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Disintegrated Waste-Activated Sludge (NO₂/FNA Method) as a Source of Carbon for Denitrification in the Mainstream of a WWTP
Nature-Based Options for Improving Urban Environmental Quality: Using Black Poplar Trees for Monitoring Heavy Metals Pollution in Urbanized Contexts
Experience in Processing Alternative Crude Oils to Replace Design Oil in the Refinery
Navigating the Past through an Interactive Geovisualisation-Driven Methodology: Locating a 15th–19th Century Paddy Field as a Source of Agro-Ecological Knowledge (Thessaly, Greece)

Journal Description

Resources

Resources is an international, peer-reviewed, open access journal on natural resources published monthly online by MDPI.

Open Access— free for readers, with article processing charges (APC) paid by authors or their institutions.
High Visibility: indexed within Scopus, ESCI (Web of Science), GeoRef, PubAg, AGRIS, RePEc, and other databases.
Journal Rank: JCR - Q2 (Environmental Sciences) / CiteScore - Q1 (Nature and Landscape Conservation)
Rapid Publication: manuscripts are peer-reviewed and a first decision is provided to authors approximately 33.4 days after submission; acceptance to publication is undertaken in 4.6 days (median values for papers published in this journal in the first half of 2024).
Recognition of Reviewers: reviewers who provide timely, thorough peer-review reports receive vouchers entitling them to a discount on the APC of their next publication in any MDPI journal, in appreciation of the work done.

Impact Factor: 3.6 (2023); 5-Year Impact Factor: 3.7 (2023)

Imprint Information Journal Flyer Open Access ISSN: 2079-9276

Latest Articles

18 pages, 1859 KiB

Open AccessSystematic Review

A Systematic Literature Review of Existing Methods and Tools for the Criticality Assessment of Raw Materials: A Focus on the Relations between the Concepts of Criticality and Environmental Sustainability

by Daniele Perossa, Paolo Rosa and Sergio Terzi

Resources 2024, 13(9), 131; https://doi.org/10.3390/resources13090131 - 18 Sep 2024

Critical raw materials have significant economic and social impacts across numerous sectors. Numerous artifacts have been developed to assess their criticality. However, there is no univocity around the factors determining criticality. A systematic literature review was conducted to consider all academic works and [...] Read more.

Critical raw materials have significant economic and social impacts across numerous sectors. Numerous artifacts have been developed to assess their criticality. However, there is no univocity around the factors determining criticality. A systematic literature review was conducted to consider all academic works and official reports on criticality assessment. The review aimed to classify these artifacts to provide a clear picture of the heterogenous literature, with a focus on the relationship between criticality and environmental sustainability. Works proposing or updating criticality assessment artifacts were included according to the eligibility criteria. Academic sources were drawn from the Scopus Database in 2023. Official reports included those considered seminal by academic literature. The risk of bias in the selection and classification of the 162 works was low, as the review sought to be comprehensive. The included artifacts are systematically classified. A mapping of the identified criticality assessment tools and methods has been developed. The review found that while environmental impacts are considered in several works, the theoretical connection between criticality and environmental sustainability is weak. Three perspectives on this relationship are identified and discussed. The main limitation of this study is the inability to analyze undisclosed artifacts. It was conducted under the Horizon Europe Programme (Grant Number 101091490). Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Consideration of Critical and Strategic Raw Materials in Life Cycle Management)

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15 pages, 460 KiB

Open AccessEssay

Global Resources and Resource Justice—Reframing the Socioecological Science-to-Policy Landscape

by Ioan Negrutiu

Resources 2024, 13(9), 130; https://doi.org/10.3390/resources13090130 (registering DOI) - 18 Sep 2024

The lexical analysis of seminal policy-to-diplomacy documents from the socio-environmental discourse of the last fifty years of agendas has allowed examining the contextual affinities between resources, pollution, and health. The central role of resource stewardship, according to nature’s physical limits, is highlighted in [...] Read more.

The lexical analysis of seminal policy-to-diplomacy documents from the socio-environmental discourse of the last fifty years of agendas has allowed examining the contextual affinities between resources, pollution, and health. The central role of resource stewardship, according to nature’s physical limits, is highlighted in the context of the boundary systems for the biosphere and societies, and the carrying capacity and inclusive systemic health (one health, planetary health, …). To reframe a rather fragmented conceptual and methodological landscape, this work proposes choices that consider core values, purpose, and best practice developments, allowing us to compare the dynamics of socioecological states across the planet and in specific social, economic, political, and cultural contexts. The prioritization of resource justice and responsibility becomes a societal project, embedding the economy in social and ecological frames through institutional reframing and tangible action on resource management, pollution control, and health outcomes. How? By recognizing the primacy of the law and economy of life—the adequacy between basic needs and accessible resources for all— over the rules and economy of the market through socioecosystemic checks and balances. Full article

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15 pages, 2732 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Allometric Models of Aboveground Biomass in Mangroves Compared with Those of the Climate Action Reserve Standard Applied in the Carbon Market

by Carlos Roberto Ávila-Acosta, Marivel Domínguez-Domínguez, César Jesús Vázquez-Navarrete, Rocío Guadalupe Acosta-Pech and Pablo Martínez-Zurimendi

Resources 2024, 13(9), 129; https://doi.org/10.3390/resources13090129 - 17 Sep 2024

The standardized methods used in carbon markets require measurement of the biomass and carbon stored in trees, which can be quantified through allometric equations. The objective of this study was to analyze aboveground biomass estimates with allometric models in three mangrove species and [...] Read more.

