Toxics

20 pages, 1637 KB

Open AccessArticle

Microplastics in Settled Dust from Indian Long-Distance Railway Coaches: Baseline Occurrence, Relative Load, and Scenario-Based Ingestion Estimates

by Nisarg Mehta, Jing Wang and Barbara Kozielska

Toxics 2026, 14(9), 822; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics14090822 - 15 Sep 2026

Abstract

Microplastics (MPs) in long-distance trains remain undercharacterized despite prolonged exposure of passengers and staff in confined environments. In this study, settled dust was collected from four distinct coach classes on an Indian railway to establish baseline MPs occurrence, morphology, polymer composition, relative load, [...] Read more.

Microplastics (MPs) in long-distance trains remain undercharacterized despite prolonged exposure of passengers and staff in confined environments. In this study, settled dust was collected from four distinct coach classes on an Indian railway to establish baseline MPs occurrence, morphology, polymer composition, relative load, and exposure-relevant particle intake. Samples were processed via oxidative digestion, density separation, and stereomicroscopy for particle quantification and morphological characterization. Polymer identity was assessed using micro-Raman spectroscopy, and human exposure was evaluated using estimated trip (

{E D I}_{T r i p}

) and annual (EAI) intake models. MPs were detected in all four sampled coach composites, with coach-level concentrations ranging from 925 to 3755 MPs/g. Among the four sampled coaches, the 1AC (first-class sleeper air-conditioned) coach had the highest measured concentration. Fibers (72%), transparent particles (61%), and polyester dominated, suggesting mixed textile and interior sources. The Relative Load Ratio (RLR) reached 4.06 in 1AC, compared to the lowest-abundance general unreserved coach (GL). Deterministic

{E D I}_{T r i p}

ranged from 5.78 to 388.35 particles/trip, with maximum intake observed for toddlers on full-route 1AC journeys. Monte Carlo simulations confirmed intake increases with travel duration and frequency. These findings highlight long-distance railway coaches as overlooked MPs reservoirs, emphasize the need for improved dust control, ventilation management, and lower-shedding interior materials. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Human Exposure and Health Risk Assessment of Emerging Contaminants)

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15 pages, 929 KB

Open AccessArticle

Coordinated Responses of Barley in Photosynthesis, Antioxidative System, and Stomatal Regulation Under Flufenoxuron Stress

by Xia Ning, Yan Zhi, Shuo Wang, Zhaoli Li, Zhihua Ren, Tingting Ku, Guangke Li and Nan Sang

Toxics 2026, 14(9), 821; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics14090821 - 15 Sep 2026

Abstract

Flufenoxuron is extensively applied in agricultural pest control; however, its effects on plant physiological processes remain insufficiently understood. Hence, this study evaluated the effects of flufenoxuron on photosynthetic processes and stomatal regulation in barley. The findings indicated that flufenoxuron significantly reduced photosynthetic efficiency [...] Read more.

Flufenoxuron is extensively applied in agricultural pest control; however, its effects on plant physiological processes remain insufficiently understood. Hence, this study evaluated the effects of flufenoxuron on photosynthetic processes and stomatal regulation in barley. The findings indicated that flufenoxuron significantly reduced photosynthetic efficiency and gas-exchange capacity. Furthermore, flufenoxuron exposure markedly increased abscisic acid (ABA) in leaves but not in roots. Nonetheless, reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation and membrane lipid peroxidation were triggered by flufenoxuron. Concomitantly, defense responses were activated, including the upregulation of peroxidase activity and the accumulation of soluble sugars to mitigate osmotic imbalance. Correlation analysis revealed that stomatal conductance (G_s) showed significant negative correlations with ABA, H₂O₂ (hydrogen peroxide), and O₂·⁻ (superoxide anion) levels. Furthermore, flufenoxuron exposure altered the expression of genes associated with ABA biosynthesis and catabolism, accompanied by changes in the expression of genes related to ABA- and ROS-associated signaling. These findings suggest that ABA- and ROS-associated processes may be involved in stomatal regulation under flufenoxuron exposure. Overall, this study provides a conceptual and mechanistic basis for understanding the phytotoxicity of benzoylurea compounds. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Ecotoxicology)

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19 pages, 8076 KB

Open AccessArticle

Prenatal Chlorpyrifos Exposure Induces Ovarian Toxicity in Rat Offspring: Modulatory Potential of Curcumin

by Gonca Gülsoy and Dilek Sağır

Toxics 2026, 14(9), 820; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics14090820 - 15 Sep 2026

Abstract

Background: Chlorpyrifos (CPF) is a widely used organophosphate pesticide that can reach the developing organism during gestation. The finite ovarian follicle pool is established early, yet prenatal CPF effects on it remain poorly characterized by unbiased quantitative methods. This study evaluated the developmental [...] Read more.

