Integration of Bioresources for Sustainable Development in Organic Farming: A Comprehensive Review

Abstract

Organic farming relies on sustainable, eco-friendly practices that promote soil health, biodiversity, and climate resilience. Bioresources—derived from plants, animals, and microorganisms—are pivotal in replacing synthetic inputs with natural alternatives. This review presents an integrated analysis of bioresources, highlighting their classification, functionality, and role in organic systems through biofertilizers, biopesticides, organic amendments, and bioenergy. Despite their potential, challenges such as knowledge gaps, limited scalability, and technical constraints hinder their widespread adoption. The review emphasizes the ecological, economic, and social benefits of bioresource integration while identifying critical barriers and proposing strategic directions for research, policy, and practice. By addressing these gaps, bioresources can enhance nutrient cycling, pest management, and soil regeneration, offering a viable path toward sustainable agriculture. This synthesis supports the development of context-specific, circular, and resilient organic farming systems that align with global sustainability goals.

1. Introduction

1.1. Definition and Importance of Bioresources in Agriculture

Bioresources can be broadly defined as renewable and biodegradable biological materials derived from plants, animals, and microorganisms that can be utilized directly or indirectly by humans for various beneficial purposes [1,2]. They include materials such as crop residues, animal by-products, microbial biomass, medicinal plants, bioactive compounds, and organic wastes. Due to their renewable nature, bioresources are increasingly recognized as crucial elements in sustainable agriculture, energy production, environmental management, and pharmaceutical industries [3].

The significance of bioresources arises primarily from their potential as sustainable alternatives to synthetic inputs, which often adversely affect environmental health, biodiversity, and human well-being [4]. Effective utilization of bioresources in agriculture is especially emphasized within organic farming systems, where minimizing synthetic chemical use is vital for maintaining ecological balance, soil fertility, and sustainability [5]. Additionally, proper management of bioresources can enhance agricultural resilience to climate change, thereby securing food production and rural livelihoods worldwide [6,7].

Based on their biological origin and practical applications, bioresources are typically classified into three major categories: plant-derived, animal-based, and microbial-based bioresources.

Plant-derived bioresources consist of materials obtained directly from plants or plant-derived products, such as crop residues, cover crops, green manures, botanical pesticides (e.g., neem extracts, pyrethrum), medicinal plants, essential oils, and agroforestry products [8,9]. These resources have diverse agricultural applications, including pest management, improvement of soil structure and fertility, weed suppression, and as sources of nutrients and organic matter [10].

Animal-based bioresources encompass livestock manure, animal compost, biodynamic preparations, bone meal, fish meal, and blood meal. These bioresources are extensively utilized for nutrient cycling and soil fertility enhancement and as organic fertilizers in sustainable agricultural systems [11,12]. Their proper management contributes significantly to enriching soil organic matter, enhancing microbial activity, and improving soil physical and chemical properties, thereby promoting sustainable productivity [13].

Microbial-based bioresources include beneficial microorganisms such as bacteria (Rhizobium, Azotobacter, Azospirillum), fungi (Trichoderma, Mycorrhizae), algae, and viruses, which are utilized primarily as biofertilizers, biopesticides, biofungicides, and plant-growth-promoting agents (PGPMs) [14,15]. These microorganisms play an essential role in sustainable agriculture by enhancing nutrient availability, improving plant health and resistance to diseases, reducing dependency on synthetic inputs, and promoting overall crop resilience and productivity [16].

Despite the immense potential of bioresources in sustainable agricultural systems, their integration into mainstream agricultural practices remains limited in various regions due to technical, socioeconomic, and regulatory constraints [17]. Hence, a critical review and evaluation of current practices, benefits, limitations, and research gaps associated with bioresource utilization in organic agriculture is warranted to facilitate their broader adoption.

1.2. Overview of Organic Farming Principles and Global Relevance

Organic farming is a sustainable agricultural production system that emphasizes ecological balance, environmental preservation, and biodiversity conservation while restricting the use of synthetic chemicals, genetically modified organisms (GMOs), and growth regulators. It integrates traditional agricultural knowledge with modern scientific innovations to enhance productivity, maintain ecosystem health, and ensure long-term agricultural sustainability [18].

The fundamental principles guiding organic agriculture, as established by the International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements (IFOAM), include health, ecology, fairness, and care [19]. The Principle of Health highlights that organic agriculture must sustain and enhance the health of soil, plants, animals, humans, and the planet as one interconnected system. The Principle of Ecology emphasizes the importance of practices that foster ecological harmony, recycling, and efficient resource use. The Principle of Fairness advocates for equity, respect, and social justice across the agricultural value chain, promoting fair relationships between stakeholders. Lastly, the Principle of Care suggests precautionary and responsible management practices that protect the environment, human health, and future generations [20].

Organic farming employs diverse practices aimed at soil fertility management, integrated pest and weed management, crop diversification, crop rotation, intercropping, green manuring, biological pest control, and conservation agriculture. Such practices collectively contribute to enhanced soil health, biodiversity protection, reduced environmental contamination, and resilience against climate variability.

Globally, organic farming has experienced remarkable growth in recent decades, driven by increased consumer awareness regarding food safety, environmental concerns, and sustainability objectives. Approximately 75 million hectares of agricultural land worldwide were managed organically in 2020, and organic agriculture is practiced in over 190 countries, with significant markets in Europe, North America, and Asia. The global organic food market reached over USD 230 billion in sales, demonstrating substantial economic relevance and consumer preference towards sustainable agricultural products [19,21,22].

However, the adoption and expansion of organic farming vary significantly across regions due to challenges including yield gaps, higher initial labor costs, lack of access to knowledge and certification, and inconsistent policy support [23]. Nevertheless, research increasingly suggests that organic farming, when combined with bioresource utilization and advanced agroecological innovations, has the potential to significantly enhance agricultural sustainability, food security, and livelihoods, especially in developing regions facing environmental degradation and climate challenges [24].

Therefore, examining the global relevance of organic agriculture and its principles is essential for understanding the potential for broader adoption of bioresource-based sustainable agricultural practices worldwide.

1.3. Purpose, Objectives, and Significance of the Review

The purpose of this review is to comprehensively evaluate the utilization and integration of bioresources in organic agriculture systems, emphasizing their role in sustainable agricultural development globally. Despite considerable advancements in both bioresource research and organic farming, their full integration and potential remain underexplored and underutilized, necessitating a critical synthesis of current knowledge [5].

The specific objectives of this review are to

• Categorize and systematically evaluate various bioresources (plant-derived, animal-based, microbial-based) currently utilized in organic agriculture worldwide.
• Critically assess methods and strategies for effectively integrating bioresources into organic farming practices, including the use of biofertilizers, biopesticides, organic amendments, and microbial inoculants.
• Analyze the environmental, ecological, and socioeconomic impacts resulting from the integration of bioresources into organic farming systems.
• Highlight research gaps, challenges, and barriers limiting broader adoption and implementation of bioresource-based practices.
• Provide strategic insights and practical recommendations for researchers, policymakers, and practitioners aiming to optimize bioresource utilization within organic agriculture.

This review holds significant relevance as the agricultural sector faces mounting challenges related to climate change, soil degradation, environmental contamination, and food security. By providing an in-depth synthesis of the current literature, practical implications, and critical evaluations, the review aims to advance knowledge and inform effective policymaking and sustainable agricultural practice. It is anticipated that this synthesis will aid stakeholders in identifying best practices, enhancing the efficiency of bioresource use, and ultimately facilitating the broader adoption and scaling up of sustainable agricultural systems globally.

1.4. Gap in Current Knowledge or Recent Trends Justifying the Review

Despite the growing recognition of bioresources’ importance in sustainable agriculture, notable gaps remain in understanding their full potential, effective integration strategies, and long-term impacts on organic farming systems. The current literature often focuses narrowly on individual bioresources or isolated practices, leaving limited comprehensive analyses that integrate plant-derived, animal-based, and microbial-based bioresources in a holistic context.

Recent trends indicate an increasing global demand for organic products driven by heightened consumer awareness of food safety, environmental sustainability, and climate resilience [25]. However, the global scaling of organic farming remains constrained by insufficient knowledge on how best to integrate diverse bioresources effectively, optimize their synergistic impacts, and overcome technical, socioeconomic, and institutional barriers [26].

Further, the complex interactions between bioresources, soil health, pest management, and productivity under varying agroecological conditions remain inadequately documented. Many existing studies provide regional or context-specific findings, limiting generalization and applicability to broader agricultural systems and diverse climatic conditions [27,28].

Addressing these gaps is crucial not only to guide future research but also to support evidence-based policymaking, capacity-building, and farmer education. By systematically evaluating the recent literature and synthesizing diverse insights into a comprehensive review, this paper aims to bridge these knowledge gaps and provide clear, actionable recommendations for promoting the sustainable adoption and scaling of bioresource-integrated organic agriculture systems globally.

2. Bioresources: An Overview

2.1. Classification of Bioresources: Focus on Plant-Based Resources

Plant-based bioresources form one of the most critical categories of biological materials used in sustainable and organic agriculture. These bioresources contribute not only to soil health and crop productivity but also to pest and disease management, biodiversity conservation, and climate resilience. They are broadly classified into three main groups for agricultural use: medicinal plants, crop residues, and agroforestry resources.

2.1.1. Medical and Aromatic Plants

Medicinal and aromatic plants, long valued in traditional and indigenous agricultural systems, are increasingly recognized for their multifunctional roles in organic farming. These plants possess bioactive compounds (alkaloids, flavonoids, essential oils, phenolics, terpenes) that exhibit antimicrobial, insecticidal, fungicidal, and nematicidal properties [29,30]. As a result, they serve as natural sources for botanical pesticides, bio-stimulants, and plant-based growth enhancers.

Notable examples include

• Azadirachta indica (neem)—widely used for preparing neem oil and neem cake, both effective as natural insect repellents and soil amendments [31].
• Ocimum sanctum (tulsi)—known for its antifungal and antibacterial properties [32].
• Tagetes spp. (marigold)—used for its nematocidal effects, especially in managing root-knot nematodes in vegetable crops [33].
• Allium sativum (garlic) and Zingiber officinale (ginger)—often used in biopesticide formulations due to their broad-spectrum antimicrobial activities [34,35].

These plants offer eco-friendly alternatives to synthetic agrochemicals and align with organic farming principles, providing dual benefits of pest suppression and enhanced crop health.

2.1.2. Crop Residues and Green Manures

Crop residues, which include leaves, stems, husks, and stalks left in the field after harvest, represent a vast and underutilized bioresource for improving soil fertility and organic matter content [36]. These residues are rich in carbon and nutrients and play a key role in nutrient cycling, moisture retention, erosion control, and microbial activity enhancement in organic systems.

Key crop residues include

• Rice straw.
• Wheat stubble.
• Maize husks.
• Legume haulms (e.g., chickpea, pigeon pea).

Incorporating these residues into the soil through mulching or composting can significantly improve soil structure, cation exchange capacity, and microbial biomass [37]. However, it is important to consider the carbon-to-nitrogen (C/N) ratio of these materials, as high C/N amendments (e.g., cereal straw) may lead to temporary nitrogen immobilization during decomposition.

Closely linked to crop residues are green manures, which involve growing specific plant species (mostly legumes) and incorporating them into the soil to enrich nitrogen and organic matter. Species such as Sesbania, Crotalaria, Vigna, and Mucuna are widely used in organic farming to naturally fix nitrogen and suppress weeds [38,39,40]. Certain green manures and cover crops—such as Brassica spp.—are also known for their nematode-suppressing effects, due to the release of bioactive compounds like glucosinolates during decomposition [41,42].

2.1.3. Agroforestry Resources

Agroforestry involves the intentional integration of trees and shrubs with crops and/or livestock systems to create more diverse, productive, and resilient agricultural landscapes. It is a crucial component of organic and sustainable farming, offering both ecological services and bioresources.

Tree-based bioresources offer

• Leaf biomass for mulching and composting (e.g., Leucaena leucocephala, Gliricidia sepium) [43].
• Woody residues for biochar and fuel [44].
• Fodder and shade for livestock and crops [45].
• Natural pest repellents (e.g., Azadirachta indica, Melia azedarach) [46].

The organic matter from tree litter helps improve soil structure, supports beneficial soil fauna, and increases carbon sequestration, making agroforestry a powerful climate-smart strategy [47].

Additionally, live fencing and hedgerow intercropping with species like Erythrina, Tephrosia, and Calliandra can serve as windbreaks, habitats for pollinators, and sources of biomass inputs for composting or direct soil enrichment [48].

