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New Advances in Low-Energy Processes for Geo-Energy Development: 2nd Edition
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New Advances in Low-Energy Processes for Geo-Energy Development: 2nd Edition

A special issue of Processes (ISSN 2227-9717).

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (10 April 2026) | Viewed by 6283

Special Issue Editors

Dr. Daoyi Zhu

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Faculty of Petroleum, China University of Petroleum-Beijing at Karamay, Karamay 834000, China
Interests: oilfield chemistry; plugging theory and technology; low-energy processes for oil and gas recovery
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals
Prof. Dr. Yibo Li

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Faculty of Petroleum and Natural Gas Engineering, Southwest Petroleum University, Chengdu 610500, China
Interests: enhanced oil and gas recovery; oilfield chemistry; chemical flooding; heavy oil development; thermal recovery of heavy oil; gas injection; profile control and water shutoff
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals
Dr. Qingyuan Chen

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Faculty of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Southwest Petroleum University, Chengdu 610500, China
Interests: enhanced oil recovery; polymer flooding; active nanofluid; heavy oil upgrading
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

The trajectory of industrialization is tightly correlated with geo-energy. Academics place a high value on all kinds of cutting-edge studies. Every breakthrough, whether theoretical or in engineering, has the potential to significantly advance society. This Special Issue seeks frontier and innovative research on the low-energy development of geo-energy resources. Several research studies are presently being conducted on EOR flooding materials, such as polymer, CO2, air, steam and composite methods. Additionally, the study of some low-energy and promising heating reservoir technologies, such as nuclear energy, solar energy, in situ upgrading, and electromagnetic heating, has also gradually increased. Of course, with the continuous innovations in computer and information technology, numerical simulation technology and big data analysis methods also play pivotal roles in the development of high-efficiency and low-energy geological energy.

This Special Issue aims to present and disseminate the most recent advances related to the new advances in low-energy processes for geo-energy development.

Topics of interest for publication include, but are not limited to, the following:

  • Intelligent well technologies;
  • New technologies in ROP improvement;
  • New technologies in cold production;
  • New technologies in waterflooding for geo-energy resources development;
  • New technologies in polymer flooding;
  • New technologies in emulsion flooding;
  • New technologies in enhanced CO2 injection;
  • New technologies in enhanced air injection;
  • New technologies in enhanced steam injection;
  • New technologies in heating geo-energy reservoirs;
  • New technologies in geo-energy reservoir simulation;
  • Low-energy processes for shale oil recovery;
  • Low-energy processes for tight oil recovery.

You may choose our Joint Special Issue in Energies.

Dr. Daoyi Zhu
Prof. Dr. Yibo Li
Dr. Qingyuan Chen
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 250 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for assessment.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Processes is an international peer-reviewed open access semimonthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2400 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • low-energy processes
  • intelligent well technologies
  • cold production
  • cold-enhanced geo-energy recovery
  • thermal-enhanced geo-energy recovery
  • enhanced gas injection
  • enhanced steam injection
  • reservoir simulation of geo-energy
  • shale oil
  • tight oil

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Further information on MDPI's Special Issue policies can be found here.

Related Special Issue

Published Papers (10 papers)