Background: Chlorpyrifos (CPF) is a widely used organophosphate pesticide that can reach the developing organism during gestation. The finite ovarian follicle pool is established early, yet prenatal CPF effects on it remain poorly characterized by unbiased quantitative methods. This study evaluated the developmental ovarian toxicity of prenatal CPF exposure and the modulatory potential of curcumin in rat offspring. Methods: Pregnant Wistar rats were assigned to Control, Sham, CPF (5 mg/kg/day), CUR (100 mg/kg/day), and CPF + CUR groups (five dams per group). Anogenital distance was recorded at birth (PND1). Female offspring were examined at postnatal day 28 using ovarian weight, histopathology, unbiased stereological follicle quantification, cortical volume estimation, serum anti-Müllerian hormone (AMH), serum cholinesterase activity, and biochemical markers of ovarian oxidative status and inflammation. The litter was the unit of analysis (n = 5 litters per group). Results: Prenatal CPF exposure produced marked, quantifiable alterations in ovarian structure, including decreased cortical volume, structural disorganization, vascular alterations, and follicular degeneration. Primordial, preantral, and antral follicle counts were significantly reduced versus controls (p < 0.0001), accompanied by significantly reduced ovarian weight and a shorter anogenital distance at birth. Serum AMH was lower in CPF-exposed offspring, and serum cholinesterase activity was reduced. In the curcumin co-treatment group, changes were partially less pronounced, with better-preserved follicular architecture and higher cortical volume than the CPF group. Ovarian oxidative and inflammatory activity increased with CPF exposure and was less marked with curcumin co-treatment. Reproductive-hormone measurements, including AMH, were not analytically validated in-house and are reported as exploratory. Conclusions: Prenatal CPF exposure induced structural and biochemical alterations consistent with developmental ovarian toxicity in rat offspring. Curcumin co-administration was associated with partially less pronounced changes, suggesting a modulatory rather than a fully protective role. Given the limited number of litters, findings should be interpreted with caution. Full article

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27 pages, 1862 KB

Open AccessReview

Nanotechnology for Radionuclide and Heavy Metal Removal in Mining-Impacted Water Systems: Advances, Challenges, and Future Directions

by Lethabo G. Selala, Thandiwe Sithole and Phoka C. Rathebe

Toxics 2026, 14(9), 819; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics14090819 - 15 Sep 2026

Abstract

Mining activities release radionuclides and toxic heavy metals into aquatic systems, creating long-term risks to water quality, ecosystems, and human health. Conventional remediation technologies often show limited effectiveness in mining-impacted waters due to complex geochemical conditions, including high salinity, variable pH, and co-occurring [...] Read more.

Mining activities release radionuclides and toxic heavy metals into aquatic systems, creating long-term risks to water quality, ecosystems, and human health. Conventional remediation technologies often show limited effectiveness in mining-impacted waters due to complex geochemical conditions, including high salinity, variable pH, and co-occurring contaminants. This review evaluates non-graphene nanomaterials as emerging tools for mitigating radionuclide and heavy metal contamination, focusing on magnetic nanoparticles, metal oxides, nanoclays and zeolites, metal organic frameworks (MOFs), and biogenic nanoparticles. Graphene-based nanomaterials are excluded from the present review because they have been comprehensively addressed in a dedicated review previously published by the authors. A comparative evaluation of these nanomaterial classes demonstrates that no single material is universally optimal; rather, remediation performance depends on contaminant speciation, water chemistry, and operational requirements. Emphasis is placed on the mechanistic processes governing contaminant removal, including ion exchange, surface complexation, chemisorption, physisorption, and photocatalytic redox reactions. The role of environmental factors such as pH, ionic strength, competing ions, and natural organic matter in controlling nanomaterial performance is critically assessed. While laboratory studies demonstrate high removal efficiencies, practical implementation remains constrained by nanoparticle aggregation, long-term stability, recovery, and scalability under realistic mining-water conditions. The review highlights composite materials, immobilized nanostructures, green synthesis routes, and hybrid treatment systems as viable pathways for field deployment. This work underscores the importance of mechanistic insight and environmental compatibility in translating nanomaterial-based remediation strategies from laboratory research to sustainable water management solutions in mining-impacted environments. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Ecological Restoration and Treatment of Metal Contamination from Mines)

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21 pages, 3786 KB

Open AccessArticle

Environmental Transformations of Metals in a Hypersaline Mediterranean Agricultural Wetland (Laguna Honda, South Spain)

by Antonio Medina-Ruiz, Juan Jiménez-Millán, Isabel Abad and Rosario Jiménez-Espinosa

Toxics 2026, 14(9), 818; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics14090818 - 14 Sep 2026

Abstract

This study investigated the biogeochemical processes governing heavy metal sequestration in Laguna Honda, a hypersaline Mediterranean wetland affected by intensive olive cultivation located in the Guadalquivir Basin River (S Spain). A network of sediment samples was analyzed from the wetland using X-ray fluorescence, [...] Read more.

This study investigated the biogeochemical processes governing heavy metal sequestration in Laguna Honda, a hypersaline Mediterranean wetland affected by intensive olive cultivation located in the Guadalquivir Basin River (S Spain). A network of sediment samples was analyzed from the wetland using X-ray fluorescence, ICP-MS, and high-resolution electron microscopy (FESEM/HRTEM). Geochemical data were treated with statistical factor analysis. Sediments show significant enrichment of Cu, Hg, and Au due to anthropogenic agrochemical treatments. Mineralogical characterization revealed authigenic pyrite framboids and metallic sulfide nanoparticles (CuS and HgS) within organic-rich sediments, where sequestration is primarily probably driven by the metabolic activity of sulfate-reducing microorganisms (SRMs) under reducing conditions. Additionally, Au enrichment is attributed to mechanical transport and coagulation of pesticide-derived nanoparticles, exhibiting a distinct geochemical correlation with rare earth elements (REEs). We concluded that hypersaline wetlands act as critical environmental sinks, where microbial activity, high organic matter content, and detrital transportation interact to facilitate the immobilization and stabilization of toxic trace elements through the precipitation of low-solubility sulfide phases (Cu and Hg) and the mechanical accumulation of nanoparticles (Au). Full article

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33 pages, 3882 KB

Open AccessReview

The Exposome–Brain Axis: A Scoping Review of Biological Biomarkers in Environmental Neurotoxicity, Neuroinflammation, and Neurodegeneration

by Olivia Curzio, Gabriele Donzelli, Said Daoudagh, Silvia Baldacci, Elisa Bustaffa, Chiara Cavigli, Maria Morales-Suárez-Varela, Paolo Paradisi, Davide Moroni and Fabrizio Minichilli

Toxics 2026, 14(9), 817; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics14090817 - 14 Sep 2026

Abstract

The escalating global burden of neurodegenerative and neuropsychiatric disorders is deeply intertwined with cumulative environmental toxicant exposure. To accurately capture the prodromal and subclinical impacts of this multi-chemical “pollutome”, research is shifting from symptom-based assessments toward the use of objective, quantifiable biological indicators. [...] Read more.