Analytical Perspective

Plant-based bioresources are not only renewable and biodegradable, but they also align with the closed-loop nutrient cycling model fundamental to organic farming systems. When used appropriately, these bioresources reduce dependency on synthetic inputs, lower production costs, and enhance the resilience of cropping systems. However, their full potential remains underexploited due to limited awareness, lack of technical knowledge, and variability in resource availability across agroecological zones. Research focused on optimizing the management, processing, and application of plant-derived bioresources can offer scalable solutions to some of the major sustainability challenges in agriculture today.

2.2. Animal-Based Bioresources: Livestock Manure and Organic Waste

Animal-based bioresources play a foundational role in organic agriculture, contributing significantly to soil fertility, nutrient cycling, microbial activity, and overall agroecosystem health. These bioresources primarily include livestock manure, poultry litter, urine, slurry, bone meal, and other organic animal wastes, all of which serve as rich sources of macro- and micronutrients essential for crop production.

2.2.1. Livestock Manure

Livestock manure, particularly from cattle, buffalo, sheep, goats, and poultry, is one of the most widely used organic inputs in traditional and modern organic farming systems. It is rich in nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), potassium (K), sulfur (S), and other trace elements. Manure also contains large quantities of organic matter that improve soil structure, water-holding capacity, cation exchange capacity (CEC), and microbial activity [49].

The most commonly applied types include

• Farmyard manure (FYM)—a mix of dung, urine, and bedding materials.
• Poultry manure—rich in nitrogen and phosphorus, highly effective for short-term nutrient boosts.
• Vermicompost—produced from organic wastes using earthworms, with improved nutrient content and microbial diversity.

Proper composting or anaerobic digestion of manure is essential to reduce the risk of pathogen transfer, stabilize nutrients, and minimize greenhouse gas emissions. Well-decomposed manure improves soil fertility without causing nitrogen volatilization or leaching—key issues in poorly managed applications [50].

2.2.2. Animal Urine and Slurry

Liquid organic inputs like animal urine and slurry (semi-liquid waste from intensive animal husbandry systems) contain rapidly available nutrients, particularly urea-derived nitrogen. They are often used in combination with crop residues or green manures to enhance microbial decomposition and nutrient release rates [51]. In biodynamic systems, cow urine is used as a core ingredient in various preparations (e.g., Panchagavya), which are believed to promote plant immunity and growth.

2.2.3. Bone Meal, Blood Meal, and Other Animal Wastes

Bone meal is a slow-release phosphorus source obtained by steaming and grinding animal bones, making it ideal for root development in phosphorus-deficient soils. Blood meal, a high-nitrogen material, is used sparingly due to its rapid mineralization potential and risk of ammonia volatilization. Fish emulsion and meat meal are also employed in organic farming, particularly in liquid formulations, to supplement protein and micronutrients [52].

These by-products are particularly valuable in regions with limited access to synthetic fertilizers or where farmers seek cost-effective and locally available inputs. However, they must be processed according to safety standards to prevent contamination, particularly in organic systems that prohibit inputs from intensive or non-organic livestock operations.

Analytical Insight

Animal-based bioresources offer both agronomic and environmental advantages in organic farming systems. They contribute to building soil organic carbon (SOC), enhancing microbial biomass, and supporting beneficial soil fauna such as earthworms and decomposers. Moreover, their use aligns with circular economy principles, promoting the recycling of farm-based waste back into productive use. However, their effectiveness depends on proper handling, composting, and application timing. Overuse or improper application can lead to nutrient imbalances, odor issues, or water contamination. Therefore, integrating animal-based bioresources with plant residues and microbial inoculants offers a more balanced and sustainable nutrient management strategy.

2.3. Microbial-Based Bioresources: Bacteria, Fungi, and Algae

Microbial bioresources are among the most vital inputs in organic and sustainable farming systems due to their ability to improve soil fertility, nutrient availability, plant health, and ecological balance. These resources include bacteria, fungi, and algae, many of which form symbiotic or associative relationships with crops or function as biofertilizers, biopesticides, or biostimulants. Their multifunctional roles not only reduce the dependency on synthetic inputs but also contribute to climate-smart and resilient agricultural practices [53].

2.3.1. Beneficial Bacteria

Bacterial inoculants play crucial roles in organic farming, primarily through nitrogen fixation, phosphorus solubilization, production of plant growth hormones (auxins, gibberellins, cytokinins), and suppression of pathogens. Key bacterial genera include

• Rhizobium—forms symbiotic nodules with legumes, fixing atmospheric nitrogen into a plant-usable form. It is central to legume-based cropping systems in organic farming [54].
• Azospirillum and Azotobacter—free-living diazotrophs that colonize the rhizosphere of cereals, vegetables, and grasses. They contribute significantly to nitrogen availability and promote root development via phytohormones [55].
• Bacillus spp.—known for their ability to solubilize phosphates and suppress soil-borne pathogens. Certain species (e.g., B. subtilis, B. megaterium) are used as both biofertilizers and biopesticides [56].
• Pseudomonas fluorescens—an important plant-growth-promoting rhizobacterium (PGPR) with strong antagonistic effects against fungal pathogens via the production of antibiotics, siderophores, and hydrolytic enzymes [57].

These bacterial bioresources offer a sustainable alternative to synthetic nitrogen and phosphorus fertilizers, especially in soils with poor nutrient availability or degraded structure.

2.3.2. Beneficial Fungi

Fungi contribute to nutrient cycling, disease suppression, and soil structure formation through extensive hyphal networks and biochemical interactions. Two major groups dominate microbial resource applications in organic farming:

• Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF). These symbiotic fungi (e.g., Glomus, Acaulospora) colonize plant roots and enhance the uptake of phosphorus, zinc, and copper. They improve drought tolerance, soil aggregation, and root architecture, playing a pivotal role in organic nutrient cycling [58].
• Trichoderma spp.—free-living fungi used widely as biocontrol agents. They inhibit pathogenic fungi like Fusarium, Rhizoctonia, and Pythium through mycoparasitism, enzyme secretion, and the induction of systemic resistance in plants [59].

These fungal bioresources contribute both to nutrient acquisition and plant defense, supporting the ecological principles of organic farming while reducing dependence on chemical fungicides.

2.3.3. Algal Bioresources

Algae, especially cyanobacteria (blue-green algae) and microalgae, are emerging bioresources in sustainable agriculture. These organisms are rich in proteins, vitamins, hormones, and bioactive compounds that can enhance plant growth and improve soil fertility.

• Cyanobacteria (e.g., Anabaena, Nostoc, Oscillatoria)—capable of biological nitrogen fixation, especially in wetland and paddy ecosystems. These organisms add organic matter and improve soil microbial activity in rice-based organic systems [60].
• Seaweed extracts (e.g., from Ascophyllum nodosum, Sargassum, Gracilaria)—widely used as bio-stimulants to promote germination, flowering, stress tolerance, and yield. They contain cytokinins, betaines, and polysaccharides that enhance plant metabolism and immunity [61].

Algae-based inputs also play a role in carbon sequestration and detoxification of heavy metals, thereby contributing to environmental sustainability alongside crop productivity [62].

Analytical Perspective

Microbial bioresources are dynamic agents of change in organic and regenerative farming. They mediate essential soil–plant–microbe interactions that underpin nutrient cycling, soil health, and ecosystem resilience. Unlike synthetic inputs that often lead to soil degradation, microbial inputs regenerate the biological engine of the soil. However, their performance is influenced by soil pH, moisture, cropping systems, and native microbial communities. Furthermore, the commercial formulation, viability, and delivery of microbial products remain technical challenges, particularly under varied field conditions.

To unlock their full potential, more research is needed on strain selection, consortia-based inoculants, and microbiome engineering, as well as long-term field validations under diverse agroecological zones. The integration of microbial bioresources with plant and animal-derived inputs offers synergistic benefits, aligning perfectly with the circular nutrient economy ideal of organic agriculture.

2.4. Functional and Process-Based Classification of Bioresources in Organic Farming

In addition to the traditional categorization of bioresources by biological origin (plant-, animal-, or microbial-based), a process-oriented classification—dividing bioresources into primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary types—offers a broader and more systemic understanding of resource flows (

Table 1. Classification of bioresources and their applications in organic farming.

Category	Source	Examples	Use in Organic Farming
Primary	Natural biological sources	Crops, animals, algae, timber	Direct input: compost, manure, green manure
Secondary	Processing by-products	Crop residues, manure, oilseed cakes, microbial inoculants	Biofertilizers, compost, biopesticides
Tertiary	Residues from manufacturing/refinement	Spent mushroom substrate, fruit pulp, rice husk ash	Soil conditioners, compost ingredients
Quaternary	End-of-line bio-waste and effluents	Biogas slurry, treated kitchen waste, OFMSW compost	Biogas input, compost (with certification)

). This approach is particularly relevant to organic farming and circular bioeconomy models, where waste minimization, nutrient recycling, and input substitution are key goals.

2.4.1. Primary Bioresources

Primary bioresources are derived directly from natural or cultivated ecosystems, without prior industrial or biological processing. They form the foundational raw materials used in organic farming.

• Agricultural crops: Cereal grains, legumes, oilseeds, fruits, and vegetables grown for direct consumption or soil improvement (e.g., green manure crops).
• Livestock: Animals raised for milk, meat, or fiber, which also contribute manure and urine for composting or biogas systems.
• Marine resources: Fish, seaweed, and other aquatic organisms harvested from freshwater or marine systems, often used in organic fertilizers or biostimulants.
• Forestry products: Timber, leaf litter, and wood residues used as mulch, bedding, or compost ingredients.

2.4.2. Secondary Bioresources

Secondary bioresources emerge as by-products or residues during the processing or use of primary bioresources. These materials are abundant and commonly reused in organic systems.

• Agricultural residues: Crop stalks, husks, straw, animal manure, and post-harvest plant biomass.
• Industrial residues: Oilseed cakes (e.g., neem, mustard), sugarcane bagasse, fruit peels, and press mud from agro-processing industries.
• Microorganisms: Beneficial microbes such as Rhizobium, Azospirillum, Trichoderma, and Bacillus strains, used as biofertilizers and biopesticides.

2.4.3. Tertiary Bioresources

Tertiary bioresources refer to residuals separated or generated during the manufacturing or transformation of secondary resources. While not often emphasized, these materials hold substantial potential in soil amendment and biofertilizer applications.

• Spent mushroom substrate: Remnants of mushroom production rich in organic matter.
• Rice husk ash: A by-product of biomass combustion, often used as a soil conditioner.
• De-oiled cakes and fibrous residues: Remaining material after oil extraction, used as slow-release fertilizers and natural pest repellents.
• Sawdust and wood shavings: Carbon-rich inputs for compost or animal bedding.

These bioresources extend the utility of primary materials and reduce biomass waste from production chains.

2.4.4. Quaternary Bioresources

Quaternary bioresources include end-of-line biological wastes and effluents that would otherwise be discarded but can be repurposed through treatment or safe processing. These resources are typically derived from urban or industrial waste streams and may require sanitization or certification before use in organic farming.

• Biogas slurry: The nutrient-rich digestate produced from the anaerobic digestion of animal or kitchen waste.
• Composted municipal organic waste (OFMSW): Treated and stabilized organic waste used as compost.
• Treated greywater or blackwater: In systems employing constructed wetlands or ecological sanitation, this can be reused for non-edible crops or biomass generation.
• Household kitchen waste compost: Frequently reused in peri-urban organic gardens when free from contaminants.

Although their use is regulated under organic standards, these bioresources significantly contribute to nutrient cycling, waste valorization, and climate-smart farming, especially when local bio-waste volumes are high and composting infrastructure is available [1].

Analytical Perspective

This expanded classification underscores a gradient of resource transformation and potential reuse in organic farming. By understanding and utilizing bioresources at all levels—from raw materials to treated wastes—organic systems can enhance input self-sufficiency, reduce dependency on external inputs, and advance toward closed-loop, zero-waste agriculture. Incorporating tertiary and quaternary bioresources, where safe and compliant with organic certification standards, also supports broader goals of environmental sustainability and circular economy integration.

3. Integration of Bioresources in Organic Farming

3.1. Biofertilizers: Microbial Inoculants for Sustainable Nutrient Management

Biofertilizers are microbial-based inputs that enhance the availability and uptake of nutrients by plants through natural biological processes such as nitrogen fixation, phosphate solubilization, and growth hormone production. In organic farming systems, where the use of synthetic fertilizers is strictly prohibited, biofertilizers serve as an ecologically sound and agronomically effective strategy for improving soil fertility and plant productivity. Their integration not only supports the biological integrity of the soil but also contributes to long-term sustainability, nutrient cycling, and ecological resilience [63].

