Urban Science

Transport affordability defined as the share of household income devoted to transport expenditure is a key dimension of urban equity and social inclusion, particularly in contexts characterised by spatial inequality and income disparities. This study examines provincial variation in public transport affordability across South Africa using a hierarchical Bayesian regression framework applied to province–year data from 2015 to 2022 (n = 72). Affordability is operationalised as a transport cost burden, with higher values indicating a greater proportion of household income spent on transport, and is modelled as a function of household income, trip frequency, household population, and total provincial employment, with province-level random intercepts capturing unobserved regional heterogeneity. The results indicate that household income is negatively associated with transport cost burden, suggesting that provinces with higher average income devote a smaller share of income to transport and therefore experience better affordability. In contrast, household population and aggregate provincial employment are positively associated with transport cost burden, reflecting higher overall mobility and commuting demands in larger and more economically active provinces rather than improved affordability. Trip frequency shows no statistically meaningful association with affordability once household composition and income capacity are accounted for. After accounting for observed characteristics, between-province variation is limited, indicating that affordability dynamics are broadly similar across provinces over the study period. Methodologically, the hierarchical Bayesian framework enables partial pooling across provinces and supports probabilistic inference through credible intervals, thereby improving the stability of estimates in a small-sample multilevel context. While the analysis is associational rather than causal, the findings provide policy-relevant evidence for monitoring transport affordability, including benchmarking the prevalence of affordability burdens relative to the commonly used 10% threshold.

The spatial distribution of immigrants and associated patterns of residential segregation and integration can manifest not only at the metropolitan scale but also at finer micro-spatial resolutions, reflecting the interaction between path dependence and structural reconfiguration. This article examines the micro-spatial residential patterns of Chinese immigrants in Seoul under institutional and market constraints. Using a Spatial Durbin Model and Multiscale Geographically Weighted Regression, it shows that from 2011 to 2025, immigrant settlements shifted from a monocentric pattern to a polycentric, functionally differentiated, and networked structure. While overall spatial embeddedness is high and segregation remains low, traditional cores such as Guro–Daerim persist. Selective clustering is shaped by path-dependent migrant networks, urban redevelopment policies, and intra-group differentiation, while infrastructure homogenization renders transportation accessibility a background condition. The findings support segmented assimilation theory in high-density East Asian cities and underscore the importance of incorporating immigrant needs into urban policy to promote inclusive integration.

NORC (Naturally Occurring Retirement Community) programs and senior cohousing are two community-based, sustainable initiatives for aging in place associated with cooperative housing in New York and Spain, which are spreading rapidly as an alternative to institutionalization. This paper examines how NORC programs and senior cohousing support aging in place using a conceptual framework derived from theories on active aging and the ecological model of aging, which suggests specific dimensions to characterize the processes through which these initiatives potentially achieve their goal of promoting healthy, active aging, including aspects of the physical and social environment. Our framework was applied to a selection of case studies from each model, allowing us to conceptualize their strengths and weaknesses as developed in cooperatives in these two contexts. Findings show that NORC programs help older people stay in familiar neighborhoods and take advantage of economies of scale; however, dwellings are not adapted for reduced mobility. Spanish senior cohousing is an affordable and accessible alternative; however, existing communities are relatively isolated. Future research should consider hybrid models that incorporate the characteristics of various initiatives best suited to each context’s housing policies and welfare system.