The escalating global burden of neurodegenerative and neuropsychiatric disorders is deeply intertwined with cumulative environmental toxicant exposure. To accurately capture the prodromal and subclinical impacts of this multi-chemical “pollutome”, research is shifting from symptom-based assessments toward the use of objective, quantifiable biological indicators. Guided by the PRISMA-ScR framework, this scoping review systematically analyzed literature across PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science, and Embase databases without temporal restrictions. The final selection included 52 human observational studies that evaluated the relationship between environmental stressors and objective neurobiological markers across diverse geographical populations and life stages. The synthesized evidence reveals that varied environmental insults—including ambient air pollution (e.g., fine particulate matter, PM_2.5), heavy metals, agrochemicals, and persistent organic contaminants—frequently correlate with measurable alterations in fluid biomarkers. These exposures are primarily associated with variations in markers of axonal damage (neurofilament light chain), astrocytic reactivity (glial fibrillary acidic protein), potential microglial dysfunction (soluble triggering receptor expressed on myeloid cells 2), and cytostructural alterations (Tau proteins and amyloid-beta). The literature highlights distinct windows of vulnerability, spanning from early-life epigenetic modifications (DNA methylation) to adult neurovascular injury. Mechanistically, despite their chemical heterogeneity, the available evidence suggests that these pollutants may converge on shared pathophysiological pathways defined by blood–brain barrier disruption and chronic, self-perpetuating neuroinflammation. Understanding environmental neurotoxicity may benefit from moving beyond traditional single-pollutant approaches toward a broader exposome framework. Future epidemiological research should integrate high-dimensional human biomonitoring with artificial intelligence and machine learning architectures. This computational integration would be essential to decode non-linear multi-pollutant interactions and accelerate the deployment of targeted, early-stage public health interventions. Full article

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43 pages, 8198 KB

Open AccessArticle

Integrated Assessment of Soil Contamination and Ecological and Human Health Risks at the Morava Thermal Power Plant Complex: A Three-Year Case Study

by Nikola Živanović, Vukašin Rončević, Lazar Radulović, Siniša Polovina and Stevan Ćorluka

Toxics 2026, 14(9), 816; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics14090816 - 13 Sep 2026

Abstract

This three-year case study integrated the results of annual soil-monitoring campaigns conducted in 2022–2024 at 17 predefined locations within and immediately surrounding the Morava Thermal Power Plant Complex, Serbia. We analyzed surface soil samples (0–30 cm) for physical and chemical properties, metals and [...] Read more.

This three-year case study integrated the results of annual soil-monitoring campaigns conducted in 2022–2024 at 17 predefined locations within and immediately surrounding the Morava Thermal Power Plant Complex, Serbia. We analyzed surface soil samples (0–30 cm) for physical and chemical properties, metals and metalloids, and selected organic pollutants. Contaminant concentrations were evaluated relative to national regulatory thresholds, while potential ecological risk and outdoor worker human health risk were assessed using the potential ecological risk index (RI), Hazard Index (HI), and total carcinogenic risk (TCR). Soil properties and total contaminant concentrations varied considerably among the monitored locations. Regulatory classification identified Ni and Cd as the most widespread concerns. Ni exceeded the applicable limit value at all 17 locations in each campaign, including three remediation-value exceedances in 2022 and one in 2024. Cd exceeded the limit value at 17, 11, and 16 locations in 2022, 2023, and 2024, respectively, without exceeding the remediation value. RI ranged from 210.02 to 963.08, indicating moderate to very high potential ecological risk, and was driven primarily by Cd and Hg. Aggregate HI values ranged from 0.211 to 0.484 and remained below the screening threshold of 1 at all locations. In contrast, TCR ranged from 5.98 × 10⁻⁵ to 2.12 × 10⁻⁴ and exceeded the target benchmark of 1 × 10⁻⁶ at every location in all three campaigns. Arsenic accounted for more than 94% of TCR, while the conservative estimate obtained by applying Cr (VI) toxicity parameters to total Cr represented the principal secondary contribution. The different assessment approaches identified distinct contaminant priorities and therefore provided complementary rather than interchangeable information. The results support continued monitoring, targeted investigation of locations with elevated regulatory or risk indicators, direct chromium-speciation analysis, and integration of soil monitoring with groundwater, drainage-water, bioavailability, and effect-based assessments to support future reclamation and environmental management. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Soil Heavy Metal Pollution and Human Health)

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20 pages, 2201 KB

Open AccessArticle

Biodegradation of Triphenyl Phosphate by Gordonia polyisoprenivorans YC-XJ4: Environmental Adaptability and Bioremediation Potential

by Xianjun Li, Xiao Ye, Junhuan Wang and Aikebaier Reheman

Toxics 2026, 14(9), 815; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics14090815 - 13 Sep 2026

Abstract

Triphenyl phosphate (TPHP) is a widely used organophosphate flame retardant (OPFR) with concerning environmental persistence and toxicity. Microbial degradation is a promising removal strategy, but highly efficient degraders outside the Sphingomonadaceae family remain rarely reported. In this study, a highly efficient TPHP-degrading strain, [...] Read more.

