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Elucidating the coexistence mechanisms of rapidly diverging species has long been a challenge in evolutionary biology. Genome-wide polymorphic loci are expected to provide insights into the speciation processes of these closely related species. This study focused on seven Chinese sclerophyllous oaks, represented by Quercus spinosa, Quercus aquifolioides, Quercus rehderiana, Quercus guyavifolia, Quercus monimotricha, Quercus semecarpifolia, and Quercus senescens, employing 27,592 single-nucleotide polymorphisms to examine their phylogenetic relationships at the genomic level. Combined with genetic structure analysis, phylogenetic trees revealed that the genetic clustering of individuals was influenced by both geographic distance and ancestral genetic components. Furthermore, this study confirmed the existence of reticulate evolutionary relationships among the species. Frequent gene flow and introgression within the seven species were primarily responsible for the ambiguous interspecies boundaries, with hybridization serving as a major driver of reticulate evolution. Additionally, the seven species exhibited distinct differences in niche occupancy. By reconstructing the climatic adaptability of ancestral taxonomic units, we found that the climatic tolerance of each species displayed differential responses to 19 climatic factors. Consequently, ecological niche differentiation and variations in habitat adaptation contributed to the preservation of species boundaries. This study provides a comprehensive understanding of the speciation processes in rapidly diverging genera and underscores the significance of both genetic and ecological factors in the formation and maintenance of species boundaries. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Plant Genetics, Genomics and Biotechnology)

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22 pages, 1504 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Production of Bioadsorbents via Low-Temperature Pyrolysis of Exhausted Olive Pomace for the Removal of Methylene Blue from Aqueous Media

by Safae Chafi, Manuel Cuevas-Aranda, Mª Lourdes Martínez-Cartas and Sebastián Sánchez

Molecules 2025, 30(15), 3254; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules30153254 (registering DOI) - 3 Aug 2025

Abstract

In this work, biochars were produced by pyrolysis of exhausted olive pomace and evaluated as low-cost adsorbents for the removal of methylene blue (MB) from aqueous solutions. The biochar obtained at 400 °C for 1 h, which exhibited the best adsorption performance, was characterized by FTIR, N₂ adsorption–desorption isotherms, SEM-EDX, and proximate analysis, revealing a mesoporous structure with a relatively low specific surface area but enriched in surface functional groups, likely due to the partial degradation of lignocellulosic components. Adsorption experiments were conducted to optimize operational parameters such as solid particle size (2–3 mm), agitation speed (75 rpm), and bioadsorbent dosage (1 g per 0.05 L of MB solution), which allowed for dye removal efficiencies close to 100%. Kinetic studies showed that MB adsorption followed a pseudo-second-order model, while equilibrium data at 30 °C were best described by the Langmuir isotherm (R² = 0.999; SE = 4.25%), suggesting monolayer coverage and strong adsorbate–adsorbent affinity. Desorption trials using water, ethanol, and their mixtures resulted in low MB recovery, whereas the addition of 10% acetic acid significantly improved desorption performance. Under optimal conditions, up to 52% of the retained dye was recovered. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Biomass Chemicals: Transformation and Valorization)

32 pages, 2632 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Spatial Heterogeneity in Carbon Pools of Young Betula sp. Stands on Former Arable Lands in the South of the Moscow Region

by Gulfina G. Frolova, Pavel V. Frolov, Vladimir N. Shanin and Irina V. Priputina

Plants 2025, 14(15), 2401; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants14152401 (registering DOI) - 3 Aug 2025

Abstract

This study investigates the spatial heterogeneity of carbon pools in young Betula sp. stands on former arable lands in the southern Moscow region, Russia. The findings could be useful for the current estimates and predictions of the carbon balance in such forest ecosystems. The research focuses on understanding the interactions between plant cover and the environment, i.e., how environmental factors such as stand density, tree diameter and height, light conditions, and soil properties affect ecosystem carbon pools. We also studied how heterogeneity in edaphic conditions affects the formation of plant cover, particularly tree regeneration and the development of ground layer vegetation. Field measurements were conducted on a permanent 50 × 50 m sampling plot divided into 5 × 5 m subplots, in order to capture variability in vegetation and soil characteristics. Key findings reveal significant differences in carbon stocks across subplots with varying stand densities and light conditions. This highlights the role of the spatial heterogeneity of soil properties and vegetation cover in carbon sequestration. The study demonstrates the feasibility of indirect estimation of carbon stocks using stand parameters (density, height, and diameter), with results that closely match direct measurements. The total ecosystem carbon stock was estimated at 80.47 t ha⁻¹, with the soil contribution exceeding that of living biomass and dead organic matter. This research emphasizes the importance of accounting for spatial heterogeneity in carbon assessments of post-agricultural ecosystems, providing a methodological framework for future studies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Plant–Soil Interactions)