The standardized methods used in carbon markets require measurement of the biomass and carbon stored in trees, which can be quantified through allometric equations. The objective of this study was to analyze aboveground biomass estimates with allometric models in three mangrove species and compare them with those used by the Climate Action Reserve (CAR) standard. The mangrove forest in Tabasco, Mexico, was certified with the Forest Protocol for Mexico Version 2.0 (FPM) of the CAR standard. Allometric equations for mangrove species were reviewed to determine the most suitable equation for the calculation of biomass. The predictions of the allometric equations of the FPM were analyzed with data from Tabasco from the National Forest and Soil Inventory 2015–2020, and the percentages of trees within the ranges of diameters of the FPM equations were determined. The FPM equations generated higher biomass values for Rhizophora mangle and lower values for Avicennia germinans than the seven equations with which they were compared. In the mangrove swamp of Ejido Úrsulo Galván, Tabasco, 81.8% of the biomass of A. germinans, 34.4% of Laguncularia racemosa and 24.0% of R. mangle were within the diameter range of the FPM equations, and in Tabasco, 28.5% of A. germinans, 16.7% of L. racemosa and 5.7% of R. mangle were within the diameter range. For A. germinans and R. mangle, we recommend using the equation that considers greater maximum diameters. The allometric equations of the FPM do not adequately predict a large percentage of the biomass. Full article

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15 pages, 5509 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of Alkaline and Hydrothermal Pretreatments in Sugars and Ethanol Production from Rice Husk Waste

by José Ayala-Armijos, Byron Lapo, Carolina Beltrán, Joaquín Sigüenza, Braulio Madrid, Estefanía Chérrez, Verónica Bravo and Diana Sanmartín

Resources 2024, 13(9), 128; https://doi.org/10.3390/resources13090128 - 16 Sep 2024

This study investigates the effectiveness of hydrothermal and alkaline pretreatment methods in enhancing the concentration of fermentable sugars derived from rice husk waste. After the pretreatments, enzymatic hydrolysis and fermentation processes were executed to evaluate the ethanol production from each pretreatment. Rice husk [...] Read more.

This study investigates the effectiveness of hydrothermal and alkaline pretreatment methods in enhancing the concentration of fermentable sugars derived from rice husk waste. After the pretreatments, enzymatic hydrolysis and fermentation processes were executed to evaluate the ethanol production from each pretreatment. Rice husk powder measuring ≤250 µm was used. For the alkaline pretreatment, sodium hydroxide (NaOH) was used at concentrations ranging from 0.5, 1 to 1.5% w/v. The efficacy of the hydrothermal pretreatment method was evaluated after 15, 30 and 45 min at 120 °C. The enzymatic hydrolysis process was performed over 144 h at 50 °C, pH 4.8 with an enzyme loading of 30 FPU (filter paper units). Fermentation was carried out at 37 °C using a strain of Saccharomyces cerevisiae Hansen 1883 (NCYC 366). Results indicated that the optimal conditions for alkaline pretreatment were observed at a 1.5% NaOH, while the best hydrothermal procedure was achieved at 120 °C and 45 min. The impact of these pretreatments was assessed based on the efficiency of enzymatic hydrolysis. The alkaline pretreatment resulted in 81.70% conversion of cellulose to glucose and 96.30% conversion of hemicellulose to xylose. In contrast, the hydrothermal pretreatment achieved 93% cellulose-to-glucose conversion and 83.35% hemicellulose-to-xylose conversion. The ethanol production registered ranged from 13 to 13.23 g·L−1, corresponding to a conversion factor of 0.43 for ethanol from fermentable sugars. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Alternative Use of Biological Resources)

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12 pages, 914 KiB

Open AccessCase Report

Greenhouse Gas Emissions Associated with Tree Pruning Residues of Urban Areas of Northeast Brazil

by Yuri Rommel Vieira Araujo, Bartolomeu Israel Souza and Monica Carvalho

Resources 2024, 13(9), 127; https://doi.org/10.3390/resources13090127 - 13 Sep 2024

There are environmental concerns (especially regarding climate change) associated with the negative effects of some pruning waste management practices. Converting urban tree waste into valuable products can help mitigate climate change, but it is important to quantify the repercussions of tree waste scenarios [...] Read more.