Among the various microbial agents used as biofertilizers, four genera have proven particularly significant in organic agriculture: Rhizobium, Azotobacter, Azospirillum, and arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF). Each performs distinct roles in soil–plant nutrient dynamics and is applied through specific, tailored methods depending on crop type, soil condition, and climatic context.

3.1.1. Rhizobium: Symbiotic Nitrogen Fixation in Legumes

Rhizobium spp. are Gram-negative bacteria that form symbiotic relationships with leguminous plants. Upon infection, they induce the formation of root nodules, where atmospheric nitrogen (N₂) is converted into ammonia (NH₃), a form readily assimilable by plants (Figure 1). This symbiosis contributes significantly to the nitrogen economy of organic farms, particularly in systems dominated by pulses, forage legumes, and legume-based cover crops.

The application of Rhizobium biofertilizers typically involves seed coating with peat-based inoculant slurry prior to sowing [64]. The inoculant ensures early colonization and efficient nodule formation. Inoculation can lead to nitrogen fixation rates of 50–150 kg N ha⁻¹ annually, depending on legume species and soil conditions [65]. In organic systems, this input substitutes synthetic nitrogen fertilizers, closing the nutrient loop and improving soil structure and microbial activity.

3.1.2. Azotobacter: Free-Living Nitrogen Fixers for Non-Legumes

Unlike Rhizobium, Azotobacter spp. are free-living, associative nitrogen-fixing bacteria that colonize the rhizosphere of a wide range of crops, including cereals, vegetables, and fruits. These bacteria also secrete plant-growth-promoting substances such as indole-3-acetic acid (IAA), gibberellins, and cytokinins, which enhance root elongation and biomass accumulation [55].

Azotobacter is applied either as a seed treatment, soil drench, or root dip. Its effectiveness increases when co-applied with organic amendments such as compost or vermicompost, which improve microbial survival and activity (Figure 2). On average, inoculation can contribute up to 20–40 kg N ha⁻¹ and improve plant vigor, especially in nitrogen-deficient soils [66].

3.1.3. Azospirillum: Associative Symbiosis with Grasses and Cereals

Azospirillum spp. are microaerophilic, nitrogen-fixing bacteria that form loose associations with the roots of grasses, including major staples such as maize, wheat, and sorghum. In addition to nitrogen fixation, Azospirillum enhances nutrient uptake, root architecture, and tolerance to abiotic stress through the production of ACC deaminase and phytohormones (Figure 3) [67].

Application of Azospirillum is often carried out via seed treatment, root dipping of seedlings (e.g., rice), or direct soil inoculation. Field trials have shown yield increases of 10–20% and nitrogen savings of 25–30% when Azospirillum is integrated with organic nutrient sources [68]. In organic farming systems, where nutrient synchronization is critical, Azospirillum helps bridge the gap between soil supply and crop demand.

3.1.4. Mycorrhiza: Fungal Symbionts for Enhanced Nutrient Uptake

Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF), primarily from the genera Glomus, Acaulospora, and Gigaspora, form symbiotic associations with the roots of over 80% of terrestrial plants. These fungi extend the root’s absorptive area through an extensive hyphal network, increasing the uptake of immobile nutrients, especially phosphorus, zinc, and copper. In exchange, the fungi receive carbohydrates from the host plant (Figure 4) [69,70].

Mycorrhizal inoculants are typically applied to the root zone during transplanting or incorporated into nursery media for seedlings. In degraded or low-phosphorus soils sometimes found in organic fields, AMF colonization enhances not only nutrient uptake but also drought tolerance, pathogen resistance, and soil aggregation [71]. Studies have shown up to a 60% increase in phosphorus uptake and significant improvements in yield when AMF is integrated into organic nutrient management plans [72].

Analytical Perspective

The integration of these microbial inoculants into organic farming systems marks a shift toward biologically intensive agriculture. Unlike synthetic fertilizers, which deliver nutrients in bulk but disrupt soil ecology, biofertilizers operate in harmony with natural processes, gradually improving soil structure, organic matter content, and microbial diversity. Their effectiveness, however, is influenced by multiple factors including soil pH, temperature, moisture, and native microbial populations. Co-application with compost, mulches, or liquid organic formulations like Panchagavya (a fermented mixture of five cow-derived products and plant extracts) and Jeevamrut (a microbial stimulant made from cow dung, cow urine, jaggery, pulse flour, and soil) enhances their survival and function in the rhizosphere [73].

While the commercial production of biofertilizers has advanced significantly, challenges remain in terms of formulation stability, carrier material optimization, and farmer awareness. Furthermore, strain specificity, quality control, and compatibility with local agro-ecological conditions are critical for achieving consistent field performance. Future directions point toward the development of microbial consortia tailored to specific crops and climates, integrating multiple functions such as nitrogen fixation, phosphorus solubilization, and pathogen suppression in a single inoculant package.

In summary, the use of biofertilizers such as Rhizobium, Azotobacter, Azospirillum, and Mycorrhiza represents a cornerstone in the integration of bioresources within organic farming systems. Their role extends beyond nutrient supply, contributing to soil health restoration, biological pest suppression, and increased resilience to environmental stressors. As organic agriculture continues to expand globally, microbial biofertilizers will play an increasingly central role in designing productive, sustainable, and ecologically balanced agroecosystems.

3.2. Biopesticides and Bio-Control Agents: Plant- and Microbial-Derived Defenses in Organic Farming

Biopesticides represent a critical component of pest and disease management in organic farming systems, offering effective, eco-friendly alternatives to synthetic agrochemicals. Derived primarily from botanical and microbial bioresources, biopesticides function through diverse mechanisms such as antibiosis, parasitism, competition, and induction of systemic resistance [74]. Their integration into organic systems aligns with the ecological principles of farming that prioritize biodiversity, natural regulation, and minimal environmental impact.

Biopesticides can be broadly classified into two main categories: (i) botanical-based formulations and (ii) microbial-based biocontrol agents. Both categories play complementary roles in managing a wide range of insect pests, fungal pathogens, and soil-borne diseases.

3.2.1. Botanical Extracts: Plant-Based Insecticides and Fungicides

Botanical biopesticides are prepared from plant extracts, oils, or secondary metabolites that possess insecticidal, antifungal, repellent, or antifeedant properties. Commonly used species include Azadirachta indica (neem), Allium sativum (garlic), Capsicum annum (chili), Ocimum sanctum (holy basil), and Curcuma longa (turmeric). Neem-based products are among the most extensively used botanical insecticides, particularly due to the active compound azadirachtin, which interferes with insect molting, reproduction, and feeding [75].

Botanical extracts are generally applied as foliar sprays or soil drenches, and their efficacy is often enhanced when used in rotation or combination with microbial biocontrol agents. Unlike synthetic pesticides, botanical biopesticides degrade quickly in the environment, minimizing residues on crops and ecological disruption. However, their limitations include lower persistence, variability in active compound concentration depending on preparation methods, and susceptibility to environmental degradation (light, heat, and rainfall) [76].

3.2.2. Microbial-Based Biopesticides: Bacteria and Fungi as Natural Enemies

Microbial biopesticides are composed of living organisms or their metabolites that suppress pests or pathogens. They offer highly targeted activity, environmental safety, and compatibility with other organic inputs.

Bacillus spp., particularly Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt), are widely used for the biological control of caterpillars, beetles, and mosquitoes. Bt produces crystal proteins (Cry toxins) that are toxic to insect larvae upon ingestion, causing gut lysis and death. Bt formulations are highly specific, sparing non-target organisms and pollinators, which makes them ideal for organic systems. However, overuse can lead to resistance development in target pests, necessitating integrated resistance management strategies [77].

Trichoderma spp., especially Trichoderma harzianum and Trichoderma viride, are filamentous fungi that colonize the rhizosphere and outcompete or parasitize soil-borne pathogens such as Fusarium, Pythium, Rhizoctonia, and Sclerotinia. These fungi also induce systemic resistance in plants and enhance root development through hormone-like activity. Trichoderma is applied through seed treatment, through soil incorporation, or as a compost additive. Its efficacy is influenced by soil moisture, pH, and organic matter content, making its integration with compost or vermicompost particularly synergistic [78].

Beauveria bassiana, an entomopathogenic fungus, infects and kills insect pests such as aphids, whiteflies, and beetles by penetrating their cuticle and colonizing their body. Upon contact, the fungus sporulates on the insect’s surface, releasing conidia that propagate infection within the pest population. It is typically applied as a spore suspension in water and can be used preventively or curatively in pest management programs. While highly effective under humid conditions, Beauveria’s performance declines in arid environments or under intense solar radiation, which limits its field application in certain regions [79].

3.2.3. Efficacy and Limitations of Biopesticides in Organic Systems

Biopesticides offer several advantages over conventional pesticides, particularly in terms of environmental safety, specificity, and compatibility with beneficial organisms. They are an essential tool in integrated pest management (IPM) programs and are highly suited to the principles of organic agriculture. However, their adoption and consistency in performance can be constrained by several factors.

First, the efficacy of biopesticides is often influenced by environmental conditions such as temperature, humidity, and UV exposure, which can affect the viability and activity of microbial formulations. Second, shelf life and formulation stability remain technical challenges for microbial biopesticides, especially in the absence of cold-chain infrastructure in developing regions. Third, slow action and shorter persistence compared to synthetic pesticides may require repeated applications and precise timing, which adds to labor and management costs. Fourth, limited farmer awareness and accessibility, particularly among smallholders, restrict widespread adoption.

To overcome these limitations, strategies such as formulation improvement (e.g., encapsulation, oil-based carriers), microbial consortia development, and on-farm bioresource preparation (e.g., fermented plant extracts, liquid bio-inoculants) are being promoted. Furthermore, combining microbial biopesticides with habitat management practices—such as trap cropping, mulching, or use of flowering borders—enhances natural pest suppression and ecological resilience [80,81].

3.2.4. Integrative Role in Organic Agroecosystems

In organic farming, biopesticides are not just reactive inputs for pest outbreaks but are part of a preventive, systems-based approach to crop protection. When integrated with compost, microbial biofertilizers, green manures, and biodiversity-enhancing practices, they contribute to a resilient agroecological system. Their success is maximized when used in rotation or combination, and when applied with a deep understanding of pest life cycles and ecological interactions [82].

Ultimately, botanical and microbial biopesticides offer practical, scalable, and ecologically harmonious solutions for pest and disease management in organic agriculture. With growing investment in research, commercialization, and farmer training, their role in transforming chemical-dependent systems into biologically managed ecosystems continues to expand.

3.3. Organic Amendments

Organic amendments are central to nutrient management and soil restoration in organic agriculture. Unlike synthetic fertilizers that provide isolated nutrients, organic amendments derived from bioresources deliver a complex matrix of organic matter, humic substances, and beneficial microorganisms, all of which contribute to soil fertility, structure, and biological activity. Their application enhances nutrient cycling, increases water retention, and stimulates soil biodiversity—functions that are essential for the long-term sustainability and productivity of organic systems [83].

Organic amendments in this context include compost, vermicompost, livestock manure, and biochar—all of which represent different strategies for transforming raw bioresources into biologically active, soil-enriching inputs.

3.3.1. Composting: Stabilizing Organic Matter for Soil Health

Composting is the aerobic decomposition of organic materials, such as crop residues, animal manure, kitchen waste, and plant biomass, into a stable, humified product. It reduces the volume of waste while converting unstable organic matter into nutrient-rich humus. Compost provides macro- and micronutrients, improves cation exchange capacity (CEC), and supports beneficial microbial populations.

Composting involves a succession of thermophilic, mesophilic, and maturation phases, each dominated by distinct microbial communities that facilitate the breakdown of complex organic compounds like cellulose, lignin, and proteins. The thermophilic phase, reaching temperatures above 55 °C, helps sanitize the compost by destroying weed seeds and pathogens.

In organic systems, compost is applied as a basal input, either incorporated into the soil before planting or used as topdressing. It serves as a carrier for microbial inoculants such as Trichoderma, Azotobacter, or phosphate-solubilizing bacteria, thereby enhancing its functional efficacy [84]. Despite its numerous advantages, compost production requires time, space, and careful management of the carbon-to-nitrogen (C/N) ratio, aeration, and moisture to ensure optimal quality [85].

3.3.2. Vermicomposting: Enhancing Nutrient Density Through Earthworms

Vermicomposting is the biological decomposition of organic matter using earthworms, most commonly Eisenia fetida or Eudrilus eugeniae, in combination with microbial decomposers. Compared to traditional composting, vermicompost is richer in plant-available nutrients, beneficial microbes, and plant growth regulators such as auxins and cytokinins [86]. It also has superior microbial diversity and stability, promoting faster nutrient release and improved soil biological properties.