16 pages, 2365 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Surface Charge Affects the Intracellular Fate and Clearance Dynamics of CdSe/ZnS Quantum Dots in Macrophages

by Yuan-Yuan Liu, Yong-Yue Sun, Yuan Guo, Lu-Lu Chen, Jun-Hao Guo and Haifang Wang

Nanomaterials 2025, 15(15), 1189; https://doi.org/10.3390/nano15151189 (registering DOI) - 3 Aug 2025

Abstract

The biological effects of nanoparticles are closely related to their intracellular content and location, both of which are influenced by various factors. This study investigates the effects of surface charge on the uptake, intracellular distribution, and exocytosis of CdSe/ZnS quantum dots (QDs) in Raw264.7 macrophages. Negatively charged 3-mercaptopropanoic acid functionalized QDs (QDs-MPA) show higher cellular uptake than positively charged 2-mercaptoethylamine functionalized QDs (QDs-MEA), and serum enhances the uptake of both types of QDs via protein corona-mediated receptor endocytosis. QDs-MEA primarily enter the cells through clathrin/caveolae-mediated pathways and predominantly accumulate in lysosomes, while QDs-MPA are mainly internalized through clathrin-mediated endocytosis and localize to both lysosomes and mitochondria. Exocytosis of QDs-MPA is faster and more efficient than that of QDs-MEA, though both exhibit limited excretion. In addition to endocytosis and exocytosis, cell division influences intracellular QD content over time. These results reveal the charge-dependent interactions between QDs and macrophages, providing a basis for designing biocompatible nanomaterials. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Biology and Medicines)

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22 pages, 13770 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Prediction Model of Powdery Mildew Disease Index in Rubber Trees Based on Machine Learning

by Jiazheng Zhu, Xize Huang, Xiaoyu Liang, Meng Wang and Yu Zhang

Plants 2025, 14(15), 2402; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants14152402 (registering DOI) - 3 Aug 2025

Abstract

Powdery mildew, caused by Erysiphe quercicola, is one of the primary diseases responsible for the reduction in natural rubber production in China. This disease is a typical airborne pathogen, characterized by its ability to spread via air currents and rapidly escalate into an epidemic under favorable environmental conditions. Accurate prediction and determination of the prevention and control period represent both a critical challenge and key focus area in managing rubber-tree powdery mildew. This study investigates the effects of spore concentration, environmental factors, and infection time on the progression of powdery mildew in rubber trees. By employing six distinct machine learning model construction methods, with the disease index of powdery mildew in rubber trees as the response variable and spore concentration, temperature, humidity, and infection time as predictive variables, a preliminary predictive model for the disease index of rubber-tree powdery mildew was developed. Results from indoor inoculation experiments indicate that spore concentration directly influences disease progression and severity. Higher spore concentrations lead to faster disease development and increased severity. The optimal relative humidity for powdery mildew development in rubber trees is 80% RH. At varying temperatures, the influence of humidity on the disease index differs across spore concentration, exhibiting distinct trends. Each model effectively simulates the progression of powdery mildew in rubber trees, with predicted values closely aligning with observed data. Among the models, the Kernel Ridge Regression (KRR) model demonstrates the highest accuracy, the R² values for the training set and test set were 0.978 and 0.964, respectively, while the RMSE values were 4.037 and 4.926, respectively. This research provides a robust technical foundation for reducing the labor intensity of traditional prediction methods and offers valuable insights for forecasting airborne forest diseases. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Plant Modeling)

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24 pages, 4301 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Estimation of the Kinetic Coefficient of Friction of Asphalt Pavements Using the Top Topography Surface Roughness Power Spectrum

by Bo Sun, Haoyuan Luo, Yibo Rong and Yanqin Yang

Materials 2025, 18(15), 3643; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma18153643 (registering DOI) - 2 Aug 2025

