procedure to improve the accuracy of respiration rate for patients at rest positions. The overall error in the respiration rate calculation is obtained 0.53% considering SPR-BTA spirometer as the reference. Five types of respiration disorders, Bradapnea, Tachypnea, Cheyn-stokes, Kaussmal, and Biot’s breathing are classified based on hierarchical Support Vector Machine (SVM) with seven different features. We have evaluated the performance of the proposed classification while it is individualized to every subject (case 1) as well as considering all subjects (case 2). Since the selection of kernel function is a key factor to decide SVM’s performance, in this paper three different kernel functions are evaluated. The experiments are conducted with 11 subjects and the average accuracy of 94.52% for case 1 and the accuracy of 81.29% for case 2 are achieved based on Radial Basis Function (RBF). Finally, a performance evaluation has been done for normal and impaired subjects considering sensitivity, specificity and G-mean parameters of different kernel functions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue State-of-the-Art Sensors in Canada 2014)

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Graphical abstract

20 pages, 743 KiB

Open AccessReview

Bacteria Inside Semiconductors as Potential Sensor Elements: Biochip Progress

by Vasu R. Sah¹ and Robert E. Baier^2,*

¹ Harvard-MIT Health Sciences and Technology Division, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA

² Industry/University Center for Biosurfaces, State University of New York at Buffalo, Buffalo, NY 14214, USA

Sensors 2014, 14(6), 11225-11244; https://doi.org/10.3390/s140611225 - 24 Jun 2014

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 9801

Abstract

It was discovered at the beginning of this Century that living bacteria—and specifically the extremophile Pseudomonas syzgii—could be captured inside growing crystals of pure water-corroding semiconductors—specifically germanium—and thereby initiated pursuit of truly functional “biochip-based” biosensors. This observation was first made at the [...] Read more.

It was discovered at the beginning of this Century that living bacteria—and specifically the extremophile Pseudomonas syzgii—could be captured inside growing crystals of pure water-corroding semiconductors—specifically germanium—and thereby initiated pursuit of truly functional “biochip-based” biosensors. This observation was first made at the inside ultraviolet-illuminated walls of ultrapure water-flowing semiconductor fabrication facilities (fabs) and has since been, not as perfectly, replicated in simpler flow cell systems for chip manufacture, described here. Recognizing the potential importance of these adducts as optical switches, for example, or probes of metabolic events, the influences of the fabs and their components on the crystal nucleation and growth phenomena now identified are reviewed and discussed with regard to further research needs. For example, optical beams of current photonic circuits can be more easily modulated by integral embedded cells into electrical signals on semiconductors. Such research responds to a recently published Grand Challenge in ceramic science, designing and synthesizing oxide electronics, surfaces, interfaces and nanoscale structures that can be tuned by biological stimuli, to reveal phenomena not otherwise possible with conventional semiconductor electronics. This short review addresses only the fabrication facilities’ features at the time of first production of these potential biochips. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue On-Chip Sensors)

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15 pages, 6942 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Robust Pedestrian Tracking and Recognition from FLIR Video: A Unified Approach via Sparse Coding

by Xin Li^1,*, Rui Guo² and Chao Chen³

¹ Lane Department of CSEE, Morgantown, WV 26506-6109, USA

² Department of EECS, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN 37996, USA

³ Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO 65211, USA

Sensors 2014, 14(6), 11245-11259; https://doi.org/10.3390/s140611245 - 24 Jun 2014

Cited by 19 | Viewed by 7843

Abstract

Sparse coding is an emerging method that has been successfully applied to both robust object tracking and recognition in the vision literature. In this paper, we propose to explore a sparse coding-based approach toward joint object tracking-and-recognition and explore its potential in the [...] Read more.