Vermicompost is typically produced using a variety of feedstocks, including livestock dung, crop residues, food waste, and green biomass. It is used in potting mixtures or as seedling media or is directly applied in furrows or around plant basins. Its low bulk density and high nutrient density make it ideal for high-value horticultural crops in organic systems. Moreover, vermicompost tea—a liquid extract—can be used as a foliar spray to boost plant immunity and microbial colonization of the phyllosphere [87].

Challenges associated with vermicomposting include the need for controlled moisture, shade, and temperature conditions, as well as protection from predators such as ants or rodents. Despite these constraints, its high return on investment and biological benefits make it a preferred amendment for small-scale and peri-urban organic farms.

3.3.3. Manure Management: Recycling Livestock Waste Responsibly

Livestock manure, one of the oldest and most widely used organic amendments, remains a cornerstone of nutrient management in organic agriculture. It contains essential nutrients—particularly nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, sulfur, and calcium—and supports microbial life when properly managed. However, raw manure can also harbor pathogens, weed seeds, and excess salts, which may pose risks if applied untreated.

To ensure safety and nutrient stability, manure is typically composted or aged before field application. Properly managed manure improves soil texture, increases organic matter, and stimulates beneficial microbial activity. When combined with microbial inoculants or incorporated into compost, manure becomes a bio-enriched substrate that contributes to both fertility and pest suppression [88].

Manure type and quality vary significantly depending on animal species, diet, bedding material, and storage conditions. Poultry manure is particularly rich in nitrogen, while cattle manure is more balanced and suited for bulk soil conditioning [89]. In biodynamic farming systems, manure is used in combination with preparations such as cow horn manure (BD 500) to stimulate soil vitality and plant growth [90]. The main challenge in manure management is controlling nutrient losses through volatilization, leaching, or runoff. Covered storage, composting, and integration with carbonaceous materials (e.g., straw, sawdust) help mitigate these losses and improve nutrient retention [91].

3.3.4. Biocyclic Vegan Humus Soil: A Soil Amendment Rooted in Ethical and Ecological Principles

Biocyclic vegan humus soil is an emerging bioresource concept within organic farming that emphasizes not only ecological sustainability but also ethical consistency by excluding all animal-derived inputs. Developed under the principles of biocyclic vegan agriculture, this soil amendment is based entirely on plant-based organic materials, processed through controlled aerobic composting methods to produce stable, microbially rich humus with high agronomic value.

Unlike conventional organic systems that rely heavily on livestock manure, slurry, or other animal by-products, biocyclic vegan humus soil derives its fertility from plant residues, green waste, food scraps, wood chips, and leguminous biomass, often enriched with fermented herbal extracts or rock powders for micronutrient balance. The resulting humus is rich in stable organic carbon, exhibits excellent cation exchange capacity (CEC), and fosters a highly active and diverse soil microbial community.

From a soil health perspective, biocyclic humus improves

• Soil structure through stable humic substances.
• Water retention due to high porosity and colloidal properties.
• Microbial activity via beneficial fungi and bacteria promoted by the substrate.

Studies conducted in biocyclic vegan-certified farms in Germany, Cyprus, and Greece have shown that the regular application of biocyclic humus enhances root development, improves phosphorus availability, and increases crop resilience without the use of animal residues [92,93,94]. The humus also supports carbon sequestration, making it a valuable input for climate-resilient farming.

In addition to its technical benefits, biocyclic vegan humus soil aligns with ethical food systems, appealing to a growing segment of consumers and producers seeking fully plant-based, cruelty-free agricultural practices. Its use is permitted under the Biocyclic Vegan Standard and is gaining attention in vegan–organic certification schemes across Europe [95].

3.3.5. Biochar Integration: Carbon-Rich Amendment for Soil Regeneration

Biochar is a stable, carbon-rich product produced via the pyrolysis (thermal decomposition in the absence of oxygen) of organic biomass such as crop residues, wood chips, or animal waste. When applied to soil, biochar improves nutrient retention, water-holding capacity, and microbial habitat structure due to its high surface area and porous nature [96].

In organic farming, biochar is often integrated with compost or manure to form biochar–compost blends. This combination enhances nutrient retention during composting, reduces greenhouse gas emissions, and leads to the formation of stable organo-mineral complexes that support long-term soil fertility. Furthermore, biochar can buffer soil pH and adsorb toxic compounds, thus improving conditions for root development and microbial colonization.

Biochar application rates typically range from 5 to 20 tons per hectare, depending on soil type and biochar properties. While its long-term stability makes it an attractive amendment for carbon sequestration, its efficacy in nutrient delivery is contingent on pre-charging or co-composting with organic inputs to avoid initial nutrient immobilization [97].

Limitations of biochar use include the variability in feedstock and pyrolysis conditions, which can significantly influence its chemical properties and effects on soil. Additionally, production requires specialized equipment, which may not be readily available to smallholder farmers without collective or institutional support.

3.3.6. Toward a Synergistic Approach in Organic Amendment Management

Each of these organic amendments—compost, vermicompost, manure, biocyclic humus soil, and biochar—offers unique advantages, and their integration provides synergistic benefits in organic systems. Compost provides a foundational source of organic matter and nutrients; vermicompost offers biologically active and nutrient-dense supplementation; manure recycles on-farm animal waste efficiently; biocyclic humus soil enhances microbial biodiversity and soil vitality through the use of fully plant-based, composted materials; and biochar contributes to long-term soil structure and carbon stability.

When combined thoughtfully, these amendments support a biologically intensive and ecologically sound nutrient management strategy. For example, biochar–compost blends enhance microbial colonization and nutrient buffering, manure-based composts fortified with microbial inoculants provide plant-available nutrients and pest resistance, and vermicompost tea applications complement solid amendments by activating phyllosphere microbial communities.

In conclusion, the strategic use of organic amendments derived from bioresources transforms farm waste into functional bio-inputs that sustain soil health, promote plant vigor, and regenerate degraded lands. As organic agriculture scales up globally, the development of region-specific amendment recipes, farmer training, and supportive policies will be essential to maximize their potential and accessibility.

3.4. Agro-Biodiversity and Seed Management: Indigenous Seed Systems, Conservation, and Resilient Agriculture

Agro-biodiversity—the variety and variability of plants, animals, and microorganisms used directly or indirectly in agriculture—forms the ecological and genetic foundation of sustainable farming systems. In organic agriculture, where input reliance is minimized and ecological resilience is prioritized, agro-biodiversity plays a critical role in pest and disease resistance, climate adaptation, and resource-use efficiency. The conservation and revitalization of indigenous seed systems are particularly crucial in this context, serving as a living reservoir of locally adapted genetic material and cultural knowledge [98].

3.4.1. Indigenous Seed Systems: Carriers of Genetic and Cultural Resilience

Indigenous seed systems refer to community-managed networks of seed selection, saving, exchange, and regeneration that have evolved over generations. These systems are based on in situ conservation and on-farm seed stewardship, wherein farmers select seeds based on traits such as drought tolerance, early maturity, flavor, and pest resistance. Unlike commercial hybrid or genetically modified seeds, indigenous varieties are open-pollinated, genetically diverse, and ecologically adapted to local soil, climate, and biotic stress conditions [99].

In organic systems, where synthetic inputs are prohibited, the use of resilient and adaptable seed varieties is essential. Indigenous seeds often possess traits such as deep root systems, nutrient-use efficiency, and compatibility with biofertilizers and organic amendments. Their genetic diversity provides a form of insurance against crop failure under climatic extremes and pest outbreaks—conditions that are becoming increasingly common due to climate change.

Moreover, indigenous seed systems embody community knowledge about planting times, intercropping patterns, and soil fertility practices, many of which are aligned with bioresource use. For example, certain landraces perform better under organic manuring regimes or are more responsive to microbial inoculants, reinforcing the synergy between seed biodiversity and bioresource-based inputs [100].

3.4.2. Conservation of Agro-Biodiversity in Organic Farming

The conservation of agro-biodiversity in organic farming is typically achieved through on-farm conservation, community seed banks, participatory plant breeding, and networked seed exchange systems. On-farm conservation involves the continued cultivation of traditional varieties, ensuring dynamic adaptation to evolving environmental and management conditions. This strategy supports both conservation and utilization, keeping agro-biodiversity functional and context-specific.

Community seed banks, maintained by farmers’ collectives or NGOs, serve as decentralized repositories of seeds, preserving landraces and heirloom varieties that may no longer be available in formal markets. These banks are essential for local seed sovereignty and genetic autonomy, particularly where corporate control over commercial seed markets limits farmers’ access to diverse and affordable planting materials [101].

Participatory plant breeding (PPB), in which farmers and scientists collaborate to develop new varieties using traditional germplasm, is another emerging approach within organic seed systems. PPB allows for the development of crops specifically suited to organic management—those that perform well under compost-based fertility, weed competition, and biopesticide use—thus reinforcing the bioresource-based nature of organic agriculture [102].

Additionally, policies that support seed certification for organic and indigenous varieties, the recognition of farmers’ rights under the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture (ITPGRFA), and investment in local breeding programs are crucial for sustaining agro-biodiversity at scale.

3.4.3. Agro-Biodiversity and Resilience in Organic Systems

The integration of agro-biodiversity into organic systems enhances resilience at multiple levels—genetic, ecological, and socioeconomic. Genetically diverse crops can withstand variable climate conditions and biotic stresses without the need for external chemical inputs. Ecologically, varietal mixtures and polycultures reduce monoculture vulnerabilities and support beneficial organisms, including pollinators, predators, and symbiotic microbes.

For instance, the use of mixed cropping systems involving legumes and cereals not only boosts nitrogen availability through biological fixation but also creates a diverse soil microbiome that enhances the effectiveness of biofertilizers and biopesticides. Certain landraces of maize, millet, and sorghum are known to exude compounds that selectively favor the colonization of mycorrhizal fungi or phosphate-solubilizing bacteria, further demonstrating the synergy between seed choice and bioresource dynamics [103].

Socioeconomically, agro-biodiversity contributes to dietary diversity, cultural identity, and local economies. In many regions, indigenous crops also have medicinal, ceremonial, or artisanal value. Preserving and promoting these crops through organic value chains not only ensures ecological sustainability but also empowers farming communities, particularly women, who are often the custodians of seed knowledge.

3.4.4. Challenges and Opportunities

Despite its critical importance, agro-biodiversity faces erosion due to factors such as agricultural modernization, market homogenization, loss of traditional knowledge, and policy bias toward high-input, uniform crop varieties. In many developing countries, smallholder farmers are increasingly dependent on external seed sources, undermining traditional systems of seed sovereignty.

To counter these trends, organic farming offers a viable platform for the revitalization of seed diversity. Certification standards increasingly recognize the need for organic-compatible seeds, and some countries now mandate the use of organically produced seed in certified organic farming. However, supply gaps and limited availability of suitable varieties remain challenges.

There is growing interest in linking seed conservation with agroecological intensification. Projects that combine seed fairs, farmer field schools, and participatory breeding with composting, biofertilizer use, and IPM (integrated pest management) training have shown positive outcomes in improving yields, reducing crop loss, and increasing seed diversity [104].

3.5. Bioenergy and Circular Economy: Valorizing Agricultural Wastes in Organic Farming Systems

The concept of the circular economy is increasingly being recognized as a critical framework for sustainable development, particularly in agriculture. Unlike the conventional linear model of “produce–use–dispose,” the circular economy emphasizes closed-loop systems where waste is minimized, resources are reused, and outputs from one process serve as inputs for another. Organic farming, with its emphasis on local resource cycling, ecological balance, and minimal external inputs, naturally aligns with circular economy principles. Central to this alignment is the conversion of agricultural bioresources—especially organic wastes—into bioenergy forms such as biofuels, biogas, and compost, thus enhancing resource efficiency, energy security, and environmental sustainability [105].

3.5.1. Biofuel Production from Agricultural Wastes

Agricultural residues such as straw, husks, shells, and pruned biomass represent vast, underutilized bioresources that can be transformed into solid, liquid, or gaseous biofuels. In organic farming, where reliance on fossil fuels is discouraged, on-farm or community-scale biofuel production from waste biomass offers a renewable alternative for energy needs such as irrigation pumping, heating, or processing.