Abstract

This study proposes a method for estimating the kinetic coefficient of friction (COF) for asphalt pavements by improving and applying Persson’s friction theory. The method utilizes the power spectral density (PSD) of the top surface topography instead of the full PSD to better reflect the actual contact conditions. This approach avoids including deeper roughness components that do not contribute to real rubber–pavement contact due to surface skewness. The key aspect of the method is determining an appropriate cutting plane to isolate the top surface. Four cutting strategies were evaluated. Results show that the cutting plane defined at 0.5 times the root mean square (RMS) height exhibits the highest robustness across all pavement types, with the estimated COF closely matching the measured values for all four tested surfaces. This study presents an improved method for estimating the kinetic coefficient of friction (COF) of asphalt pavements by employing the power spectral density (PSD) of the top surface roughness, rather than the total surface profile. This refinement is based on Persson’s friction theory and aims to exclude the influence of deep surface irregularities that do not make actual contact with the rubber interface. The core of the method lies in defining an appropriate cutting plane to isolate the topographical features that contribute most to frictional interactions. Four cutting strategies were investigated. Among them, the cutting plane positioned at 0.5 times the root mean square (RMS) height demonstrated the best overall applicability. COF estimates derived from this method showed strong consistency with experimentally measured values across all four tested asphalt pavement surfaces, indicating its robustness and practical potential. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Construction and Building Materials)

16 pages, 2901 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Unveiling the Genetic Landscape of Canine Papillomavirus in the Brazilian Amazon

by Jeneffer Caroline de Macêdo Sousa, André de Medeiros Costa Lins, Fernanda dos Anjos Souza, Higor Ortiz Manoel, Cleyton Silva de Araújo, Lorena Yanet Cáceres Tomaya, Paulo Henrique Gilio Gasparotto, Vyctoria Malayhka de Abreu Góes Pereira, Acácio Duarte Pacheco, Fernando Rosado Spilki, Mariana Soares da Silva, Felipe Masiero Salvarani, Cláudio Wageck Canal, Flavio Roberto Chaves da Silva and Cíntia Daudt

Microorganisms 2025, 13(8), 1811; https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms13081811 (registering DOI) - 2 Aug 2025

Abstract

Papillomaviruses (PVs) are double-stranded DNA viruses known to induce a variety of epithelial lesions in dogs, ranging from benign hyperplasia to malignancies. In regions of rich biodiversity such as the Western Amazon, data on the circulation and genetic composition of canine papillomaviruses (CPVs) remain scarce. This study investigated CPV types present in oral and cutaneous papillomatous lesions in domiciled dogs from Acre and Rondônia States, Brazil. Sixty-one dogs with macroscopically consistent lesions were clinically evaluated, and tissue samples were collected for histopathological examination and PCR targeting the L1 gene. Among these, 37% were histologically diagnosed as squamous papillomas or fibropapillomas, and 49.2% (30/61) tested positive for papillomavirus DNA. Sequencing of the L1 gene revealed that most positive samples belonged to CPV1 (Lambdapapillomavirus 2), while one case was identified as CPV8 (Chipapillomavirus 3). Complete genomes of three CPV1 strains were obtained via high-throughput sequencing and showed high identity with CPV1 strains from other Brazilian regions. Phylogenetic analysis confirmed close genetic relationships among isolates across distinct geographic areas. These findings demonstrate the circulation of genetically conserved CPVs in the Amazon and reinforce the value of molecular and histopathological approaches for the accurate diagnosis and surveillance of viral diseases in domestic dogs, especially in ecologically complex regions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Advances in Infectious and Parasitic Diseases of Animals)

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23 pages, 8591 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Targeting Cellular Senescence with Liposome-Encapsulated Fisetin: Evidence of Senomorphic Effect

by Agata Henschke, Bartosz Grześkowiak, Olena Ivashchenko, María Celina Sánchez-Cerviño, Emerson Coy and Sergio Moya

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2025, 26(15), 7489; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms26157489 (registering DOI) - 2 Aug 2025