Triphenyl phosphate (TPHP) is a widely used organophosphate flame retardant (OPFR) with concerning environmental persistence and toxicity. Microbial degradation is a promising removal strategy, but highly efficient degraders outside the Sphingomonadaceae family remain rarely reported. In this study, a highly efficient TPHP-degrading strain, designated YC-XJ4, was isolated from plastic-waste-contaminated soil and identified as Gordonia polyisoprenivorans through genomic analysis. The strain exhibited robust degradation activity over broad ranges of temperature (15–40 °C), pH (6.0–10.0), and salinity (0–2% NaCl), with a maximum average degradation velocity of 9.41 mg/(L·h) at an initial TPHP concentration of 300 mg/L and approximately 30% degradation retained at 500 mg/L. Substrate spectrum analysis showed that YC-XJ4 preferentially degraded aryl-OPFRs (TPHP, tricresyl phosphate, and 2-ethylhexyl diphenyl phosphate), whereas no degradation was detected for chlorinated or alkyl congeners. Whole-genome sequencing revealed the absence of known OPFR phosphotriesterase genes, suggesting that TPHP degradation in strain YC-XJ4 may be mediated by novel enzymes. In simulated bioremediation experiments conducted under natural outdoor conditions, the strain effectively removed TPHP from both soil and seawater. In soil, with a 5% (v/v) inoculum, the TPHP concentration decreased from 100 mg/kg to 4.66 mg/kg within 10 h (95.34% removal), while in seawater, 86.41% removal was achieved within 20 h at the same inoculum size. Collectively, G. polyisoprenivorans YC-XJ4 represents a promising non-Sphingomonadaceae degrader with strong environmental adaptability and practical bioremediation potential, providing a valuable candidate for both application and the discovery of novel degrading enzymes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biodegradation and Bioremediation for Emerging Environmental Pollutants)

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23 pages, 1714 KB

Open AccessArticle

Imidacloprid-Induced Ferroptosis-Associated Injury in Common Carp Hepatocytes: Potential Involvement of the miR-153c/SQSTM1 Axis

by Huijie Chen, Yitong Wang, Zhenkai Yao, Jing Li, Peng Li and Lei Diao

Toxics 2026, 14(9), 814; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics14090814 - 13 Sep 2026

Abstract

The neonicotinoid insecticide imidacloprid (IMD), widely used in agriculture, poses potential risks to aquatic ecosystems, yet its hepatotoxic mechanisms in freshwater fish remain poorly understood. This study investigates the roles of ferroptosis, mitochondrial dysfunction, inflammation, and the miR-153c/SQSTM1-mediated ferritinophagy pathway in IMD-induced hepatotoxicity [...] Read more.

The neonicotinoid insecticide imidacloprid (IMD), widely used in agriculture, poses potential risks to aquatic ecosystems, yet its hepatotoxic mechanisms in freshwater fish remain poorly understood. This study investigates the roles of ferroptosis, mitochondrial dysfunction, inflammation, and the miR-153c/SQSTM1-mediated ferritinophagy pathway in IMD-induced hepatotoxicity in carp (Cyprinus carpio) hepatocytes. Using the CCK-8 assay, 0.6 μM IMD was selected for subsequent experiments. IMD exposure triggered ferroptosis, evidenced by increased intracellular Fe²⁺ accumulation, upregulated pro-ferroptotic gene and protein expression, and downregulated ferroptosis inhibitors (SLC7A11 and GPX4). Mitochondrial dysfunction was confirmed by reduced ATP content, decreased mtDNA levels, and a lowered NADPH/NADP⁺ ratio, along with aberrant expression of mitochondrial fission (Fis1 and Drp1) and fusion (Mfn1 and TFAM) genes. Additionally, IMD induced oxidative stress (elevated ROS and MDA; decreased T-AOC, CAT, and SOD activities) and a pronounced inflammatory response with upregulated pro-inflammatory cytokines. Mechanistically, IMD downregulated miR-153c, with concomitant upregulation of SQSTM1 at both the mRNA and protein levels, and dual-luciferase assays validated SQSTM1 as a direct target of miR-153c. miR-153c overexpression attenuated IMD-induced ferritinophagy, ferroptosis, and inflammation via the miR-153c/SQSTM1 axis. Collectively, these findings demonstrate that IMD induces hepatotoxicity in carp by triggering ferroptosis, mitochondrial dysfunction, and inflammation through the miR-153c/SQSTM1-mediated ferritinophagy pathway, providing mechanistic insights and potential targets for mitigating IMD’s ecological risks. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Drugs Toxicity)

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29 pages, 1630 KB

Open AccessReview

by Antonio Peña-Fernández, Rafael Moreno-Gómez-Toledano, Borja Martínez-Alonso and M. Ángeles Peña Fernández

Toxics 2026, 14(9), 813; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics14090813 - 12 Sep 2026

Abstract

Technology-related trace elements (TTEs), including rare earth elements (REEs), platinum-group elements (PGEs), silver, antimony, bismuth, barium, strontium, vanadium and radionuclide-associated elements, are increasingly relevant to environmental exposure assessment. Children and adolescents are important sentinel populations, and scalp hair offers a non-invasive matrix for [...] Read more.