Solid biofuels, including briquettes and pellets made from compressed crop residues or manure, can be used for cooking or heating greenhouses. These fuels are particularly valuable in smallholder and off-grid farming systems. The production process itself encourages the removal of combustible waste from fields, reducing fire risk and improving air quality, while the ash by-product can be recycled into compost or as a mineral soil amendment.

Liquid biofuels, especially biodiesel and bioethanol, are typically produced from oilseeds or sugar/starch-rich feedstocks (e.g., castor, Jatropha, sorghum, sweet potato). However, in organic systems, the emphasis is more on second-generation biofuels derived from non-food biomass such as crop residues, algal biomass, or waste vegetable oil. While industrial-scale production is not always feasible at the farm level, community-based bio-refineries have been piloted successfully in parts of India, Kenya, and Latin America [106].

Challenges to biofuel integration in organic farming include the energy and capital inputs required for processing and the competition for biomass between fuel and composting. However, innovations in decentralized technologies and multi-purpose feedstock cultivation offer promising solutions.

3.5.2. Biogas Production from Animal Waste and Organic Residues

Biogas technology represents one of the most practical and synergistic bioenergy options in organic farming. Through anaerobic digestion of animal dung, food scraps, crop residues, and other biodegradable materials, biogas systems generate methane-rich gas for cooking and electricity, along with digestate, a nutrient-rich slurry usable as a high-quality organic fertilizer.

In livestock-based organic systems, especially in rural and peri-urban settings, biogas digesters help close the loop between manure management, energy production, and soil fertility. The methane produced substitutes for firewood or LPG, reducing greenhouse gas emissions and deforestation. Meanwhile, the digestate enhances soil health, particularly when used in combination with compost, biochar, or microbial inoculants [107].

Several models of biogas plants—from fixed-dome to portable flexi-bag digesters—have been adapted for small farms. Successful integration requires proper feedstock balance, moisture control, and routine maintenance. Despite some limitations in upfront cost and management skill requirements, the co-benefits of energy generation, waste stabilization, and nutrient recycling make biogas a cornerstone of the circular economy in organic agriculture.

3.5.3. Circular Economy Approaches in Organic Farming

Organic farming inherently supports circular economy thinking by emphasizing waste recycling, nutrient looping, and energy efficiency. Many organic farms already practice circularity informally through composting, mulching, and animal integration. However, systematizing these practices into circular bioresource flows enhances both productivity and sustainability.

Key circular strategies include

• Integrated crop–livestock systems, where animal manure fertilizes crops, and crop residues feed livestock or are composted.
• Agro-waste valorization, transforming pruning biomass, spoiled produce, or food processing by-products into feed, compost, or energy.
• On-farm biorefineries, which combine composting, vermicomposting, biogas, and possibly small-scale fermentation units to produce a suite of bio-inputs and energy carriers.
• Circular input substitution, replacing imported or high-carbon footprint inputs with farm-derived materials—such as replacing plastic mulch with straw, or chemical sprays with botanical formulations.

By implementing these practices, organic farms become more self-reliant, cost-effective, and environmentally regenerative. Moreover, circular systems build resilience to supply chain disruptions, enhance soil carbon sequestration, and reduce dependency on off-farm energy and nutrient sources [108,109].

Analytical Perspective

The integration of bioenergy production and circular economy principles transforms organic farming from a low-input system into a resource-generating, climate-resilient production model. It enables farmers to turn waste into wealth, align with sustainability goals, and contribute to national bioeconomy and renewable energy targets.

However, realizing this potential requires technical support, policy incentives, and farmer-friendly technologies. Barriers such as the capital cost of biogas units, lack of knowledge on biofuel processing, and poor access to decentralized infrastructure must be addressed through collaborative innovation, training, and government support.

In conclusion, by valorizing agricultural bioresources through bioenergy production and circular strategies, organic farming can not only sustain itself ecologically but also offer scalable models for regenerative development. The future of organic agriculture lies not just in avoiding chemicals but in fully closing resource loops, where every input and output contributes to the vitality of the farm ecosystem.

4. Evaluation of Bioresources in Organic Farming

Assessing the effectiveness of bioresources in organic farming systems requires a multidimensional approach that includes biological, chemical, agronomic, and ecological indicators. These evaluation indices help quantify the contribution of various bioresources—such as compost, microbial inoculants, green manure, and crop residues—to soil fertility, productivity, microbial activity, and overall system sustainability.

4.1. Soil Fertility and Nutrient Availability Indices

(a)

Soil Organic Carbon (SOC)

Soil organic carbon (SOC) is a core indicator of soil fertility, reflecting the organic matter status, nutrient retention capacity, and biological health of soils in organic farming systems. It is typically quantified using the formula

$$SOC \left(\%\right)=\left({\displaystyle \frac{TOC}{BD}}\right)100$$

(1)

where TOC is total organic carbon and BD is bulk density. SOC can be measured via the Walkley–Black wet oxidation method [110] or through dry combustion using a CHNS analyzer [111]. Higher SOC values are directly associated with improved soil structure, nutrient cycling efficiency, water-holding capacity, and long-term soil health—making SOC a crucial parameter in evaluating the performance of bioresource inputs such as compost, green manure, and microbial inoculants [112].

(b)

Carbon-to-Nitrogen (C/N) Ratio

The carbon-to-nitrogen (C/N) ratio is a key indicator of the decomposition rate and nutrient release potential of organic amendments in organic farming systems. It is calculated using the formula

$$C:N={\displaystyle \frac{Total Carbon}{Total Nitrogen}}$$

(2)

where total carbon is typically determined through dry combustion using a CHNS analyzer [111] and nitrogen is measured using the Kjeldahl method [113]. A low C/N ratio (<20) generally promotes rapid microbial decomposition and efficient nutrient mineralization, enhancing short-term fertility. In contrast, a high C/N ratio (>30) can lead to nitrogen immobilization, temporarily reducing nitrogen availability for crops. Monitoring the C/N ratio helps optimize the application of compost, green manure, and crop residues to align with crop nutrient demands and decomposition dynamics.

(c)

Microbial Biomass Carbon and Nitrogen (MBC, MBN)

Microbial biomass carbon (MBC) and microbial biomass nitrogen (MBN) are critical indicators of soil biological quality and microbial community health in organic farming systems. These indices are commonly measured using the chloroform fumigation–extraction method [114,115], which involves fumigating soil samples with chloroform to lyse microbial cells, thereby releasing intracellular carbon and nitrogen. Following fumigation, the soil is extracted—typically with a K₂SO₄ solution—and the microbial biomass is calculated by comparing the concentrations of carbon and nitrogen in fumigated versus non-fumigated samples. This method provides a reliable estimate of microbial activity and nutrient turnover capacity. Higher MBC and MBN values reflect active, diverse microbial communities, which are essential for organic matter decomposition, nutrient cycling, and overall soil fertility. These metrics are particularly important in organic farming, where biological processes play a central role in soil management. The MBC/SOC or MBN/SON ratios further inform microbial efficiency in organic matter transformation [114,115]. Elevated microbial biomass not only supports plant nutrient availability but also improves soil structure, suppresses pathogens, and enhances resilience against environmental stresses—making MBC and MBN valuable indicators for monitoring the long-term sustainability of organic farming practices.

4.2. Productivity and Nutrient Use Efficiency Indices

(a)

Agronomic Efficiency (AE)

Agronomic efficiency (AE) is a fundamental indicator for evaluating the productivity and nutrient use efficiency of bioresource inputs in organic farming systems. It is calculated using the formula

$$A{\rm E}={\displaystyle \frac{Y_f-Y_c}{F}}$$

(3)

where Y_f is the yield with the bioresource, Y_c is the yield without the bioresource, and F is the bioresource input (e.g., compost, manure in kg/ha).

This metric measures the increase in crop yield per unit of input applied, providing insight into how efficiently a given bioresource contributes to productivity. Higher AE values indicate more efficient resource use, which is particularly important in organic systems that rely on often-limited on-farm inputs. AE helps farmers and researchers assess the effectiveness of different organic amendments in improving yields without resorting to synthetic inputs, thus aligning productivity with ecological sustainability [116].

(b)

Partial Factor Productivity (PFP)

Partial factor productivity (PFP) is a broad indicator of the overall efficiency with which a bioresource input contributes to crop yield in organic farming systems. It is calculated using the formula

$$PFP={\displaystyle \frac{Y}{F}}$$

(4)

where Y is the yield and F is the bioresource input.

This index provides a straightforward measure of how much yield is produced per unit of input, without isolating the effect of the bioresource from other influencing factors. Higher PFP values suggest greater input-use efficiency, making PFP useful for comparing the performance of different bioresources or application strategies. In organic systems—where input quality, availability, and cost can vary—PFP serves as a practical tool for assessing economic and agronomic returns from bioresource application [117].

(c)

Nutrient Use Efficiency (NUE)

Nitrogen use efficiency (NUE) is a key indicator for evaluating how effectively a crop utilizes nitrogen supplied through bioresources in organic farming systems. It is calculated using the formula

$$NUE={\displaystyle \frac{Y_f-Y_c}{N_{applied}}}$$

(5)

where Y_f is the yield obtained with the bioresource, Y_c is the control yield (without nitrogen input), and N_applied refers to the amount of nitrogen provided by the bioresource. This index reflects the crop’s capacity to absorb and convert available nitrogen into yield. Higher NUE values indicate more efficient nitrogen utilization, which is essential in organic systems where nutrient release is slower and dependent on microbial activity. NUE helps optimize bioresource applications to balance productivity with environmental sustainability by minimizing nutrient losses and maximizing uptake [118].

4.3. Soil Biological Activity Indices

(a)

Enzymatic Activity (e.g., Dehydrogenase, Urease, Phosphatase)

Enzymatic activity is a widely used biological indicator for assessing microbial function and overall soil health in organic farming systems. Key enzymes such as dehydrogenase, urease, and phosphatase play essential roles in nutrient cycling processes, including carbon oxidation, nitrogen mineralization, and phosphorus mobilization. These activities are typically measured using colorimetric assays, often based on the release of p-nitrophenol or similar compounds from specific substrates. Higher enzymatic activity indicates robust microbial metabolic potential and reflects the functional health of the soil ecosystem. In organically managed soils, enzyme activity tends to be elevated due to higher organic matter content and microbial biomass stimulated by bioresource inputs such as compost or green manure. Thus, enzymatic assays serve as sensitive and early indicators of soil biological response to organic management practices [119].

(b)

Microbial Quotient (qCO₂)

The microbial quotient (qCO₂) is an important index for evaluating the efficiency of soil microbial communities and their ability to metabolize organic matter. It is calculated using the formula

$$q{CO}_2={\displaystyle \frac{{CO}_{2}Respiration}{\begin{array}{c}Microbial Biomass Carbon (\\ MBC)\end{array}}}$$

(6)

This ratio measures the amount of carbon dioxide (CO₂) released by microbial respiration relative to the microbial biomass carbon present in the soil. Lower qCO₂ values typically indicate efficient microbial communities that are effectively utilizing available organic matter for growth and reproduction. In contrast, higher qCO₂ values may suggest microbial stress or inefficiency, where microbes are using energy inefficiently or under unfavorable conditions. Therefore, qCO₂ is a useful indicator of soil microbial health and the impact of bioresource management practices on soil biological function [120].

4.4. Competition and Complementarity Indices (For Intercropping Systems)

(a)

Land Equivalent Ratio (LER)

The land equivalent ratio (LER) is an index commonly used to evaluate the effectiveness of intercropping systems by comparing the yield of intercrops with that of sole crops. The formula for LER is

$${AI}_L=\left({\displaystyle \frac{Y_{iL}}{Y_{sL}}}\right)+\left({\displaystyle \frac{Y_{iC}}{Y_{sC}}}\right)$$

(7)

where Y_iL and Y_iC represent the intercrop yields of legumes and cereals, respectively, and Y_sL and Y_sC represent the yields of sole crops for legumes and cereals. An LER value greater than 1 indicates that the intercrop system is more productive than the corresponding sole crops, reflecting a beneficial synergy between the species. This synergy arises from the complementary use of resources, such as light, water, and nutrients, enhancing overall system efficiency. The LER index is widely used to assess the productivity and sustainability of intercropping systems, showing how species can complement each other and improve land use [121].

(b)

Aggressivity Index (AI)

The aggressivity index (AI) is a key index used to assess the competitive dominance of each species in an intercropping system. The formula for AI is

$${AI}_L=\left({\displaystyle \frac{Y_{iL}}{Y_{sL}}}\right)-\left({\displaystyle \frac{Y_{iC}}{Y_{sC}}}\right)$$

(8)

where Y_iL and Y_iC are the intercrop yields of the legume and cereal, respectively, and Y_sL and Y_sC are the sole crop yields of the legume and cereal. A positive AI value (AI > 0) indicates that the legume species is dominant in the system, while a negative AI value (AI < 0) suggests that the cereal species is dominant. The aggressivity index provides insight into how the species interact in terms of resource competition, with the dominant species potentially outcompeting the other for resources like nutrients, light, and water [121].