There are environmental concerns (especially regarding climate change) associated with the negative effects of some pruning waste management practices. Converting urban tree waste into valuable products can help mitigate climate change, but it is important to quantify the repercussions of tree waste scenarios in an urban context. The objective of this study was to quantify the greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions for six scenarios of urban pruning waste in urban areas. To this end, the life cycle assessment methodology was applied to real data obtained from five municipalities of the Paraíba state in 2012–2021 (northeast Brazil). The six scenarios were: sanitary landfill (current practice), sanitary landfill with methane capture, municipal incineration, reuse of wood, heat generation and electricity generation. Considering the 10-year period, the sanitary landfill emitted 1048 kt CO_2e, and when methane was captured at the landfill, emissions decreased to 1033 kt CO_2e. The lowest emissions were associated with electricity generation, with 854 kt CO_2e. The municipality of João Pessoa presented the highest emissions, followed by Cabedelo, Santa Rita, Bayeux, and Conde. Transportation was responsible for the highest share of GHG emissions. Disposal of urban pruning waste at the sanitary landfill presented the highest emissions, and it has been demonstrated herein that pruning waste can be used for the production of bioenergy, with significant potential to mitigate GHG emissions at local levels. Full article

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14 pages, 1634 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Evaluating the Global Processability of Anthropogenic Metals from Mining Waste

by Qudsia Kanwal, Muhammad Saqib Akhtar and Sami G. Al-Ghamdi

Resources 2024, 13(9), 126; https://doi.org/10.3390/resources13090126 - 13 Sep 2024

Natural resource depletion and increased mining waste pose significant challenges to global sustainability efforts. This study investigates the processability of mining waste during the metal recovery stage to evaluate its potential contribution to anthropogenic circularity. The mining industry, abundant in valuable metals that [...] Read more.

Natural resource depletion and increased mining waste pose significant challenges to global sustainability efforts. This study investigates the processability of mining waste during the metal recovery stage to evaluate its potential contribution to anthropogenic circularity. The mining industry, abundant in valuable metals that are crucial for a carbon-neutral economy, plays a pivotal role in this context. We determine the grades of metals by looking at their chemical makeup, and then we use statistical entropy to model how easy it is to process certain waste materials. This provides us with processability measures that range from 0.19 bit to 1.18 bit. Our findings highlight that while some waste contains “abundant” metals, its complexity may diminish its economic value, raising concerns about its environmental impacts and resource availability at the end-of-life stages. Estimating potential revenue involves multiplying processed amounts by commodity prices, revealing a maximum value of 8.73 USD/metric ton for processed waste. This assessment underscores the importance of integrating circular economy principles, aiming to mitigate environmental damage and promote industrial ecology. By advancing our understanding of mining waste management through rigorous scientific inquiry, this study contributes to sustainable resource utilization strategies that are essential for future industrial practices and environmental stewardship. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mineral Resource Management 2023: Assessment, Mining and Processing)

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13 pages, 2374 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Sustainable Development, Territorial Disparities in Land Resources, and Soil Degradation: A Multi-Temporal Approach

by Marco Maialetti, Luca Salvati and Francesco Maria Chelli

Resources 2024, 13(9), 125; https://doi.org/10.3390/resources13090125 - 6 Sep 2024

The present study investigates territorial disparities in selected socioeconomic forces and environmental factors underlying soil degradation that may lead to early desertification processes in a dry Mediterranean region exposed to increasing human pressure. To verify if spatial disparities in land resources have increased [...] Read more.

The present study investigates territorial disparities in selected socioeconomic forces and environmental factors underlying soil degradation that may lead to early desertification processes in a dry Mediterranean region exposed to increasing human pressure. To verify if spatial disparities in land resources have increased over time, a standard approach based on the Environmentally Sensitive Area Index (ESAI) was adopted to evaluate sixty years of territorial transformations in Latium, Central Italy, a region prone to intense processes of land resource depletion. The ESAI provides a standard, holistic assessment of soil degradation based on the estimation of four different ‘resource qualities’ (climate, soil, vegetation, and land use) and their change over sufficiently long time windows; in this study, the procedure was run at three reference years (1960, 1990, and 2020). The observed divergence in soil degradation levels between coastal and inland districts arose during the study period, with a consequent reduction in the local-scale variability of the ESAI. Such differential processes observed along the elevation gradient in Central Italy are likely due to anthropogenic factors affecting land use and leveraging crop intensification in flat districts and farmland abandonment in steep areas. New findings to be achieved in the context of human impacts on land resource depletion are regarded as an original contribution to the study of early desertification processes in advanced economies. Full article

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14 pages, 3610 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Assessment of the Chemical Composition and Antioxidant Capacity of Flowers, Seeds, and Seed Cake of Cactus Pear (Opuntia ficus-indica L.) and Their Application in Biscuits

by Fatiha Brahmi, Amira Oufighou, Leila Smail-Benazzouz, Nouna Hammiche, Lydia Hassaine, Lila Boulekbache-Makhlouf, Khodir Madani and Federica Blando

Resources 2024, 13(9), 124; https://doi.org/10.3390/resources13090124 - 5 Sep 2024

Functional ingredients rich in bioactive compounds can be added to conventional ingredients for the formulation of food to increase its nutraceutical potential. Three prickly pear parts, namely flowers, seeds, and seed cake were utilized in the current work as natural antioxidant resources. The [...] Read more.