Technology-related trace elements (TTEs), including rare earth elements (REEs), platinum-group elements (PGEs), silver, antimony, bismuth, barium, strontium, vanadium and radionuclide-associated elements, are increasingly relevant to environmental exposure assessment. Children and adolescents are important sentinel populations, and scalp hair offers a non-invasive matrix for multielement analysis. However, a reported hair concentration may combine follicular incorporation, sweat and sebum deposition and external particles, and may also be influenced by collection, washing, cosmetic treatment and analytical contamination. Separately, left-censoring and the statistical treatment of non-detects can materially affect population summaries and comparisons. This critical narrative review integrates paediatric, occupational, environmental and multimatrix evidence through a structured evidence matrix and an element-by-element audit of biomonitoring assessment values. Hair can identify spatial contrasts and source-related patterns, but current evidence generally does not support direct inference of absorbed dose or clinical risk. In long-term occupational REE exposure, urine shows stronger exposure-response performance than blood; paired hair–urine data for thorium discriminate exposed groups without establishing quantitative equivalence; antimony findings vary by exposure setting; and barium biomonitoring equivalents are available for urine and plasma, but not hair. No health-based guidance values validated specifically for paediatric scalp hair were identified for any of the target TTEs. A seven-stage weight-of-evidence framework is proposed, positioning hair as a complementary screening and hypothesis-generating matrix within multimatrix assessment. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Environmental Contamination by Toxic Metals and Metalloids, Exposure Limits, and Toxicity Thresholds)

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24 pages, 5099 KB

Open AccessArticle

From Blast to Biological Uptake: Residual Dinitrotoluene as an Occupational Exposure Hazard in Explosive Ordnance Disposal

by Gareth Collett, Kelly Johnstone, Tim Bashford, William Proud, Mia Tazi, Mieke Van Hemelrijck, Richard T. Bryan and Bryan G. Fry

Toxics 2026, 14(9), 812; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics14090812 - 11 Sep 2026

Abstract

Repeated mixed-munition demolition may require explosive ordnance disposal personnel to re-enter a common demolition pit to inspect effects, recover debris and prepare subsequent stacks. Dinitrotoluene (DNT) is a recognised explosive ordnance occupational toxicant absorbed by inhalation, skin and ingestion. Urinary-tract malignancies and other [...] Read more.

Repeated mixed-munition demolition may require explosive ordnance disposal personnel to re-enter a common demolition pit to inspect effects, recover debris and prepare subsequent stacks. Dinitrotoluene (DNT) is a recognised explosive ordnance occupational toxicant absorbed by inhalation, skin and ingestion. Urinary-tract malignancies and other adverse outcomes have been reported in highly exposed nitroaromatic-explosives workers. Recently, bladder-cancer incidence was documented as elevated among former British Army ammunition technicians. While these observations do not establish a causal relationship with DNT, they however provide a strong rationale for further investigation of credible exposure pathways. This study developed a scenario-based source-pathway-receptor model to examine whether residual DNT could constitute an occupational exposure source during these tasks. This model was applied to an explosive ordnance disposal operation involving 20 sequential demolitions and a documented aggregate TNT-equivalent basis of 1000 kg, used as a screening proxy because the operational inventory was predominantly TNT-filled. The model identified plausible primary inhalation from a blast-generated plume and secondary inhalation from resuspended residues, together with dermal and incidental-ingestion pathways. An important caveat is that it does not reconstruct individual dose or establish disease causation. Validation requires time-resolved post-blast and task-based personal air sampling, surface assessment, biomonitoring and detailed exposure reconstruction during representative demolition operations. As such, this study establishes crucial foundational hypotheses for future occupational hazard research into DNT exposure to explosive ordnance disposal personnel. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Health Risk Assessment of Emerging Pollutants—an Integration of Exposure Estimation and Mechanism-Based Toxicity Study)

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25 pages, 2604 KB

Open AccessArticle

From Buildings to the Environment: Flows, Exposure Pathways, and Toxicological Relevance of Tris(2-Chloro-1-Methylethyl) Phosphate (TCPP), Diuron, and Bis(2-(Perfluorohexyl)Ethyl) Phosphate (6:2 diPAP)

by Jolita Kruopienė, Edgaras Stunžėnas, Jenny Fäldt and Riikka K. Vainio

Toxics 2026, 14(9), 811; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics14090811 - 11 Sep 2026

Abstract

The use of hazardous chemicals in construction materials raises concerns regarding their release into the environment and their potential impact on ecosystems and human health. This study investigated the flows of tris(2-chloro-1-methylethyl) phosphate (TCPP), diuron, and bis(2-(perfluorohexyl)ethyl) phosphate (6:2 diPAP) from buildings to [...] Read more.