(c)

Relative Yield Total (RYT)

The relative yield total (RYT) is an important index for evaluating the overall performance of intercropped species in comparison to their monoculture yields. The formula for RYT is

$$RYT=\left({\displaystyle \frac{{RY}_L}{{RY}_{sL}}}\right)-\left({\displaystyle \frac{{RY}_C}{{RY}_{sC}}}\right)$$

(9)

where RY_L and RY_C represent the relative yields of the legume and cereal intercrops, and RY_sL and RY_sC represent the relative yields of the legume and cereal in their sole crop systems. RYT values greater than 1 indicate that the intercropped system has a higher overall productivity than monoculture systems, demonstrating the synergistic effect of intercropping. Conversely, values lower than 1 suggest that intercropping does not outperform monocultures. This index provides a measure of the cumulative performance of the intercropped species, highlighting the efficiency of resource use and species complementarity in the system [121].

Although traditionally used to assess the performance of intercropping systems, competition and complementarity indices such as the land equivalent ratio (LER), relative yield total (RYT), and aggressivity index (AI) also serve as important tools in evaluating bioresource utilization efficiency within diversified cropping environments [122]. In organic systems where bioresources like compost, green manure, or microbial inoculants are applied, these indices help reveal how effectively these inputs are partitioned, shared, or competed for among intercropped species.

For instance, a high LER in a cereal–legume intercrop treated with Rhizobium and compost may indicate not only interspecies complementarity but also enhanced uptake and conversion of bioresource-derived nutrients. Similarly, changes in AI under different bioresource regimes can highlight shifts in competitive dominance driven by differential responsiveness to bio-inputs. Therefore, these indices are not only agronomic tools but also indirect measures of bioresource effectiveness in multi-species systems—particularly relevant in organic farming where biodiversity and input cycling are core principles.

4.5. Sustainability and Soil Health Indices

(a)

Soil Quality Index (SQI)

The soil quality index (SQI) is a composite indicator used to assess the overall health of soil, integrating its physical, chemical, and biological properties. The formula for SQI is

$$SQI=\sum ({\displaystyle \frac{M_i}{M_{max}}}\ast W_i)$$

(10)

where M_i is the measured value of a specific soil property, M_max is the maximum observed value of that property, and W_i is the weight assigned to that parameter, typically determined through principal component analysis (PCA) or expert scoring. This index aggregates various soil characteristics to provide an overall measure of soil health, with a higher SQI indicating better soil quality. The SQI serves as a valuable tool for monitoring soil degradation, assessing the impact of agricultural practices, and guiding soil management decisions [123].

(b)

Biodiversity Index (Shannon–Weaver Index)

The biodiversity index (Shannon–Weaver index) is a metric widely used to quantify species diversity in ecological systems, including soil microbial, faunal, or plant communities. It is calculated using the formula

$$H^{\prime }=-\sum _{i=1}^S{p}_i\log p_i$$

(11)

where H′ is the Shannon–Weaver diversity index, p_i represents the proportion of individuals belonging to species i relative to the total number of individuals, and S is the total number of species in the system. A higher H′ value indicates greater species diversity, which reflects a more balanced and resilient ecosystem. In organic farming systems, a high biodiversity index value suggests increased ecological stability, improved nutrient cycling, and better resistance to environmental stressors and pest outbreaks. This index is instrumental in evaluating the functional sustainability and ecological integrity of farming systems [124].

These indices provide quantitative tools for comparing the effectiveness of different bioresources, guiding both research and on-farm decision-making in organic systems. Incorporating them into field trials, long-term soil monitoring, and agroecosystem assessments ensures a more comprehensive understanding of bioresource contributions to sustainability and productivity.

5. A Site-Specific Diagnostic Framework for Bioresource Optimization in Organic Farming

The successful integration of bioresources into organic farming depends not only on their inherent properties but also on the precise alignment between the bioresource type, local agroecological conditions, and the intended agronomic or environmental goals. A critical gap in current practice is the absence of a comprehensive diagnostic or monitoring framework that guides farmers in the optimal selection, application rate, timing, and combination of bioresources for site-specific conditions.

5.1. Rationale for Diagnostic Systems

Organic farming systems are inherently diverse, with wide variability in soil types, climate, cropping systems, and resource availability. This complexity necessitates a tailored approach to bioresource management. Without diagnostics that account for local nutrient dynamics, soil biological status, and climatic factors, the risk of inefficiency, nutrient imbalances, or environmental degradation increases—even with organic inputs.

5.2. Framework Components

A site-specific diagnostic framework should incorporate the following elements:

• Agroecological Zoning (AEZ):
  Identifying homogeneous zones based on climate, soil type, and topography helps pre-screen bioresources suitable for those areas. AEZ approaches have been used effectively in sustainable land-use planning and can be adapted to organic systems.
• Soil Health Diagnostics:
  A detailed analysis of physical, chemical, and biological soil properties—including pH, organic carbon, microbial biomass, and enzyme activity—can inform what types of bioresources (e.g., compost, green manure, microbial inoculants) are most appropriate.
• Nutrient Budgeting Tools:
  Mass-balance tools such as the Nutrient Expert (modified for organic systems) and the Organic Nutrient Management Tool (ONMT) estimate nutrient flows and help match bioresource inputs with crop needs while preventing over- or under-application.
• Bioresource Suitability Mapping:
  Locally available bioresources (e.g., cow dung, poultry litter, leguminous biomass) can be matched with soil fertility constraints and crop demand. This could use GIS overlays of resource availability and farm typology data.
• Monitoring and Feedback Loops:
  Field-based sensor data (e.g., NDVI, soil moisture) and participatory monitoring by farmers should be incorporated to iteratively adjust management practices. Systems like SPAD meters for nitrogen assessment or smartphone-based soil health apps could be scaled for this purpose.

5.3. Implementation Challenges and Opportunities

Challenges include the cost and accessibility of diagnostic tools for smallholders, lack of trained extension agents, and weak integration of local knowledge systems. However, opportunities lie in building open-access platforms, leveraging remote sensing, and integrating citizen science models for monitoring bioresource efficiency.

Analytical Perspective

A robust diagnostic and monitoring system tailored for organic farming can transform the way bioresources are utilized—shifting from generic recommendations to context-aware strategies that enhance productivity, ecological balance, and farmer resilience. Future research should focus on co-developing such systems with farmers and integrating them with existing organic certification and extension frameworks.

6. Economic, Energy, and Environmental Efficiency of Bioresource Integration

The successful integration of bioresources into organic farming systems depends not only on their agronomic performance but also on their cost-effectiveness, energy efficiency, and environmental impact. Although organic agriculture avoids synthetic inputs, the production, processing, and transport of organic amendments (e.g., compost, green manures, biofertilizers) carry both direct and indirect costs that must be justified by tangible benefits.

6.1. Economic Viability and Cost–Benefit Considerations

Several studies have demonstrated that bioresources—particularly compost, green manures, and microbial biofertilizers—can improve input use efficiency while maintaining or increasing crop yields. Several studies show that compost-derived inputs and microbial biofertilizers can maintain or enhance crop yields while reducing dependence on synthetic fertilizers. For instance, replacing synthetic fertilizers with on-farm compost in organic systems in India reduced input costs by up to 17% while yield reductions remained relatively modest—8% for rice and 6% for soybean—compared to conventional practices [125]. Likewise, a field study across 23 crops reported yield gains of 35–65% and soil health improvements using biofertilizers [126].

The upfront costs of bioresource infrastructure (e.g., composting units, inoculant preparation) are often offset within 2–3 seasons through improved yields, higher-quality produce, and reduced dependence on external inputs [127].

6.2. Energy Efficiency and Resource Use

Organic systems using bioresources often demonstrate higher energy efficiency (output per unit of energy input) compared to conventional systems. Field trials in Canada demonstrated that integrating legume-based green manures and forage legumes into low-input cropping systems can enhance energy-use efficiency by more than 190%, largely due to nitrogen self-sufficiency and reduced fossil fuel requirements for fertilizer production and application [128]. Additionally, organic systems often rely on on-farm inputs such as compost and fermented bio-inputs, which generally have lower embodied energy compared to industrially produced synthetic fertilizers, thereby improving overall energy efficiency [129].

6.3. Environmental Impacts and Life-Cycle Benefits

From a life-cycle perspective, integrating bioresources into organic systems can substantially reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, improve soil organic carbon (SOC) levels, and support sustainable soil functioning [130]. Vermicomposting, in particular, has been shown to significantly reduce emissions compared to traditional composting methods. According to recent studies, vermicomposting reduced nitrous oxide (N₂O) emissions by 23–40% and methane (CH₄) by 16–32% in various settings. Under subtropical field conditions, vermicompost application led to up to 35% lower N₂O fluxes compared to untreated control plots [131,132].

In contrast, compost applications—particularly in non-aerated or nitrogen-rich environments—may increase GHG emissions in the short term. For example, a recent pot experiment comparing compost, vermicompost, and biochar reported that compost increased N₂O emissions by 57% in non-saline soils and by 62% in saline soils [133]. Despite this initial spike, the long-term benefits in terms of soil fertility and carbon sequestration remain considerable. The same study found that vermicompost application increased soil organic carbon by 52% in saline soils and by 18% in non-saline soils, while wheat grain yields improved by 56–57%, highlighting the agronomic value of bioresource-based inputs [133].

From a systems perspective, the carbon footprint of bioresources must be assessed in terms of net GHG impact. Although both compost and vermicompost can stimulate microbial respiration and increase short-term CO₂ emissions, their contribution to long-term carbon sequestration in soil often offsets these losses. Moreover, biochar was found to reduce net GHG emissions by approximately 12% in non-saline soils due to its stable, recalcitrant carbon structure [134].

7. Benefits and Challenges of Integrating Bioresources into Organic Farming

7.1. Ecological and Environmental Benefits

The integration of bioresources into organic farming systems delivers a wide array of ecological and environmental benefits. These benefits go far beyond input substitution, contributing to systemic improvements in soil quality, biodiversity, and the resilience of agricultural ecosystems to climate change. Bioresources not only replace synthetic inputs but also function as catalysts for biological processes that enhance sustainability, regenerate degraded land, and restore ecological balance [135].

7.1.1. Soil Health Enhancement

One of the most significant ecological benefits of bioresource use lies in the regeneration and maintenance of soil health. Organic amendments such as compost, vermicompost, animal manure, and microbial biofertilizers increase the organic matter content of soils, thereby improving their structure, porosity, aeration, and water-holding capacity. These materials enhance soil aggregation and reduce erosion risk by promoting microbial glue formation and biological crusts [136].

Microbial bioresources, including nitrogen-fixing bacteria (Rhizobium, Azotobacter, Azospirillum) and phosphate-solubilizing organisms (Pseudomonas, Bacillus), improve nutrient cycling and nutrient-use efficiency. Mycorrhizal fungi further expand root surface area and nutrient acquisition, especially under nutrient-deficient or drought-prone conditions [137]. These interactions promote a healthy, living soil ecosystem capable of sustaining high levels of biological activity and crop productivity without chemical interventions.

Additionally, the use of biochar, particularly when co-composted or inoculated with microbial consortia, contributes to long-term carbon stability in soils and enhances microbial habitats due to its porous structure [138]. Moreover, the application of biocyclic vegan humus soil—a plant-based, pathogen-free, and highly stable organic amendment—offers an exceptionally pure form of humus that enhances soil life, structure, and fertility without reliance on animal inputs [139]. Such bioresource interventions are crucial for reversing soil degradation and fostering long-term soil fertility in organic farming systems.

7.1.2. Biodiversity Conservation and Functional Enhancement

Bioresource integration contributes to both above-ground and below-ground biodiversity. Botanical biopesticides and microbial biocontrol agents selectively target pests and pathogens without harming beneficial insects, pollinators, or soil fauna. This contrasts sharply with the broad-spectrum toxicity of synthetic pesticides, which disrupt food webs and deplete natural enemy populations.

Organic farms that utilize plant-based inputs, diverse cropping patterns, and habitat-supporting practices (e.g., hedgerows, intercropping) tend to harbor higher species richness of birds, insects, and microorganisms. The application of diverse bioresources fosters a complex soil food web that includes bacteria, fungi, protozoa, nematodes, and arthropods, all of which contribute to nutrient cycling, pest suppression, and soil aeration [140].