Functional ingredients rich in bioactive compounds can be added to conventional ingredients for the formulation of food to increase its nutraceutical potential. Three prickly pear parts, namely flowers, seeds, and seed cake were utilized in the current work as natural antioxidant resources. The flower extract gave the best amounts of antioxidants as estimated by spectrophotometric methods, which were 68.08 mg GAE/100 g DM for total phenolics; 6.91 mg QE/100 g DM for total flavonoids; 13.05 mg QE/100 g of DM for flavonols; and 0.22 mg/100 g of DM for condensed tannins. The three extracts showed a high proportion of antioxidant effect as determined by DPPH, ABTS, FRAP, and TAA in vitro assays. Chemical analysis and sensory testing were performed on biscuits that were made by adding powdered flowers, seeds, or seed cake. The biscuits made from the seed cake gave a higher protein content (83.97 mg/100 g) and the biscuits made from the seeds had the best ash concentration (3.21%), while the biscuits containing flower powder had the highest anti-radical activity (81.04%). Sensory analysis disclosed the preference for biscuits formulated with flowers or seeds (80%) by the experts. These findings demonstrated that the nutritional value of the biscuits was improved by their enrichment with cactus parts powders, and they were appreciated by tasters. Full article

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15 pages, 545 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Economic Efficiency versus Energy Efficiency of Selected Crops in EU Farms

by Paweł Boczar and Lucyna Błażejczyk-Majka

Resources 2024, 13(9), 123; https://doi.org/10.3390/resources13090123 - 4 Sep 2024

The goal of farmers operating in a market economy is to maximize profit. In view of the changing political situation, the main social interest, in addition to food security, should be energy security. Here is a refined version of that sentence: This article [...] Read more.

The goal of farmers operating in a market economy is to maximize profit. In view of the changing political situation, the main social interest, in addition to food security, should be energy security. Here is a refined version of that sentence: This article examines the production efficiency of selected crops grown in the EU and how well their production can ensure both the economic security of the producers, i.e., the farmers, and Europe’s energy security. In addition, it aims to determine which costs incurred in the production process have the greatest impact on productivity. The paper uses data obtained from the Cash Crop agricultural benchmarking database, covering 19 crops and 39 cost categories for each crop. The data (averaged for 2019–2021) came from 30 farms located in 11 EU member states. The DEA method and stepwise multiple regression were used. Research has shown that crops are already being grown in Europe that provide high energy efficiency in production without compromising farm performance (including oats, peas, and winter rye). Moreover, improving the involvement of certain inputs results in improved production efficiency (e.g., through spending on agricultural consulting services). In addition, crop economic efficiency, as assessed by profit with and without subsidies, was found to be strongly correlated with production efficiency. This could indicate that subsidies do not play a key role in farm efficiency within the EU. Crop productivity remains a key factor in achieving economic and energy efficiency. The significance of the findings presented in connection with the recent COVID-19 pandemic and the escalation of the armed conflict in Ukraine has led to renewed interest in EU energy security, i.e., generating as much EU energy as possible for food and non-food production. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Assessment and Optimization of Energy Efficiency)

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21 pages, 567 KiB

Open AccessSystematic Review

Systematic Review of the Impact of Natural Resource Management on Public Health Outcomes: Focus on Water Quality

by Mohammed Elmadani, Evans Kasmai Kiptulon, Simon Klára and Máté Orsolya

Resources 2024, 13(9), 122; https://doi.org/10.3390/resources13090122 - 30 Aug 2024

Natural resource management (NRM) plays a pivotal role in ensuring the sustainability of ecosystems, which are essential for human health and well-being. This systematic review examines the impact of various NRM practices on water quality and their subsequent effects on public health. Specifically, [...] Read more.

Natural resource management (NRM) plays a pivotal role in ensuring the sustainability of ecosystems, which are essential for human health and well-being. This systematic review examines the impact of various NRM practices on water quality and their subsequent effects on public health. Specifically, it focuses on interventions such as watershed management, pollution control, land use management, water treatment, and ecosystem restoration. We conducted a comprehensive search across PubMed, Scopus, and Web of Science, supplemented by gray literature from Google Scholar, WHO reports, and government and NGO publications, covering studies published between 2014 and 2024. A total of 42 studies met the inclusion criteria, encompassing diverse geographical regions with significant representation from developing countries. The findings indicate that effective NRM practices, particularly those aimed at reducing pollutants, managing watersheds, and promoting sustainable land use, significantly improve water quality by lowering levels of chemical contaminants, microbial pathogens, and physical pollutants. Improved water quality directly correlates with reduced incidences of waterborne diseases, chronic health conditions from long-term chemical exposure, and acute health effects from immediate pollutant exposure. The review underscores the need for tailored NRM strategies that consider local environmental and socio-economic contexts. It also highlights the importance of community involvement, regulatory frameworks, and continuous monitoring to enhance the effectiveness of NRM interventions. Despite the positive impacts, barriers such as limited financial resources, technical expertise, and community engagement pose challenges to the implementation of these practices. In conclusion, the systematic review demonstrates that comprehensive and context-specific NRM practices are crucial for improving water quality and public health outcomes. Policymakers and practitioners are encouraged to adopt integrated water resource management approaches, prioritize sustainable practices, and engage local communities to achieve long-term health and environmental benefits. Full article