Abstract

Cellular senescence is closely connected with cancer progression, recurrence, and metastasis. Senotherapy aims to soothe the harmful effects of senescent cells either by inducing their apoptosis (senolytic) or by suppressing the senescence-associated secretory phenotype (SASP) (senomorphic). Fisetin, a well-studied senotherapeutic drug, was selected for this study to evaluate its efficiency when delivered in a liposomal formulation. The experiment evaluated the impact of liposome-encapsulated fisetin on senescent cells induced by doxorubicin (DOX) from two cell lines: WI-38 (normal lung fibroblasts) and A549 (lung carcinoma). Senescence was characterized by SA-β-galactosidase (SA-β-gal) activity, proliferation, morphology, and secretion of pro-inflammatory interleukin 6 (IL-6) and interleukin 8 (IL-8). Due to fisetin’s hydrophobic nature, it was encapsulated in liposomes to enhance cellular delivery. Cellular uptake studies confirmed that the liposomes were effectively internalized by both senescent cell types. Treatment with fisetin-loaded liposomes revealed a lack of senolytic effects but showed senomorphic activity, as evidenced by a significant reduction in IL-6 and IL-8 secretion in senescent cells. The liposomal formulation enhanced fisetin’s therapeutic efficacy, showing comparable results even at the lowest tested concentration. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Molecular Pharmacology)

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27 pages, 19737 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of Landscape Architectural Characteristics on LST in Different Zones of Zhengzhou City, China

by Jiayue Xu, Le Xuan, Cong Li, Tianji Wu, Yajing Wang, Yutong Wang, Xuhui Wang and Yong Wang

Land 2025, 14(8), 1581; https://doi.org/10.3390/land14081581 (registering DOI) - 2 Aug 2025

Abstract

The process of urbanization has intensified the urban heat environment, with the degradation of thermal conditions closely linked to the morphological characteristics of different functional zones. This study delineated urban functional areas using a multivariate dataset and investigated the seasonal and threshold effects of landscape and architectural features on land surface temperature (LST) through boosted regression tree (BRT) modeling and Spearman correlation analysis. The key findings are as follows: (1) LST exhibits significant seasonal variation, with the strongest urban heat island effect occurring in summer, particularly within industry, business, and public service zones; residence zones experience the greatest temperature fluctuations, with a seasonal difference of 24.71 °C between spring and summer and a peak temperature of 50.18 °C in summer. (2) Fractional vegetation cover (FVC) consistently demonstrates the most pronounced cooling effect across all zones and seasons. Landscape indicators generally dominate the regulation of LST, with their relative contribution exceeding 45% in green land zones. (3) Population density (PD) exerts a significant, seasonally dependent dual effect on LST, where strategic population distribution can effectively mitigate extreme heat events. (4) Mean building height (MBH) plays a vital role in temperature regulation, showing a marked cooling influence particularly in residence and business zones. Both the perimeter-to-area ratio (LSI) and frontal area index (FAI) exhibit distinct seasonal variations in their impacts on LST. (5) This study establishes specific indicator thresholds to optimize thermal comfort across five functional zones; for instance, FVC should exceed 13% in spring and 31.6% in summer in residence zones to enhance comfort, while maintaining MBH above 24 m further aids temperature regulation. These findings offer a scientific foundation for mitigating urban heat waves and advancing sustainable urban development. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Climate Adaptation Planning in Urban Areas)

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30 pages, 3150 KiB

Open AccessReview

Making the Connection Between PFASs and Agriculture Using the Example of Minnesota, USA: A Review

by Sven Reetz, Joel Tallaksen, John Larson and Christof Wetter

Agriculture 2025, 15(15), 1676; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture15151676 (registering DOI) - 2 Aug 2025

Abstract

Exposure to per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) can cause detrimental health effects. The consumption of contaminated food is viewed as a major exposure pathway for humans, but the relationship between agriculture and PFASs has not been investigated thoroughly, and it is becoming a pressing issue since health advisories are continuously being reassessed. This semi-systematic literature review connects the release, environmental fate, and agriculture uptake of PFASs to enhance comprehension and identify knowledge gaps which limit accurate risk assessment. It focuses on the heavily agricultural state of Minnesota, USA, which is representative of the large Midwestern US Corn Belt in terms of agricultural activities, because PFASs have been monitored in Minnesota since the beginning of the 21st century. PFAS contamination is a complex issue due to the over 14,000 individual PFAS compounds which have unique chemical properties that interact differently with air, water, soil, and biological systems. Moreover, the lack of field studies and monitoring of agricultural sites makes accurate risk assessments challenging. Researchers, policymakers, and farmers must work closely together to reduce the risk of PFAS exposure as the understanding of their potential health effects increases and legacy PFASs are displaced with shorter fluorinated replacements. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Ecosystem, Environment and Climate Change in Agriculture)