The use of hazardous chemicals in construction materials raises concerns regarding their release into the environment and their potential impact on ecosystems and human health. This study investigated the flows of tris(2-chloro-1-methylethyl) phosphate (TCPP), diuron, and bis(2-(perfluorohexyl)ethyl) phosphate (6:2 diPAP) from buildings to environmental compartments and evaluated their toxicological relevance through environmental occurrence and exposure pathways. A quantitative substance flow analysis was performed for TCPP, while conceptual flow models were developed for diuron and 6:2 diPAP. TCPP flow analysis showed that approximately 70,804 t/year accumulated in products, primarily rigid polyurethane insulation materials, alongside continuous environmental releases into indoor dust, soils, and aquatic systems. It resulted in annual accumulation of nearly 444 t of TCPP in soils and 64 t in aquatic systems. Diuron was identified as a source of aquatic exposure through rainfall-driven wash-off, whereas 6:2 diPAP exhibited indoor and outdoor emission pathways and transformation into persistent perfluoroalkyl carboxylic acids. Field measurements of Interreg NonHazCity3 project confirmed the occurrence of organophosphate esters, biocides, and PFAS in indoor dust, stormwater, and wastewater. The results demonstrate that buildings act as continuous sources of toxicologically relevant substances, pointing to the necessity of upstream source control, the prevention of regrettable chemical substitution, and enhanced transparency in construction materials to mitigate long-term environmental and health risks. Full article

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22 pages, 9085 KB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of Coconut Shell and Zinc-Modified Biochar Composite Applications on Phthalate Ester (PAE) Accumulation, Growth Performance, and Soil Health in Wheat (Triticum aestivum L.)

by Aisha Khaled Chaudhri, Aansa Rukya Saleem, Nazneen Bangash, Abdulaziz Alamri, Mostafa A. Abdel-Maksoud, Aljawharah Fahad Alabbad and Habib Ullah

Toxics 2026, 14(9), 810; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics14090810 - 11 Sep 2026

Abstract

Soil contamination with phthalate esters (PAEs), particularly in e-waste-impacted regions, poses serious threats to crop productivity, soil health, and environmental sustainability. This study investigates the effectiveness of coconut shell biochar (BC) and zinc-modified biochar (Zn-BC) in mitigating PAE accumulation, improving wheat (Triticum [...] Read more.

Soil contamination with phthalate esters (PAEs), particularly in e-waste-impacted regions, poses serious threats to crop productivity, soil health, and environmental sustainability. This study investigates the effectiveness of coconut shell biochar (BC) and zinc-modified biochar (Zn-BC) in mitigating PAE accumulation, improving wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) growth, and restoring soil fertility in contaminated soils. Characterization analyses revealed that Zn-BC possessed enhanced surface functionality, crystallinity, and elemental composition, favoring greater adsorption potential. Batch adsorption experiments demonstrated that Zn-BC exhibited higher equilibrium adsorption capacities for DMP (23.9 mg/g) and DBP (26.6 mg/g), following pseudo-second-order kinetics. Zn-BC significantly improved plant growth parameters including shoot height, root length, and biomass compared to unamended soil in a pot experiment. Post-harvest soil analysis showed increased pH (6.6), CEC (18.3 cmolc/kg), TOC (1.85%), and microbial biomass carbon (320 mg/kg) under Zn-BC treatment. Enzymatic activities such as dehydrogenase (45.2 µg TPF/g/d) and phosphatase (58.6 µg PNP/g/h) also improved markedly, indicating restored biological activity. These findings highlight the potential of Zn-BC as a sustainable amendment for remediating phthalate-contaminated soils and improving crop health under environmental stress conditions. Full article

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21 pages, 12243 KB

Open AccessArticle

Acetylsalicylic Acid at Trace Concentrations Induces Cellular Toxicity and Phytotoxicity in the Roots of Cultivated Plants

by Carla Rafaela Somera, Edson Araujo de Almeida, Matheus Cristiano Hermann Massariol, Diego Espirito Santo, Danielle Cristina da Silva de Oliveira, Adriele Rodrigues dos Santos, Gideã Taques Tractz, Regiane da Silva Gonzalez, Osvaldo Valarini, Junior, C. A. Downs and Ana Paula Peron

Toxics 2026, 14(9), 809; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics14090809 - 11 Sep 2026

Abstract

Acetylsalicylic acid (ASA) is frequently detected in wastewater and sewage sludge, which may represent potential pathways of entry into agricultural environments. However, its effects on cultivated plants at trace concentrations remain unexplored. This study evaluated the effects of ASA (1–1000 ng·L⁻¹) [...] Read more.

Acetylsalicylic acid (ASA) is frequently detected in wastewater and sewage sludge, which may represent potential pathways of entry into agricultural environments. However, its effects on cultivated plants at trace concentrations remain unexplored. This study evaluated the effects of ASA (1–1000 ng·L⁻¹) on germination and root growth of Daucus carota, Solanum lycopersicum, and Cucumis sativus, as well as cytotoxic and genotoxic effects in the root meristems of Allium cepa bulbs and biochemical responses associated with redox homeostasis in the roots of all four species. No significant adverse effects were observed at the lowest concentrations tested; however, exposure to 100 and 1000 ng·L⁻¹ reduced root growth in all species, with a relative growth index below 0.8. In A. cepa, these concentrations induced mitodepressive effects, with mitotic indices below 70% relative to controls, and increased the frequency of chromosomal abnormalities, with total CAI values of 9.6% and 11.9%, respectively. At 100 ng·L⁻¹, C-metaphases and chromosomal disorganization during prophase were observed, characterizing an aneugenic effect, whereas at 1000 ng·L⁻¹, these abnormalities were accompanied by metaphases with sticky chromosomes, indicating a clastogenic effect. ASA also altered redox homeostasis in the roots of all four species, as indicated by concentration-dependent modulation of antioxidant enzymes, increased lipid peroxidation, and the absence of a compensatory non-enzymatic antioxidant response. These findings indicate that trace concentrations of ASA can impair early plant development and induce cytotoxic, genotoxic, and biochemical alterations in the roots of the species studied under the experimental conditions used. These findings emphasize the importance of assessing ASA effects under soil-based and field-relevant conditions to better understand its environmental implications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Emerging Contaminants)

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17 pages, 2569 KB

Open AccessArticle

Gastric Tissue Biomonitoring Identifies Tissue-Specific Metal Profiles Associated with Helicobacter pylori Infection

by Tolga Aydin and Vugar Ali Turksoy

Toxics 2026, 14(9), 808; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics14090808 - 11 Sep 2026

Abstract

Background: Helicobacter pylori infection is a common chronic bacterial infection and an established cause of gastritis, peptic ulcer disease, and gastric cancer. Environmental and host metal status may interact with gastric inflammatory and microbial processes, and infection-related changes in gastric acidity, mucosal [...] Read more.