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15 pages, 2029 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Exploring the Effects of Drying Method and Temperature on the Quality of Dried Basil (Ocimum basilicum L.) Leaves: A Sustainable and Eco-Friendly Drying Solution

by Farah Naz Akbar, Shahid Mahmood, Ghulam Mueen-ud-din, Muhammad Yamin and Mian Anjum Murtaza

Resources 2024, 13(9), 121; https://doi.org/10.3390/resources13090121 - 30 Aug 2024

The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of solar drying and oven drying methods on the quality parameters of dried basil (Ocimum basilicum L.) leaves. The dried basil leaves were dehydrated at three different levels of temperature (T₁ [...] Read more.

The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of solar drying and oven drying methods on the quality parameters of dried basil (Ocimum basilicum L.) leaves. The dried basil leaves were dehydrated at three different levels of temperature (T₁, T₂, and T₃ = 50 °C, 55 °C, and 60 °C) using a solar tunnel dryer and an electrical oven dryer. Drying time, energy consumption, dehydration ratio, rehydration ratio, pH, and reducing sugar were observed after drying the basil leaves. The results showed that solar drying at 55 °C required the least energy (0.431 kWh) and took the shortest amount of time (110 min) to complete, whereas oven drying consumed more energy. Additionally, oven drying maintained a low pH (4.30) and reducing sugar level (2.24), extending the shelf life of the dried basil leaves, compared to solar drying. Based on energy consumption, drying time, and mineral contents, the solar drying using a solar tunnel dryer was deemed more suitable than oven drying. The best temperature for drying was determined to be 55 °C, which provided a short drying time, the least energy consumption and a statistically non-significant loss of mineral contents and dehydration ratio. Moreover, solar drying demonstrated a significantly higher speed, with a 6.7-times higher drying rate compared to oven drying, with significantly less energy consumption. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Editorial Board Members’ Collection Series – Energy Resources: Past, Present and Future Role in a Circular Economy)

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15 pages, 5493 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Zai Pits as a Climate-Smart Agriculture Technique in Southern Kenya: Maize Success Is Influenced More by Manure Than Depth

by Matthew J. Bowers, Simon Kasaine and Bruce A. Schulte

Resources 2024, 13(9), 120; https://doi.org/10.3390/resources13090120 - 28 Aug 2024

In semi-arid southern Kenya, climate change is putting rainfed agriculture at risk with major implications for food security. The zai pit, a Climate-Smart Agriculture (CSA) technique, has proven to enhance yields in arid regions, but its labor demands have limited adoption rates. This [...] Read more.

In semi-arid southern Kenya, climate change is putting rainfed agriculture at risk with major implications for food security. The zai pit, a Climate-Smart Agriculture (CSA) technique, has proven to enhance yields in arid regions, but its labor demands have limited adoption rates. This study assessed how the zai pit depth and manure application within zai pits influenced maize (Zea mays) success (i.e., growth, development, and productivity). Three zai pit treatments were prepared at the Wildlife Works Research Center in southeastern Kenya: (1) deep (50 cm) with manure; (2) shallow (25 cm) with manure; and (3) deep (50 cm) without manure, and all were compared to a non-zai pit control (surface planting). Maize growth/development (e.g., height, stage, roots) and productivity (e.g., yield) measurements were taken over two growing periods. For most measures, shallow zai pits performed equally as well as deep zai pits, with both performing better than the control. Zai pits without manure performed significantly worse than zai pits with manure, oftentimes not differing from the control. Results suggest that maize success is influenced more by manure than the depth of the pit. Kenyan farmers are encouraged to dig shallower, manure-enriched zai pits to enhance food security in response to climate change. Full article

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23 pages, 7333 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Combined Use of GIS and Generative Artificial Intelligence in Detecting Potential Geodiversity Sites and Promoting Geoheritage

by Paweł Wolniewicz

Resources 2024, 13(9), 119; https://doi.org/10.3390/resources13090119 - 27 Aug 2024

The concept of geosites and geodiversity sites that document selected elements of geodiversity has proved to be extremely useful in the preservation and communication of the abiotic diversity of the Earth. However, the process of the designation, description, evaluation and, finally, promotion of [...] Read more.