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Research

26 pages, 4883 KB  
Article
Smart Oil Production Forecasting Process Using Deep Learning and African Vulture Optimization Algorithm
by Xiankang Xin, Zhao Xie, Saijun Liu, Gaoming Yu and Jing Cao
Processes 2026, 14(10), 1558; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr14101558 - 12 May 2026
Viewed by 243
Abstract
Accurate prediction of reservoir production dynamics remains a key challenge in the oil and gas industry, especially for complex, high-dimensional time-series data. Conventional models fail to capture temporal dependencies, while existing hybrid models suffer from high parameter complexity and lack automated hyperparameter tuning, [...] Read more.
Accurate prediction of reservoir production dynamics remains a key challenge in the oil and gas industry, especially for complex, high-dimensional time-series data. Conventional models fail to capture temporal dependencies, while existing hybrid models suffer from high parameter complexity and lack automated hyperparameter tuning, increasing training difficulty. To address these issues, this study proposes a novel hybrid model, TCN-LSTM-AVOA, combining a temporal convolutional network (TCN) with a long short-term memory network (LSTM) and incorporating the African Vulture Optimization Algorithm (AVOA) to enhance forecasting accuracy. The model not only captures complex temporal relationships and nonlinear features in reservoir data but also facilitates automated tuning of critical hyperparameters (e.g., the number of TCN kernels, LSTM units, batch size, and learning rate), which significantly enhances its robustness. Compared to eight benchmark models (back propagation neural network (BPNN), LSTM, convolutional neural network(CNN)-LSTM, TCN-LSTM, LSTM-AVOA, CNN-AVOA, TCN-AVOA), TCN-LSTM-AVOA achieves superior performance on a two-dimensional, three-phase heterogeneous reservoir, yielding a root mean square error (RMSE) of 7.0806, mean absolute error (MAE) of 3.4780, coefficient of determination (R2) of 0.9975, and mean absolute percentage error (MAPE) of 1.81%. This work demonstrates a more accurate and efficient methodology for reservoir production prediction, with significant potential for oilfield production optimization and resource management. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Advances in Low-Energy Processes for Geo-Energy Development: 2nd Edition)
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22 pages, 3516 KB  
Article
Staged Effective Medium Modeling and Experimental Validation for Rock Thermal Conductivity
by Yanming Chen, Michael T. Myers, Lori Hathon, Gabriel C. Unomah and David Myers
Processes 2026, 14(9), 1437; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr14091437 - 29 Apr 2026
Viewed by 173
Abstract
The thermal conductivity (λ) of porous rocks as a function of total porosity, grain size, and fluid saturation is measured and modeled by combining high-precision experiments with a Staged Differential Effective Medium (SDEM) modeling framework. A 1-D divided-bar apparatus with computer-controlled guard heaters [...] Read more.
The thermal conductivity (λ) of porous rocks as a function of total porosity, grain size, and fluid saturation is measured and modeled by combining high-precision experiments with a Staged Differential Effective Medium (SDEM) modeling framework. A 1-D divided-bar apparatus with computer-controlled guard heaters with an integrated ultrasonic pulse-transmission system was developed to measure the thermal conductivity and P and S-wave velocities simultaneously. Measurements were made on Fontainebleau sandstone cores and quartz sand packs of varying grain size and effective stresses up to 2000 psi. The sample properties were measured in both dry and water-saturated states. The SDEM model performs significantly better at predicting the saturated thermal conductivities in the sand packs. For the sand packs, the thermal conductivity and compressional velocity are the highest and most stress-sensitive for the fine-grained material. In contrast, the shear velocity is largest in the coarse-grained material. The SDEM model is adapted from previous acoustic models for use in understanding thermal conductivity. These joint models accurately reproduce the evolution of both thermal conductivity and bulk modulus during increasing compaction and varying saturation. A single parameter fits both the dry and saturated data, which allows Gassmann-style fluid substitution for the thermal conductivity. This model improves the prediction of in situ thermal conductivity from sonic well logs. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Advances in Low-Energy Processes for Geo-Energy Development: 2nd Edition)
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16 pages, 2807 KB  
Article
A Method for Predicting Bottomhole Pressure Based on Data Augmentation and Hyperparameter Optimisation
by Xiankang Xin, Xuecheng Jiang, Saijun Liu, Gaoming Yu and Xujian Jiang
Processes 2026, 14(8), 1194; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr14081194 - 8 Apr 2026
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 464 | Correction
Abstract
With the continuous development of the petroleum industry, bottomhole pressure prediction technology, which exerts a significant impact on oil production and recovery, has become a key research direction in the current oil and gas field. To enhance the accuracy and robustness of bottomhole [...] Read more.
With the continuous development of the petroleum industry, bottomhole pressure prediction technology, which exerts a significant impact on oil production and recovery, has become a key research direction in the current oil and gas field. To enhance the accuracy and robustness of bottomhole pressure prediction under transient and variable operating conditions, a method based on data augmentation strategies and hyperparameter optimization was proposed in this paper. Addressing challenges such as limited data volume and significant disturbances in actual oilfield production, a data augmentation strategy incorporating noise perturbation and sliding windows was introduced to expand training samples and improve model generalization. In terms of model architecture, a deep network integrating CNN, BiGRU, and Multi-Head Attention mechanisms was proposed in this paper, which is referred to as the CNN-BiGRU-Multi-Head Attention model. By introducing Bayesian optimization for automatic hyperparameter search, the performance of the temporal model was further enhanced, achieving efficient extraction and dynamic focusing of wellbore pressure temporal features. Prediction results demonstrated that the proposed method outperforms existing mainstream forecasting models in metrics such as Mean Absolute Error (MAE) and Coefficient of Determination (R2), with R2 reaching 0.9831, which confirms its strong generalization capability and engineering applicability. Practical guidance for intelligent oilfield production management and bottomhole pressure forecasting, along with a novel prediction method, is provided by this study, which holds significant importance for extending well life and stabilizing hydrocarbon production. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Advances in Low-Energy Processes for Geo-Energy Development: 2nd Edition)