In the rhizosphere, microbial diversity is significantly higher in organically managed soils enriched with compost, green manure, and biostimulants. This microbial richness supports disease suppression through competitive exclusion and the production of antimicrobial compounds. Additionally, diversified plant–soil–microbe interactions improve resilience to pest outbreaks and reduce the incidence of soil-borne diseases, creating a self-regulating ecosystem [141].

7.1.3. Climate Resilience and Carbon Sequestration

The ecological value of bioresources extends to their role in building climate resilience. Organic systems that integrate compost, green manures, and microbial inoculants enhance soil organic carbon (SOC) stocks, which contribute to carbon sequestration and mitigation of greenhouse gas emissions [142]. According to several studies, organically managed soils can store 10–30% more carbon than conventionally managed soils, particularly when bioresource inputs are optimized [143].

Improved soil structure and water retention capacity, facilitated by bioresource amendments, enable organic systems to better withstand droughts, floods, and temperature extremes. Deep-rooted crops, supported by robust microbial activity and high soil porosity, are more capable of accessing moisture and nutrients during stress periods.

Furthermore, bioresource-based nutrient management reduces reliance on fossil-fuel-derived inputs, thereby lowering the carbon footprint of agricultural operations. The use of on-farm compost, locally produced biopesticides, and renewable bioenergy solutions such as biogas further contributes to climate-smart agriculture.

7.1.4. Pollution Mitigation and Ecological Restoration

Bioresource use also mitigates environmental pollution by minimizing chemical runoff, nitrate leaching, and pesticide residues. Botanical and microbial alternatives degrade rapidly, have minimal residual toxicity, and do not contaminate water bodies. This reduces the eutrophication risk in aquatic ecosystems and supports aquatic biodiversity and water quality [144].

In degraded or contaminated lands, the use of bioresources such as biochar, mycorrhizae, and compost can aid in bioremediation by immobilizing heavy metals, stimulating pollutant-degrading microbes, and rebuilding soil biota [145]. This makes bioresource-based organic farming an effective strategy not just for food production but also for ecosystem restoration and land reclamation.

7.2. Economic Viability: Cost–Benefit Analyses and Market Perspectives

The integration of bioresources into organic farming systems not only delivers environmental benefits but also influences economic viability. While organic farming is often associated with higher labor inputs and lower initial yields, long-term cost–benefit analyses suggest that bioresource-based systems can achieve economic sustainability, especially when ecological services, input savings, and premium market access are accounted for [23].

7.2.1. Cost–Benefit Dynamics of Bioresource Utilization

The substitution of synthetic fertilizers and pesticides with bioresource-based alternatives such as compost, biofertilizers, biopesticides, and vermicompost often leads to significant reductions in input costs. For example, on-farm production of compost or botanical sprays eliminates expenses associated with purchasing external chemical inputs. Though initial labor and time investments may increase—especially for composting, manure handling, or preparing biopesticides—the long-term savings from reduced dependency on commercial agrochemicals can outweigh these costs [146].

In particular, biofertilizers like Rhizobium or Azospirillum are cost-effective compared to nitrogenous fertilizers such as urea. Studies have shown that the combined use of organic manures and microbial inoculants can reduce the need for nitrogen and phosphorus fertilizers by 25–30% while maintaining comparable or superior yields in cereals, legumes, and vegetables [147,148]. The improved soil health associated with regular bioresource use also contributes to yield stability over time, reducing the risk of crop failure due to nutrient depletion or pest outbreaks.

Furthermore, the application of on-farm waste through biogas systems not only provides renewable energy for cooking or irrigation but also generates nutrient-rich digestate, thereby replacing both chemical fertilizers and external energy sources. This multifunctionality enhances the return on investment for farmers implementing circular practices within bioresource-integrated systems [149].

However, it is important to note that the economic outcomes of bioresource integration are context-dependent. In regions with poor infrastructure, limited access to quality bio-inoculants, or high labor costs, adoption may require additional support. Moreover, some bioresource technologies (e.g., biogas digesters or biochar kilns) involve upfront capital investments that may be beyond the reach of smallholders without subsidies or cooperative ownership models.

7.2.2. Market Access and Organic Premiums

From a market perspective, organic products that are grown using bioresource-based methods typically command higher price premiums, especially in urban, export-oriented, or health-conscious consumer markets. These premiums, often ranging between 20 and 100% above conventional prices depending on the crop and region, can offset the modest yield differences often observed in the early years of organic conversion [150].

Certifications such as USDA Organic, EU Organic, or India Organic require adherence to strict input standards, making the use of bioresources not just a best practice but a compliance necessity. Farmers who effectively utilize compost, botanical pesticides, and biofertilizers can tap into premium markets, community-supported agriculture (CSA) networks, and green procurement schemes, which often favor low-input, environmentally friendly production systems.

In addition, the rising global demand for organic, eco-labeled, and sustainable products is creating favorable market conditions for bioresource-integrated organic systems. According to FiBL and IFOAM (2022), the global organic food market has surpassed USD 230 billion and continues to grow steadily, with consumer demand driven by health concerns, environmental awareness, and ethical values [22].

7.2.3. Employment and Rural Development Potential

The labor-intensive nature of bioresource integration—especially composting, vermiculture, manual weed control, and on-farm input preparation—can be seen not only as a constraint but also as an opportunity for rural employment generation. In many developing countries, where labor is abundant and underutilized, organic farming with bioresources offers income diversification through small-scale enterprises (e.g., compost units, biofertilizer production, nursery management).

Moreover, decentralized bioresource processing (e.g., biogas plants, herbal pesticide units, or community seed banks) can stimulate local value chains and enhance community resilience. Women’s self-help groups and farmer cooperatives have successfully participated in such bioresource-linked enterprises, contributing to gender-inclusive rural development [151].

7.2.4. Limitations and Economic Challenges

Despite these opportunities, several challenges persist. Market access remains uneven, particularly for smallholders in remote or underserved regions. Organic certification is often costly and bureaucratically complex, limiting the participation of resource-poor farmers. Inadequate infrastructure for storing, processing, and marketing organic products also hampers profitability.

Moreover, inconsistent quality and availability of commercial biofertilizers or biopesticides in the market can affect the reliability of inputs, leading to mixed economic outcomes. Without strong extension support and quality control mechanisms, farmers may face crop loss or reduced efficacy of bioresources, thereby increasing risk.

Long-term economic viability also depends on policy support, including subsidies for sustainable practices, research into low-cost bioresource technologies, and development of market linkages. Integrating bioresource management into agricultural development programs, agri-startups, and public procurement policies can help scale adoption while enhancing profitability [19,150,152,153].

7.3. Social Sustainability: Impact on Rural Livelihoods and Employment

Social sustainability is a critical pillar of organic farming systems, especially when bioresources are integrated in ways that empower communities, strengthen local economies, and foster inclusive development. Unlike conventional agriculture, which often relies on capital-intensive technologies and external inputs, bioresource-based organic farming is inherently more labor-intensive, decentralized, and community-oriented, making it particularly relevant in rural contexts where livelihoods depend heavily on small-scale farming and agro-ecological knowledge [154].

7.3.1. Rural Employment Generation

The adoption of bioresources and on-farm biofertilizer production requires increased manual labor and localized processing. Activities such as waste collection, composting, microbial inoculant preparation, and on-farm application of inputs generate employment opportunities that are not available in input-intensive chemical farming systems. This is particularly significant in low-income and agrarian economies, where agriculture remains the largest source of rural employment.

For instance, the management of vermicomposting units, the operation of biogas digesters, and the cultivation and processing of medicinal plants for botanical biopesticides can create micro-enterprises that sustain multiple household members. The labor required for managing organic amendments and diverse cropping systems may also offer seasonal employment to landless workers, contributing to poverty reduction and social cohesion [154,155,156].

Moreover, unlike mechanized systems that often replace human labor, bioresource-integrated organic systems emphasize human skill, knowledge, and ecological observation. This reinforces the value of indigenous practices and traditional agricultural wisdom, particularly among elderly farmers and women, who have historically played central roles in seed saving, composting, and botanical knowledge.

7.3.2. Women’s Empowerment and Gender Inclusion

Bioresource-based organic farming presents unique opportunities for women’s participation and empowerment, especially in regions where women are custodians of traditional ecological knowledge and responsible for managing homestead agriculture. Activities such as seed selection, compost preparation, and herbal pesticide production are traditionally within the domain of rural women, and formalizing these roles through training and enterprise development can enhance both social status and economic agency [157].

Programs that support women-led cooperatives in producing bio-inputs—such as Panchagavya, Jeevamrut, or neem-based formulations—have demonstrated strong results in India, Nepal, and parts of Africa. These initiatives not only generate income but also build community leadership, improve household nutrition through kitchen gardening, and foster ecological literacy [158].

However, for this potential to be fully realized, targeted capacity-building, access to credit, and recognition of women’s labor in farming systems are necessary. Gender-inclusive training programs and extension services tailored to women’s needs can accelerate the adoption of bioresource technologies and contribute to broader social equity in agricultural development.

7.3.3. Community Resilience and Knowledge Networks

The use of bioresources in organic farming promotes local autonomy and knowledge-based economies, which are key components of social sustainability. By reducing dependence on external agrochemicals and proprietary technologies, bioresource-based systems reinforce seed sovereignty, input sovereignty, and food sovereignty—allowing communities to control their agricultural destiny.

Community seed banks, composting centers, and local biofertilizer production hubs are increasingly being organized as cooperative ventures that build social capital and interdependence among farmers. Such institutions act as both resource pools and platforms for farmer-to-farmer knowledge exchange, increasing innovation and resilience to external shocks such as market disruptions or climate extremes.

In addition, youth engagement in bioresource enterprises—such as developing eco-labels, digital marketing of organic produce, or creating farm-based learning centers—can reduce rural–urban migration and revitalize local economies. Schools, NGOs, and rural training institutes that incorporate organic farming with bioresource training contribute to the intergenerational transfer of ecological knowledge and foster a culture of sustainability [159,160].

7.3.4. Challenges to Social Sustainability

Despite the many social advantages of integrating bioresources into organic systems, several barriers must be addressed to ensure equitable outcomes. First, the labor intensity of bioresource practices can be burdensome without adequate compensation or market incentives, particularly in regions where farm labor is underpaid or informal.

Second, access to education, training, and technical support remains uneven, with marginalized groups—such as landless workers, women, and smallholders—often excluded from formal programs. Third, the lack of recognition and institutional support for indigenous and informal knowledge systems can marginalize traditional practices that form the backbone of bioresource management in many regions.

Lastly, without fair pricing, infrastructure, and access to organic markets, the social benefits of bioresource integration can remain unrealized or unsustainable in the long term. Policies that support local food systems, promote agroecological literacy, and invest in rural development infrastructure are critical to unlocking the full potential of social sustainability in bioresource-based organic farming.

7.4. Challenges of Integrating Bioresources into Organic Farming

While bioresource integration in organic farming holds considerable promise for advancing sustainable agriculture, the widespread adoption of such practices is impeded by a complex array of technical, socioeconomic, and regulatory challenges. These constraints often operate simultaneously, creating systemic barriers that limit farmer adoption, reduce efficiency, and restrict the scaling of bioresource-based systems across regions and production scales.

7.4.1. Technical Challenges

One of the foremost technical challenges lies in the variability and inconsistency in the quality, effectiveness, and shelf-life of bioresource inputs such as compost and biofertilizers; scalability; and institutional support for bioresource-based approaches. Addressing these challenges is essential to realize the full ecological, economic, and social potential of organic farming systems.

A major technical barrier to the effective integration of bioresources is the inconsistency in product quality, efficacy, and shelf life of biofertilizers and biopesticides. Microbial inoculants such as Rhizobium, Trichoderma, or Bacillus spp. are highly sensitive to environmental conditions. Their effectiveness in field applications depends on several variables, including soil pH, temperature, moisture, microbial competition, and host plant compatibility [161]. Without appropriate formulation and storage technologies, the viability of these microbial products can deteriorate rapidly.

Moreover, the lack of site-specific knowledge regarding the selection, preparation, and application of bioresources hampers field-level performance. Many farmers remain uncertain about appropriate dosage, timing, and integration strategies, particularly when combining multiple bio-inputs (e.g., compost with microbial inoculants or botanical pesticides). The limited availability of robust extension services and farmer training programs further exacerbates this gap.