The concept of geosites and geodiversity sites that document selected elements of geodiversity has proved to be extremely useful in the preservation and communication of the abiotic diversity of the Earth. However, the process of the designation, description, evaluation and, finally, promotion of geosites requires a fair amount of effort. This hinders the recognition of geosites and the development of geoparks in many areas that would otherwise benefit from their rich but undervalued abiotic environment. To rectify this, the present study introduces the use of automated geographic information system (GIS) mapping and generative artificial intelligence (GAI) for the designation and promotion of points of geological interest and potential geodiversity sites. When used effectively, these techniques permit the rapid development of geodiversity site inventories and, eventually, their dissemination to the general public and decision-makers. In this study, GAI is employed to produce diverse promotional content, both textual and visual, that facilitates geoscientific communication. A case study of an aspiring geopark located in Poland (Central Europe) is discussed, showing that GAI has the potential to enable the rapid development of easy-to-understand and diverse educational materials, limiting the amount of resources and labour required for the effective promotion of geodiversity. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Geosites as Tools for the Promotion and Conservation of Geoheritage)

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29 pages, 4045 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Produced Water from the Oil and Gas Industry as a Resource—South Kuwait as a Case Study

by Feras Alsalem and Thies Thiemann

Resources 2024, 13(9), 118; https://doi.org/10.3390/resources13090118 - 27 Aug 2024

Produced Water (PW) represents the largest waste stream in the oil and gas industry. As a water resource and as a source of valuable minerals such as alkali salts, it is has been highly under-valued, especially in hyper-arid regions. The beneficial use of [...] Read more.

Produced Water (PW) represents the largest waste stream in the oil and gas industry. As a water resource and as a source of valuable minerals such as alkali salts, it is has been highly under-valued, especially in hyper-arid regions. The beneficial use of PW ranges from water reinjection to elevated oil recovery from reservoirs with almost instantaneous returns, to the extraction of minerals from PW, which involves a number of different processes and setups. The economic value of PW-derived end products offers alternative revenue sources, with market fluctuations and conditions different from those of the hydrocarbon market. The end products of water and industrial salt support local industries such as agriculture, reflecting positively on the gross domestic product (GDP). Furthermore, resource extraction from PW of the oil and gas industry helps countries augment their circular economy. In this regard, the economic feasibility of three scenarios—the use of PW for oil recovery, the use of PW as an alternate source of water and industrial salt, and a hybrid process of both—is explored. The results show that there is great potential for water reuse in Enhanced Oil Recovery operations, as well as in the reduction in freshwater consumption for oil- and gas-extraction operations in the state of Kuwait by up to 4.8 percent when PW generated by SK oilfields is considered, and by 42 percent if PW from all oilfields in Kuwait is reused in the same manner. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Editorial Board Members' Collection Series: Water Resources)

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18 pages, 4868 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Resource Availability and Use in Restored, Unmanaged, and Aquaculture Mangrove Ecosystems in Indonesia

by Coral Humber, Matthew W. Bulbert, Jessica Chavez, I Nyoman Yoga Parawangsa, Kara Majerus and Marco Campera

Resources 2024, 13(9), 117; https://doi.org/10.3390/resources13090117 - 24 Aug 2024

Mangrove ecosystems are some of the most productive on our planet but have declined globally by 30–50%. Many species rely on mangrove habitats; thus, their conversion to aquaculture farms has led to noticeable losses in commodities such as wild fish stocks. This study [...] Read more.

Mangrove ecosystems are some of the most productive on our planet but have declined globally by 30–50%. Many species rely on mangrove habitats; thus, their conversion to aquaculture farms has led to noticeable losses in commodities such as wild fish stocks. This study aimed to assess the influence of aquaculture and restoration projects on the ecosystem’s ability to provide resources. We collected data on mangrove vegetation (i.e., biomass, richness, and abundance), soil nutrients (i.e., organic carbon, aluminium, and nitrogen), crab abundance, and fishing pressure at six sites. We set up 15 plots at each site and collected data between May and July 2023. Via generalised linear mixed models, we found that the abundance and richness of crabs was significantly higher in aquaculture plots than in non-aquaculture plots. Aquaculture plots had higher topsoil aluminium, higher topsoil and subsoil nitrogen, and lower topsoil carbon than non-aquaculture sites. Restored sites had less nitrogen in the topsoil than unmanaged sites. The biomass did not change between aquaculture, restored, and unmanaged plots. We found a negative correlation between crab abundance and richness and mangrove diameter at breast height (DBH), suggesting that the species of crabs present preferred areas with propagules for feeding (e.g., Grapsidae crabs). The content of nitrogen in the subsoil was positively correlated with mangrove richness, diversity, and height, suggesting the importance of nitrogen availability for mangrove growth. The content of aluminium in the subsoil was negatively correlated with the content of organic carbon in both the topsoil and subsoil, suggesting the detrimental effect of aluminium on the carbon cycle. Fishing practices were observed at all sites during the data collection period. Despite the lack of significant impact on most vegetation parameters and the limited differences between managed and unmanaged sites, key variables such as soil aluminium, carbon, and nitrogen contents and crab assemblages exhibited high variability, highlighting the complex interactions within mangrove ecosystems. Full article