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21 pages, 875 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Comprehensive Analysis of Neural Network Inference on Embedded Systems: Response Time, Calibration, and Model Optimisation

by Patrick Huber, Ulrich Göhner, Mario Trapp, Jonathan Zender and Rabea Lichtenberg

Sensors 2025, 25(15), 4769; https://doi.org/10.3390/s25154769 (registering DOI) - 2 Aug 2025

Abstract

The response time of Artificial Neural Network (ANN) inference is critical in embedded systems processing sensor data close to the source. This is particularly important in applications such as predictive maintenance, which rely on timely state change predictions. This study enables estimation of model response times based on the underlying platform, highlighting the importance of benchmarking generic ANN applications on edge devices. We analyze the impact of network parameters, activation functions, and single- versus multi-threading on response times. Additionally, potential hardware-related influences, such as clock rate variances, are discussed. The results underline the complexity of task partitioning and scheduling strategies, stressing the need for precise parameter coordination to optimise performance across platforms. This study shows that cutting-edge frameworks do not necessarily perform the required operations automatically for all configurations, which may negatively impact performance. This paper further investigates the influence of network structure on model calibration, quantified using the Expected Calibration Error (ECE), and the limits of potential optimisation opportunities. It also examines the effects of model conversion to Tensorflow Lite (TFLite), highlighting the necessity of considering both performance and calibration when deploying models on embedded systems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Fault Diagnosis & Sensors)

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30 pages, 1538 KiB

Open AccessReview

Circular Economy in the Construction Sector in Materials, Processes, and Case Studies: Research Review

by Alicja Krajewska and Monika Siewczyńska

Sustainability 2025, 17(15), 7029; https://doi.org/10.3390/su17157029 (registering DOI) - 2 Aug 2025

Abstract

Closed-loop processes can help reduce the environmental impact of the construction sector. Despite its growing popularity, the reuse of materials is still not a common practice. There are many studies available on material processing, design processes, and case studies, but the opportunities and challenges in this area have not been identified. Through a review of the scientific literature, including articles published in peer-reviewed journals, this study aims to organise the information collected in the form of an article and identify areas that require further research and expansion. When the articles are divided into the three groups mentioned above, the barriers and benefits of the research already carried out have been identified. The tools used in the research or processes were identified to highlight good practices that are worth replicating in the future. The challenges that commonly arose, the links between them, and their causes were also identified. Full article

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13 pages, 1700 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Comparison of Cup Position and Perioperative Characteristics in Total Hip Arthroplasty Following Three Types of Pelvic Osteotomy

by Ryuichi Kanabuchi, Yu Mori, Kazuyoshi Baba, Hidetatsu Tanaka, Hiroaki Kurishima, Yasuaki Kuriyama, Hideki Fukuchi, Hiroki Kawamata and Toshimi Aizawa

Medicina 2025, 61(8), 1407; https://doi.org/10.3390/medicina61081407 (registering DOI) - 2 Aug 2025

Abstract

Background and Objectives: Total hip arthroplasty (THA) following pelvic osteotomy for developmental dysplasia of the hip (DDH) is technically challenging due to altered acetabular morphology. This study aimed to compare radiographic cup position and perioperative characteristics of THA after three common pelvic osteotomies—periacetabular osteotomy (PAO), shelf procedure, and Chiari osteotomy—with primary THA in Crowe type I DDH. Methods: A retrospective review identified 25 hips that underwent conversion THA after pelvic osteotomy (PAO = 12, shelf = 8, Chiari = 5) and 25 primary THAs without prior osteotomy. One-to-one matching was performed based on sex (exact match), age (within 5 years), and BMI (within 2 kg/m²) without the use of propensity scores. Cup inclination, radiographic anteversion, center-edge (CE) angle, and cup height were measured on standardized anteroposterior radiographs (ICC = 0.91). Operative time, estimated blood loss, and use of bulk bone grafts or reinforcement rings were reviewed. One-way ANOVA with Dunnett’s post hoc test and chi-square test were used for statistical comparison. Results: Cup inclination, anteversion, and CE angle did not differ significantly among groups. Cup height was significantly greater in the PAO group than in controls (29.0 mm vs. 21.8 mm; p = 0.0075), indicating a more proximal hip center. The Chiari and shelf groups showed upward trends, though not significant. Mean operative time tended to be longer after PAO (123 min vs. 93 min; p = 0.078). Bulk bone grafts and reinforcement rings were more frequently required in the PAO group (17%; p = 0.036 vs. control), and occasionally in Chiari cases, but not in shelf or control groups. Conclusions: THA after PAO is associated with higher cup placement and greater need for reconstructive devices, indicating increased technical complexity. In contrast, shelf and Chiari conversions more closely resemble primary THA. Preoperative planning should consider hip center translation and bone-stock restoration in post-osteotomy THA. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Orthopedics)