The complexity of composting and bioresource processing is another technical hurdle. Efficient composting requires precise management of the carbon-to-nitrogen ratio, moisture levels, and aeration. Inadequate composting may lead to incomplete decomposition, nutrient losses, or pathogen persistence, reducing the agronomic value of the final product. Additionally, biogas production systems, though valuable, require proper engineering, regular maintenance, and feedstock consistency—conditions that may be challenging for smallholder farmers without technical assistance.

7.4.2. Socioeconomic Barriers

From a socioeconomic perspective, limited access to capital, infrastructure, and markets constrains the adoption of bioresource technologies, especially among small and marginal farmers. The initial costs associated with building compost pits, purchasing microbial inoculants, or installing biogas units can be prohibitive without financial support or subsidies. Furthermore, the labor-intensive nature of bioresource-based farming may deter adoption in regions where agricultural labor is scarce or expensive.

A significant barrier also lies in knowledge asymmetry and limited awareness. Many farmers, particularly in remote or under-resourced regions, lack exposure to training programs or demonstration plots that could showcase the practical benefits of bioresource use. Language, literacy, and cultural gaps between research institutions and local communities further impede effective technology transfer.

Additionally, bioresource-based inputs are often perceived as riskier or slower-acting compared to chemical alternatives, especially by farmers under pressure to maximize yields in a single season. In the absence of insurance schemes, guaranteed price premiums, or stable markets for organic produce, the economic incentive to adopt such systems remains weak.

7.4.3. Regulatory and Institutional Constraints

The regulatory environment for bioresource products, particularly microbial biofertilizers and biopesticides, remains fragmented and underdeveloped in many countries. The lack of standardized protocols for quality control, efficacy testing, and certification allows for the proliferation of substandard or counterfeit products in the market, undermining farmer confidence and field performance [162,163].

Moreover, organic certification systems often impose complex, expensive, and bureaucratic procedures, which deter smallholders from entering certified organic markets. While bioresource use is mandated in certified organic systems, limited recognition of informal practices (such as traditional composting, seed-saving, or herbal pest control) restricts the ability of indigenous and resource-poor farmers to gain certification despite following ecologically sound practices.

Institutionally, the integration of bioresources in agricultural development programs is often marginalized in favor of high-input, high-yield paradigms. Public extension systems, agri-finance institutions, and research agendas frequently prioritize conventional input packages over regenerative and organic approaches. This misalignment results in underfunding of bioresource innovation, limited policy incentives, and poor coordination between actors across the supply chain.

Analytical Perspective

Together, these technical, economic, and policy-related barriers create a landscape in which bioresource integration remains promising but precarious. While small-scale innovations and local success stories exist, scaling up requires targeted interventions, including

• The development of locally adapted, shelf-stable bio-inputs with consistent field efficacy;
• Strengthening of extension services and farmer field schools focused on bioresource management;
• Investment in rural infrastructure and community processing facilities for compost, vermicompost, and biopesticides;
• Streamlining and democratizing organic certification and quality regulation for bio-inputs;
• Promoting inclusive policies that recognize indigenous practices and incentivize circular, low-input agriculture.

8. Recent Advances and Innovations

Recent advances in bioresource utilization have significantly expanded the scope and effectiveness of organic farming, resulting in quantifiable improvements in crop yields, environmental sustainability, and economic performance. Notable innovations include the development of novel biofertilizer strains, biotechnology-driven formulations, precision organic farming technologies, and the integration of bioresources within broader agroecological and regenerative agricultural frameworks.

8.1. New Biofertilizer Strains

Advances in biofertilizer strains have led to enhanced nutrient availability and improved crop yields. Newly identified strains of nitrogen-fixing bacteria (e.g., Azospirillum brasilense, Azotobacter chroococcum), phosphate-solubilizing bacteria (e.g., Pseudomonas putida), and beneficial fungi (e.g., mycorrhizae) have demonstrated superior performance under diverse environmental conditions. For instance, tomato plants inoculated with new Azospirillum strains showed yield increases of 25–30% compared to non-inoculated controls [164,165]. Similarly, maize crops treated with advanced mycorrhizal formulations recorded yield improvements of up to 20–35% due to enhanced phosphorus uptake and drought resilience [166].

8.2. Biotechnology Applications

Biotechnology has significantly enhanced the efficiency, consistency, and stability of bioresource-derived products. Techniques such as microbial encapsulation, nanoformulations, and precision genome editing enable targeted delivery, prolonged shelf-life, and improved efficacy of bio-inputs. For example, nanoformulated Trichoderma biopesticides have demonstrated a 60–70% reduction in soil-borne pathogens like Fusarium oxysporum in tomatoes, increasing plant survival and yields by 18–25% [167]. Furthermore, biotechnological advancements in microbial consortia have enabled a precise combination of nitrogen-fixing, phosphate-solubilizing, and growth-promoting bacteria, boosting wheat productivity by 15–22% under organic management [168,169].

8.3. Precision Organic Farming

Precision farming technologies are increasingly being adapted to organic systems, optimizing the use of bioresources and substantially reducing input costs and environmental impact. GPS-based soil mapping, sensor-based soil monitoring, and drone applications now enable the targeted and site-specific application of compost, biofertilizers, and biopesticides. These technologies help minimize waste, enhance nutrient-use efficiency, and improve overall productivity.

Recent field research demonstrated that applying compost to maize crops based on real-time plant demand—using precision application techniques—resulted in grain yield increases of 15–20% compared to conventional compost application methods [170]. Such approaches not only boost productivity but also promote better soil health and reduce the unnecessary over-application of organic amendments.

8.4. Integration with Agroecology and Regenerative Practices

Recent innovations have focused on integrating bioresources into broader agroecological and regenerative frameworks, significantly enhancing environmental and agronomic outcomes. Practices such as agroforestry, regenerative grazing, and cover cropping systems complemented by microbial inoculants and compost application have resulted in measurable improvements. In regenerative grazing systems, integrating compost and microbial biofertilizers increased pasture productivity by up to 40%, soil organic matter by 25–30%, and biodiversity (earthworm and microbial diversity indices) by up to 50% compared to conventional grazing [171,172,173,174,175]. Similarly, agroforestry systems combining perennial crops with bioresource applications have demonstrated carbon sequestration rates of up to 3–5 Mg C/ha/year, substantially higher than conventional monoculture cropping systems [176,177].

9. Future Directions and Recommendations

The global shift toward sustainable agriculture demands the transformation of input-intensive farming systems into ecologically regenerative and socially inclusive models. Bioresource integration in organic farming represents a crucial step in this transition, offering solutions for nutrient management, pest control, climate resilience, and rural development. However, the widespread adoption and optimization of bioresource-based practices remain constrained by several knowledge, policy, and institutional gaps. This section outlines the key future research priorities, policy interventions, and scaling strategies necessary to unlock the full potential of bioresources in organic farming systems worldwide.

9.1. Research Gaps and Future Research Priorities

Although interest in bioresource-based agriculture is rapidly growing, several critical research gaps must be addressed to enable evidence-based decision-making and foster innovation.

First, there is an urgent need to optimize the efficacy and formulation of bioresources. Context-specific studies should assess the performance of microbial inoculants, compost blends, and botanical biopesticides across diverse agroecological zones. Comparative field trials evaluating combinations, dosages, and timing are essential to enhance the predictability, consistency, and scalability of outcomes.

Second, deeper insights into soil–microbiome–bioresource interactions are crucial. Cutting-edge tools such as metagenomics and soil microbiome profiling can reveal how different bioresource inputs affect microbial communities, nutrient dynamics, and overall plant health. This understanding will support the design of synergistic bioresource consortia and strategies to enhance long-term soil fertility.

Third, the development of climate-smart bioresource technologies must be prioritized. Research should focus on creating affordable, low-emission solutions for composting, biogas production, and biochar synthesis, especially those that are adaptable for smallholder use. Additionally, quantifying the climate mitigation potential of these technologies—such as carbon sequestration and reductions in nitrous oxide emissions—is essential.

Fourth, integrating farmer-led innovation and indigenous knowledge is vital. Participatory research approaches that recognize and validate traditional practices can enrich scientific inquiry and foster locally adapted, resilient agricultural solutions. Empowering farmers as co-researchers strengthens the relevance and adoption of innovations.

Finally, comprehensive economic and environmental assessments are needed. Rigorous cost–benefit analyses, life-cycle assessments (LCAs), and social return on investment (SROI) evaluations can help determine the financial viability and ecological advantages of bioresource-based practices compared to conventional agricultural inputs.

9.2. Policy Recommendations for Promoting Bioresource Use

The widespread adoption of bioresource-based organic farming requires robust and supportive policy frameworks at both national and international levels. The following strategic policy recommendations are essential for scaling up the use of bioresources in agriculture:

First, financial incentives are crucial to encourage the uptake of sustainable practices. Governments should offer subsidies and startup grants for composting, vermicomposting, biogas systems, and the production of microbial inoculants. Tax exemptions or input subsidies aligned with ecological farming objectives can further reduce barriers to adoption, particularly for smallholders.

Second, quality assurance and regulation must be strengthened. Establishing and enforcing standards for biofertilizers, biopesticides, and organic amendments will ensure product efficacy, safety, and consumer confidence. A well-regulated market is essential to prevent the circulation of substandard or counterfeit products and to support the credibility of bioresource-based inputs.

Third, farmer training and extension services need significant expansion. Agroecological extension programs should emphasize bioresource management through farmer field schools, demonstration plots, and peer-to-peer learning platforms. Building technical capacity at the grassroots level is essential for fostering innovation and ensuring successful implementation.

Fourth, integration into education and research is vital for long-term impact. Bioresource management should be embedded in agricultural curricula, vocational training, and the mandates of public research institutions. Establishing interdisciplinary research centers focused on organic and circular agriculture can stimulate innovation and knowledge-sharing across sectors.

Finally, developing organic markets and supportive procurement policies will drive demand for bioresource-based products. Public awareness campaigns, support for organic certification, and procurement policies that prioritize organic produce in schools, hospitals, and other public institutions can create stable markets and encourage producers to transition toward bioresource-based practices.

9.3. Strategies for Scaling Up Organic Farming with Bioresources

Achieving global scale in organic farming rooted in bioresource use requires a synergistic blend of institutional innovation, market engagement, and grassroots mobilization. The following strategies offer a roadmap for scaling up sustainably and inclusively:

First, landscape-level and regional transitions should be prioritized. Territorial approaches—such as the development of organic villages, agroecological territories, or climate-resilient zones—can facilitate coordinated action across communities. Integrating bioresource production, farmer training, and market development at this scale enhances the efficiency, visibility, and local ownership of the transition [178].

Second, supportive certification systems, especially Participatory Guarantee Systems (PGSs), can democratize access to organic markets. These community-based systems emphasize farmer accountability and transparency, making them particularly accessible for smallholders. Promoting inclusive, low-cost certification approaches helps bridge the gap between producers and consumers while maintaining organic integrity [179].

Third, agroecological entrepreneurship and local bio-input enterprises should be actively fostered. Encouraging the growth of microenterprises that produce compost, microbial inoculants, vermicompost, or botanical biopesticides creates local employment opportunities and strengthens rural economies. Prioritizing youth, women, and cooperative-led models enhances equity and resilience within farming communities.

Fourth, digital tools and decentralized innovation platforms offer powerful levers for dissemination and coordination. Mobile applications, remote sensing, and e-learning systems can accelerate the spread of knowledge on bioresource management, enable real-time soil health monitoring, and connect farmers with input providers, extension agents, and markets. These tools can bridge geographic and informational divides.

Finally, global cooperation and knowledge exchange must be scaled up. Strengthening South–South collaboration and leveraging international platforms—such as the FAO, IFOAM, and regional agroecology networks—can facilitate the sharing of best practices, training resources, and policy innovations. Collaborative efforts are key to harmonizing global strategies while respecting local diversity.

10. Conclusions

This review underscores the central role of bioresources in advancing organic agriculture toward sustainability, climate resilience, and food security. Through the integration of plant-, animal-, and microbial-derived bioresources, organic systems can significantly reduce reliance on synthetic inputs while enhancing soil fertility, pest resistance, and ecological stability. The evidence highlights multiple benefits—from improved nutrient cycling and biodiversity conservation to economic opportunities and community empowerment. However, widespread adoption remains limited by knowledge gaps, inconsistent policy support, and technical constraints. Addressing these requires interdisciplinary research, institutional backing, and farmer-oriented education and infrastructure. A holistic, context-sensitive approach—combining traditional wisdom with scientific innovations—is essential for optimizing bioresource use. Ultimately, the effective integration of bioresources presents a transformative opportunity to build regenerative, circular, and resilient agricultural systems aligned with global environmental and socioeconomic sustainability objectives.