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13 pages, 833 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Impact of Phycosphere-Isolated Marine Bacteria on Nutritional Value, Growth, and Nutrient Uptake of Co-Cultured Chaetoceros calcitrans

by Mélissa Angeline Liberia Gonçalves, Melissa López-Vela, Alejandro Palacios-Espinosa, Mirella Romero-Bastidas, Maurilia Rojas-Contreras and Paola Magallón-Servín

Resources 2024, 13(9), 116; https://doi.org/10.3390/resources13090116 - 24 Aug 2024

Microalgae offer distinct advantages as a nutritional source for aquaculture and as a means of wastewater bioremediation. Studying the phycosphere bacteria and understanding their complex interactions is essential to optimizing high-quality biomass growth. This study aimed to isolate, characterize, and identify bacteria from [...] Read more.

Microalgae offer distinct advantages as a nutritional source for aquaculture and as a means of wastewater bioremediation. Studying the phycosphere bacteria and understanding their complex interactions is essential to optimizing high-quality biomass growth. This study aimed to isolate, characterize, and identify bacteria from the phycosphere of marine microalgae and to determine their potential to enhance growth, metabolism, and bioremediation capabilities of Chaetoceros calcitrans in stress nutrient-poor media simulating aquaculture wastewater enriched with nitrate, nitrite, or phosphorus. Bacterial characterization included tests for auxin and siderophore production, biofilm formation, amylase activity, phosphate solubilization, mobility, and antagonism evaluation. When Alteromonas macleodii, Bacillus cereus, and Marinobacter sp. were selected and then enriched (10⁷ CFU/mL) in co-culture with C. calcitrans, growth levels significantly increased in four of six Synthetic Aquaculture Wastewater (SAW) media. Pigment levels were higher in five of six SAW media, and lipid levels were higher in SAW rich in nitrite (SAWni50) and phosphorus (SAWpho50). In addition, C. calcitrans with or without the bacterial consortium demonstrated excellent phosphorus bioremediation, achieving 67.6% average removal in SAWpho50. Nitrate and nitrite assimilation rates were approximately 10% in SAWna and SAWni50. This study marks the inaugural identification of these bacteria as microalga growth-promoting bacteria (MGPB) for enhancing growth and lipid and pigment production in C. calcitrans, and it also documents a maximum of 69.13% phosphorus removal. Full article

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24 pages, 7657 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Monitoring of Woody Biomass Quality in Italy over a Five-Year Period to Support Sustainability

by Thomas Gasperini, Elena Leoni, Daniele Duca, Carmine De Francesco and Giuseppe Toscano

Resources 2024, 13(9), 115; https://doi.org/10.3390/resources13090115 - 23 Aug 2024

Biomass continues to play a key role as an alternative to fossil fuels. Woody biomass produces lower greenhouse gas emissions than fossil fuels. However, in order to consider biomass as ‘green energy’, a number of factors should be taken into account, including the [...] Read more.

Biomass continues to play a key role as an alternative to fossil fuels. Woody biomass produces lower greenhouse gas emissions than fossil fuels. However, in order to consider biomass as ‘green energy’, a number of factors should be taken into account, including the characterization of the quality of the resource. Therefore, monitoring quality parameters, such as moisture, ash, N content, is essential to assess the sustainability of biomass for energy production. This paper presents the results of laboratory analyses performed on wood chip samples from four Italian regions over a five-year period (2019–2023). In particular, all quality parameters defined by ISO 17225-9 for industrial wood chips were assessed. Data were analyzed using descriptive, parametric, non-parametric statistics, and multivariate analysis. An interest in quality monitoring has been observed, indicated by an increase in the number of samples received from suppliers and an enhancement in the average values of quality parameters. Moreover, an overall decrease in moisture and N content has been observed, while ash content and heating value have undergone non-linear variations. Statistically significant quality differences between samples from different regions may be the result of different practices, such as outdoor or indoor storage, climate differences, different biomass growth conditions. Full article

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23 pages, 9046 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Evaluation of Wetland Area Effects on Hydrology and Water Quality at Watershed Scale

by Dipesh Nepal, Prem Parajuli, Ying Ouyang, Filip To, Nuwan Wijewardane and Vivek Venishetty

Resources 2024, 13(8), 114; https://doi.org/10.3390/resources13080114 - 22 Aug 2024

Change in land use and land cover (LULC) is crucial to freshwater ecosystems as it affects surface runoff, groundwater storage, and sediment and nutrient transport within watershed areas. Ecosystem components such as wetlands, which can contribute to the reduction of water pollution and [...] Read more.