Background: Helicobacter pylori infection is a common chronic bacterial infection and an established cause of gastritis, peptic ulcer disease, and gastric cancer. Environmental and host metal status may interact with gastric inflammatory and microbial processes, and infection-related changes in gastric acidity, mucosal permeability, and metal handling may in turn alter local tissue concentrations. This study compared systemic and gastric tissue concentrations of seven elements in adults with histopathologically confirmed H. pylori infection and uninfected controls. Methods: This single-center case–control study included 110 adults undergoing upper gastrointestinal endoscopy (55 H. pylori-positive and 55 H. pylori-negative). H. pylori status was established by hematoxylin–eosin and modified Giemsa staining. Whole blood collected in purple-top K₂EDTA tubes was analyzed for As, Pb, Cd, and Sn; serum obtained from yellow-top serum-separator tubes containing clot activator and separator gel was analyzed for Al, Co, and Ni. A separate fresh antral biopsy, not the formalin-fixed histology specimen, was used for ICP-MS; tissue concentrations were normalized to recorded dry weight. Between-group metal comparisons were corrected as one family of 14 tests using Benjamini–Hochberg FDR. Prespecified age- and sex-adjusted models and an exploratory multivariable model were supplemented by ROC, PCA, and internally cross-validated PLS-DA analyses. Results: The H. pylori-positive group was older than the negative group (55.65 ± 15.01 vs. 52.42 ± 12.53 years). Blood aluminum was nominally higher in the positive group (p = 0.032; q = 0.112). In gastric tissue, aluminum was higher [0.23 (0.13–13.40) vs. 0.13 (0.10–0.23) μg/g dry weight; p < 0.001; q = 0.002], whereas arsenic was lower [1.35 (0.54–2.02) vs. 1.92 (1.47–2.43) μg/g dry weight; p < 0.001; q = 0.003] in H. pylori-positive participants. Tissue cobalt and blood/tissue nickel differences did not remain significant after FDR correction. In prespecified age- and sex-adjusted models, tissue arsenic showed an inverse association (OR = 0.431, 95% CI 0.263–0.705; p = 0.0008), whereas tissue aluminum showed a positive association (OR = 4.957, 95% CI 1.629–15.085; p = 0.0048). In the exploratory joint model, only tissue aluminum remained significant (adjusted OR = 4.016, 95% CI 1.119–14.417; p = 0.033). The joint model had an apparent within-cohort AUC of 0.774; repeated five-fold cross-validated PLS-DA yielded an AUC of 0.707. Conclusions: Histopathologically confirmed H. pylori status was associated with compartment-specific metal concentration patterns, particularly higher tissue aluminum and lower tissue arsenic. Because the study was cross-sectional and measured total concentrations, these findings do not establish environmental exposure, temporal accumulation, toxicity, or a causal direction. The regression and multivariate findings are exploratory and require validation in independent cohorts with standardized tissue sampling, arsenic speciation, exposure assessment, and quantitative gastric pathology. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Advances in Environmental and Human Health (bio)Monitoring: Contributions to One Health Approach)

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23 pages, 2736 KB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

aip Mutant Zebrafish Display Morphological and Transcriptional Changes Associated with Stress-Induced Hematopoiesis

by Spencer R. Stinson, Jane K. La Du, Dante M. Perone, Sibel I. Karchner, Neelakanteswar Aluru, Lisa Truong, Mark E. Hahn and Robyn L. Tanguay

Toxics 2026, 14(9), 807; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics14090807 - 11 Sep 2026

Abstract

The Aryl Hydrocarbon Receptor (AHR) is a versatile receptor that binds various compounds, triggering downstream transcriptional changes involved in the regulation of xenobiotic metabolism and cell fate. The Ahr Interacting Protein (AIP), also known as XAP2 and ARA9, is a molecular chaperone essential [...] Read more.

The Aryl Hydrocarbon Receptor (AHR) is a versatile receptor that binds various compounds, triggering downstream transcriptional changes involved in the regulation of xenobiotic metabolism and cell fate. The Ahr Interacting Protein (AIP), also known as XAP2 and ARA9, is a molecular chaperone essential for the cytosolic retention and stabilization of the AHR. Past studies, and AIP-linked human pathologies, suggest an alternative developmental role of the AIP apart from the AHR and canonical xenobiotic response. A null mutation of the AIP in zebrafish larvae (designated as aip^wh86) resulted in craniofacial malformations, failure to inflate the swim bladder, and an enlarged and darkened liver, emerging at 5–6 days post-fertilization (dpf). Histopathological analysis at 5 dpf suggested no histological differences in the homozygous (HMZ) mutant compared to the wild type (WT). Whole-larvae RNA sequencing at 6 and 7 dpf showed significant dysregulation of key transcripts in the mutant larvae compared to WT, with pathway analysis revealing alterations in embryonic hematopoiesis and cardiac development. RT-qPCR validation showed that transcripts involved in the Hif-mediated pathway were overexpressed as early as 5 dpf. O-dianisidine staining at 6 dpf showed an increase in hemoglobin within the liver and cardiac regions of the mutant AIP larvae. This study demonstrates the complex and diverse role of AIP in vertebrate embryonic development and physiology. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Novel Methods and Applications in Zebrafish as a Model for Mixture Toxicity)