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23 pages, 995 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Toward Sustainable Technology Use in Education: Psychological Pathways and Professional Status Effects in the TAM Framework

by Andrei-Lucian Marian, Roxana Apostolache and Ciprian Marius Ceobanu

Sustainability 2025, 17(15), 7025; https://doi.org/10.3390/su17157025 (registering DOI) - 2 Aug 2025

Abstract

The sustainable integration of technology into educational practices is pivotal for modern teaching and learning. Grounded in the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM), this study explores the psychological and contextual factors that influence technology acceptance among pre-service and in-service teachers. Employing a nonexperimental, cross-sectional design, data were collected from 347 participants to examine the relationships between perceived usefulness, perceived ease of use, attitude toward use, behavioural intention, and actual system use. Results indicate that pre-service teachers demonstrate stronger openness to technology adoption, driven primarily by attitudinal factors, whereas in-service teachers’ acceptance is more closely linked to perceived utility and usability. This study advances the TAM by integrating a dual serial mediation model and testing the moderating role of professional status, thereby offering a nuanced understanding of sustainable digital engagement across career stages. Our findings underscore the importance of fostering positive perceptions and providing differentiated support throughout teachers’ professional trajectories to achieve long-term, meaningful technology adoption in education. Full article

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18 pages, 4994 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Plant Growth-Promoting Serratia and Erwinia Strains Enhance Tea Plant Tolerance and Rhizosphere Microbial Diversity Under Heavy Metal Stress

by Mengjiao Wang and Zhimin Xu

Agronomy 2025, 15(8), 1876; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15081876 (registering DOI) - 2 Aug 2025

Abstract

This study demonstrated that application of the particular plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR) strains Erwinia sp. and Serratia sp. (named C15 and C20, respectively) significantly enhanced tea plant resilience in Zn (zinc)-, Pb (lead)-, and Zn + Pb-contaminated soils by the improving survival rates (over 60%) and chlorophyll content of tea plants, and by reducing the accumulation of these metals in tea plants’ tissues (by 19–37%). The PGPRs elevated key soil nutrients organic carbon (OC), total nitrogen (TH), hydrolysable nitrogen (HN), and available potassium (APO) and phosphorus (APH) contents. Compared to non-PGPR controls, both strains consistently increased microbial α-diversity (Chao1 index: +28–42% in Zn/Pb soils; Shannon index: +19–33%) across all contamination regimes. PCoA/UniFrac analyses confirmed distinct clustering of PGPR-treated communities, with strain-specific enrichment of metal-adapted taxa, including Pseudomonas (LDA = 6) and Bacillus (LDA = 4) under Zn stress; Rhodanobacter (LDA = 4) under Pb stress; and Lysobacter (LDA = 5) in Zn + Pb co-contamination. Fungal restructuring featured elevated Mortierella (LDA = 6) in Zn soils and stress-tolerant Ascomycota dominance in co-contaminated soils. Multivariate correlations revealed that the PGPR-produced auxin was positively correlated with soil carbon dynamics and Mortierellomycota abundance (r = 0.729), while the chlorophyll content in leaves was closely associated with Cyanobacteria and reduced by Pb accumulation. These findings highlighted that PGPR could mediate and improve in tea plant physiology, soil fertility, and stress-adapted microbiome recruitment under heavy metal contaminated soil and stress. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Soil and Plant Nutrition)

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