Change in land use and land cover (LULC) is crucial to freshwater ecosystems as it affects surface runoff, groundwater storage, and sediment and nutrient transport within watershed areas. Ecosystem components such as wetlands, which can contribute to the reduction of water pollution and the enhancement of groundwater recharge, are altered by LULC modifications. This study evaluates how wetlands in the Big Sunflower River Watershed (BSRW) have changed in recent years and quantified their impacts on streamflow, water quality, and groundwater storage using the Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT). The model was well calibrated and validated prior to its application. Our study showed that the maximum increase in wetland areas within the sub-watersheds of interest was 26% from 2008 to 2020. The maximum changes in reduction due to the increase in wetland areas were determined by 2% for streamflow, 37% for total suspended solids, 13% for total phosphorus (TP), 4% for total nitrogen (TN), and the maximum increase in shallow groundwater storage by 90 mm from 2008 to 2020 only in the selected sub-basins. However, the central part of the watershed experienced average declines of groundwater levels up to 176 mm per year due to water withdrawal for irrigation or other uses. This study also found that restoration of 460 to 550 ha of wetlands could increase the reduction of discharge by 20%, sediment by 25%, TN by 18%, and TP by 12%. This study highlights the importance of wetland conservation for water quality improvement and management of groundwater resources. Full article

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30 pages, 8276 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Land Use/Cover Classification of Large Conservation Areas Using a Ground-Linked High-Resolution Unmanned Aerial Vehicle

by Lazaro J. Mangewa, Patrick A. Ndakidemi, Richard D. Alward, Hamza K. Kija, Emmanuel R. Nasolwa and Linus K. Munishi

Resources 2024, 13(8), 113; https://doi.org/10.3390/resources13080113 - 22 Aug 2024

High-resolution remote sensing platforms are crucial to map land use/cover (LULC) types. Unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) technology has been widely used in the northern hemisphere, addressing the challenges facing low- to medium-resolution satellite platforms. This study establishes the scalability of Sentinel-2 LULC classification [...] Read more.

High-resolution remote sensing platforms are crucial to map land use/cover (LULC) types. Unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) technology has been widely used in the northern hemisphere, addressing the challenges facing low- to medium-resolution satellite platforms. This study establishes the scalability of Sentinel-2 LULC classification with ground-linked UAV orthoimages to large African ecosystems, particularly the Burunge Wildlife Management Area in Tanzania. It involved UAV flights in 19 ground-surveyed plots followed by upscaling orthoimages to a 10 m × 10 m resolution to guide Sentinel-2 LULC classification. The results were compared with unguided Sentinel-2 using the best classifier (random forest, RFC) compared to support vector machines (SVMs) and maximum likelihood classification (MLC). The guided classification approach, with an overall accuracy (OA) of 94% and a kappa coefficient (k) of 0.92, outperformed the unguided classification approach (OA = 90%; k = 0.87). It registered grasslands (55.2%) as a major vegetated class, followed by woodlands (7.6%) and shrublands (4.7%). The unguided approach registered grasslands (43.3%), followed by shrublands (27.4%) and woodlands (1.7%). Powerful ground-linked UAV-based training samples and RFC improved the performance. The area size, heterogeneity, pre-UAV flight ground data, and UAV-based woody plant encroachment detection contribute to the study’s novelty. The findings are useful in conservation planning and rangelands management. Thus, they are recommended for similar conservation areas. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Innovative and Critical Issues in Natural Resource Management and Exploitation)

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17 pages, 6754 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Utilizing Circular Economy Policies to Maintain and Transform Mining Facilities: A Case Study of Brzeszcze, Poland

by Anna Szewczyk-Świątek, Anna Ostręga, Marek Cała and Pascal Beese-Vasbender

Resources 2024, 13(8), 112; https://doi.org/10.3390/resources13080112 - 22 Aug 2024

How is the circular economy policy utilised to transform mining facilities? This paper analyses projects undertaken under increasing pressure for economic and energy transformation (transitioning away from coal), using the example of the municipality of Brzeszcze in Poland. These projects highlight the planned [...] Read more.

How is the circular economy policy utilised to transform mining facilities? This paper analyses projects undertaken under increasing pressure for economic and energy transformation (transitioning away from coal), using the example of the municipality of Brzeszcze in Poland. These projects highlight the planned key spatial initiatives deemed feasible for implementation in the area, emphasising mining facilities and waste management (including waste from outgoing industries) that can break or speed transformation. The article aims to analyse solutions considered viable for implementation in mining towns, which can contribute to a better understanding of transformations in other monofunctional industrial centres in Europe. Data were collected using the research by design method. It is concluded that stakeholders perceive the development of peripheral mining areas as an action that can significantly impact the conduct and perception of activities related to the circular economy while also promoting a gradual transition away from coal mining. The article highlights the role of initiatives enabling the combination of transformations with a slowdown in the pace of mining activity cessation, considering the need for waste management, energy transformation, and the financial and energy stability of urban centres that have long relied on coal. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Minerals and Land-Use Planning: Sustainable Narratives and Practices)

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