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9 pages, 805 KB

Open AccessArticle

Comparative Analysis of Cadmium Profiles in Liver, Kidney, and Muscle of Bovines, Equines, and Cervids

by Stefania Squadrone, Alessandra Griglione, Paolo Palmegiano, Stefania Gavinelli, Anna Riva, Leo Costa, Diana Giuffrida, Marcello Gigliotti, Chiara Marchese, Rosa Avolio and Maria Cesarina Abete

Toxics 2026, 14(9), 806; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics14090806 - 10 Sep 2026

Abstract

Understanding interspecies physiological variability, toxicokinetic pathways, and bioaccumulation dynamics is fundamentally essential for veterinary diagnostics, food safety assurance, and wildlife conservation management. This ten-year toxicological study (2015–2025) analyzed cadmium (Cd) concentrations in liver, kidney, and muscle tissues of bovines, cervids, and equines from [...] Read more.

Understanding interspecies physiological variability, toxicokinetic pathways, and bioaccumulation dynamics is fundamentally essential for veterinary diagnostics, food safety assurance, and wildlife conservation management. This ten-year toxicological study (2015–2025) analyzed cadmium (Cd) concentrations in liver, kidney, and muscle tissues of bovines, cervids, and equines from northwestern Italy using ICP-MS. Cadmium distribution varied significantly by species and tissue. Bovines and cervids exhibited low, homogeneous burdens (bovine mean liver: 0.14 mg/kg, kidney: 0.60 mg/kg; cervid mean liver: 0.13 mg/kg, kidney: 0.72 mg/kg), and cervids showed wider ranges due to environmental exposure. Conversely, equines accumulated drastically higher concentrations in hepatorenal tissues, averaging 10 mg/kg in the liver and 53 mg/kg in the kidney. Muscle tissue concentrations remained minimal across all species (0.017 to 0.078 mg/kg). Principal Component Analysis explained 90.4% of total variance, cleanly separating equines from bovines and cervids based on hepatic and renal loads. Liver and kidney proved to be robust biomarkers for monitoring Cd exposure. These findings support the integration of comparative tissue metal profiling into comprehensive veterinary toxicology, veterinary public health, and wildlife health assessment frameworks. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Health Impacts of Cadmium and Trace Elements)

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4 pages, 146 KB

Open AccessEditorial

The Toxicity of Heavy Metals and Chemical Pollutants in Agricultural Soil and Plants: Ecological Risks and Remediation

by Peipei Song

Toxics 2026, 14(9), 805; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics14090805 - 10 Sep 2026

Abstract

Accelerated industrialization and intensive agricultural practices have driven widespread accumulation of heavy metals and chemical pollutants in global agricultural soils [...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Toxicity of Heavy Metals and Chemical Pollutants in Agricultural Soil and Plants: Ecological Risks and Remediation)

20 pages, 16645 KB

Open AccessArticle

Contamination Characteristics, Source Apportionment, and Risk Assessment of Heavy Metals in Soil from a Legacy Open Dumpsite on the Qinghai–Xizang Plateau

by Jiamin Ma, De’an Meng, Zhixi Zheng, Mengyuan Zeng, Xiyue Sun, Zhongzhu Zhou, Peng Zhou, Guanyi Chen and Zeng Dan

Toxics 2026, 14(9), 804; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics14090804 - 10 Sep 2026

Abstract

The Qinghai–Xizang (Formerly Tibet) Plateau, known as the Roof of the World, is an important ecological security barrier for Asia and globally; its natural environment is fragile and challenging to repair after destruction. Prior to the 21st century, waste management in China primarily [...] Read more.

The Qinghai–Xizang (Formerly Tibet) Plateau, known as the Roof of the World, is an important ecological security barrier for Asia and globally; its natural environment is fragile and challenging to repair after destruction. Prior to the 21st century, waste management in China primarily relied on unregulated direct dumping. To investigate the environmental impacts of open dumpsites in high-altitude regions, this study focused on a representative dumpsite in the northern Xizang region. The aim was to characterize the occurrence and distribution patterns of heavy metals (HMs) in its surrounding soil, conduct source apportionment, and perform comprehensive risk assessment. The results showed low levels of mercury (Hg) and excessive levels of all other HMs. In addition, all HMs had the highest content in the residual fraction and the lowest content in the weak-acid fraction, which is less bioavailable. The Absolute Principal Component Score–Multiple Linear Regression (APCS-MLR) and Positive Matrix Factorization (PMF) results showed that the dumpsite contributed the most to cadmium (Cd); agricultural sources contributed the most to zinc (Zn); Hg mainly came from atmospheric transport and traffic sources; Pb was mainly derived from traffic and natural sources; and copper (Cu), nickel (Ni), chromium (Cr), and arsenic (As) mainly came from the dumpsite and natural sources. In addition, this research found that this dumpsite poses a relatively high HM risk to human health; oral and respiratory routes are the main non-carcinogenic routes, As and Cr contribute more to the adult and child groups, and As contributes the most to carcinogenic risk. The calculation results of the pollution assessment method indicate that the pollution of the natural environment from this dumpsite is at a low level, and immediate remediation measures are urgently needed to achieve site decontamination. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Soil Heavy Metal Pollution and Remediation)

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