Sparse coding is an emerging method that has been successfully applied to both robust object tracking and recognition in the vision literature. In this paper, we propose to explore a sparse coding-based approach toward joint object tracking-and-recognition and explore its potential in the analysis of forward-looking infrared (FLIR) video to support nighttime machine vision systems. A key technical contribution of this work is to unify existing sparse coding-based approaches toward tracking and recognition under the same framework, so that they can benefit from each other in a closed-loop. On the one hand, tracking the same object through temporal frames allows us to achieve improved recognition performance through dynamical updating of template/dictionary and combining multiple recognition results; on the other hand, the recognition of individual objects facilitates the tracking of multiple objects (i.e., walking pedestrians), especially in the presence of occlusion within a crowded environment. We report experimental results on both the CASIAPedestrian Database and our own collected FLIR video database to demonstrate the effectiveness of the proposed joint tracking-and-recognition approach. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Detection and Tracking of Targets in Forward-Looking InfraRed (FLIR) Imagery)

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17 pages, 1458 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Implementation of Ultrasonic Sensing for High Resolution Measurement of Binary Gas Mixture Fractions

by Richard Bates¹, Michele Battistin², Stephane Berry², Alexander Bitadze¹, Pierre Bonneau², Nicolas Bousson³, George Boyd^4,*, Gennaro Bozza², Olivier Crespo-Lopez², Enrico Da Riva², Cyril Degeorge⁵, Cecile Deterre⁶, Beniamino DiGirolamo², Martin Doubek⁷, Gilles Favre², Jan Godlewski², Gregory Hallewell³, Ahmed Hasib⁴, Sergey Katunin⁸, Nicolas Langevin³, Didier Lombard², Michel Mathieu³, Stephen McMahon⁹, Koichi Nagai¹⁰, Benjamin Pearson⁴, David Robinson¹¹, Cecilia Rossi¹², Alexandre Rozanov³, Michael Strauss⁴, Michal Vitek⁷, Vaclav Vacek⁷ and Lukasz Zwalinski² Show full author list Hide full author list

¹ SUPA School of Physics and Astronomy, University of Glasgow, G627QB, UK

² CERN, 1211 Geneva 23, Switzerland

³ Centre de Physique des Particules de Marseille, 163 Avenue de Luminy, 13288 Marseille, France

⁴ Department of Physics & Astronomy, University of Oklahoma, Norman, OK 73019, USA

⁵ Department of Physics, Indiana University, Bloomington, IN 47405 7015, USA

⁶ Deutsches Elektronen-Synchrotron , Notkestraße 85, D-22607 Hamburg, Germany

⁷ Czech Technical University, Technická 4, 16607, Praha Czech Republic

⁸ Konstantinov Petersburg Nuclear Physics Institute (PNPI), Orlova Roscha, RU-188300, Russia

⁹ STFC Rutherford Appelton Laboratory—Harwell Oxford, Didcot, OX11 OQX, UK

¹⁰ Department of Physics, Oxford University, Oxford OX1 3RH, UK

¹¹ Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, CB3 0HE, UK

¹² Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, 11000 Praha, Czech Republic

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Sensors 2014, 14(6), 11260-11276; https://doi.org/10.3390/s140611260 - 24 Jun 2014

Cited by 18 | Viewed by 12211

Abstract

We describe an ultrasonic instrument for continuous real-time analysis of the fractional mixture of a binary gas system. The instrument is particularly well suited to measurement of leaks of a high molecular weight gas into a system that is nominally composed of a [...] Read more.

We describe an ultrasonic instrument for continuous real-time analysis of the fractional mixture of a binary gas system. The instrument is particularly well suited to measurement of leaks of a high molecular weight gas into a system that is nominally composed of a single gas. Sensitivity < 5 × 10⁻⁵ is demonstrated to leaks of octaflouropropane (C₃F₈) coolant into nitrogen during a long duration (18 month) continuous study. The sensitivity of the described measurement system is shown to depend on the difference in molecular masses of the two gases in the mixture. The impact of temperature and pressure variances on the accuracy of the measurement is analysed. Practical considerations for the implementation and deployment of long term, in situ ultrasonic leak detection systems are also described. Although development of the described systems was motivated by the requirements of an evaporative fluorocarbon cooling system, the instrument is applicable to the detection of leaks of many other gases and to processes requiring continuous knowledge of particular binary gas mixture fractions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sensors for Fluid Leak Detection)

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Sensors, Volume 14, Issue 6 (June 2014) – 96 articles , Pages 9369-11277

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