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14 pages, 4096 KB  
Article
Biochar-Enhanced Inorganic Gel for Water Plugging in High-Temperature and High-Salinity Fracture-Vuggy Reservoirs
by Shiwei He and Tengfei Wang
Processes 2026, 14(6), 1014; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr14061014 - 21 Mar 2026
Viewed by 478
Abstract
With the expansion of global oil and gas resource exploration and development into deep and ultra deep layers, the efficient development of deep carbonate rock fracture cave reservoirs has become the key to ensuring energy security. However, this type of reservoir commonly faces [...] Read more.
With the expansion of global oil and gas resource exploration and development into deep and ultra deep layers, the efficient development of deep carbonate rock fracture cave reservoirs has become the key to ensuring energy security. However, this type of reservoir commonly faces high temperatures, high salinity, and extremely strong heterogeneity, leading to increasingly severe water content spikes caused by dominant water flow channels. Although the existing traditional inorganic plugging agent has good temperature resistance, it has the defects of great brittleness and easy cracking, while the organic polymer gel is prone to degradation failure under high temperature and high salt environments. In order to solve the above problems, a new biochar-enhanced inorganic composite gel system was constructed by using biochar prepared from agricultural and forestry waste pyrolysis as a functional enhancement component. Through rheological testing, high-temperature and high-pressure mechanical experiments, long-term thermal stability evaluation, and dynamic sealing experiments of fractured rock cores, the reinforcement and toughening laws and rheological control mechanisms of biochar on inorganic matrices were systematically studied. Research has found that a biochar content of 0.5 wt% can significantly improve the micro pore structure of the matrix. By utilizing its micro aggregate filling effect and interfacial chemical bonding, the compressive strength of the solidified body can be increased to over 2 MPa, and there is no significant decline in strength after aging at 130 °C for 30 days. More importantly, the unique “adsorption slow-release” mechanism of biochar effectively stabilizes the hydration reaction kinetics at high temperatures, extending the solidification time of the system to 15 h and solving the problem of flash condensation in deep well pumping. This system exhibits excellent shear thinning characteristics and crack sealing ability, and presents a unique “yield reconstruction” toughness sealing feature. This study elucidates the multidimensional strengthening mechanism of biochar in inorganic cementitious materials, providing technical reference for stable oil and water control in deep fractured reservoirs. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Advances in Low-Energy Processes for Geo-Energy Development: 2nd Edition)
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14 pages, 2352 KB  
Article
Pre-Crosslinked Gel Particles Enhanced by Amphiphilic Nanocarbon Dots in Harsh Reservoirs: Synthesis and Deep Stimulation Mechanism
by Guorui Xu, Xiaoxiao Li, Jinzhou Yang, Chunyu Tong, Xiaolong Wang and Tengfei Wang
Processes 2025, 13(12), 3994; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr13123994 - 10 Dec 2025
Viewed by 637
Abstract
To address the issues of easy degradation, dehydration, and insufficient deep plugging strength of traditional pre-crosslinked gel particles (PPGs) in high-temperature and high-salinity reservoirs, this study innovatively introduced amphiphilic carbon dots (CDs) with both hydrophilic and hydrophobic structures as multifunctional modifiers. The carbon [...] Read more.
To address the issues of easy degradation, dehydration, and insufficient deep plugging strength of traditional pre-crosslinked gel particles (PPGs) in high-temperature and high-salinity reservoirs, this study innovatively introduced amphiphilic carbon dots (CDs) with both hydrophilic and hydrophobic structures as multifunctional modifiers. The carbon dot-reinforced PPGs (CD-PPGs) were successfully prepared through in situ polymerization. Through systematic characterization, microscopic visualization experiments, and macroscopic oil displacement evaluation, the performance enhancement mechanism and profile control behavior were deeply explored. The results show that the amphiphilic carbon dots significantly enhanced the material’s temperature resistance (up to 110 °C), salt resistance (up to 15 × 104 mg/L salinity), and mechanical properties by constructing a “hydrogen bond-hydrophobic association” dual crosslinking system within the PPG network. More importantly, it was found that CD-PPGs exhibit a unique “self-aggregation” ability in deep reservoirs, which enables the in situ formation of high-strength plugging micelles at the target location while ensuring excellent injectability. At a permeability range of 539.0–2988.6 mD, the sealing rate of 0.5 PV CD-PPGs was greater than 95%. With permeabilities of 490.1 mD and 3020.5 mD under heterogeneous reservoir simulation conditions, the total recovery degree after the CD-PPGs was 52.6%, which was 20.5% higher than that of single water flooding. This study not only developed a high-performance profile control nanomaterial but also elucidated its strengthening mechanism, providing new insights and a theoretical basis for advancing deep profile control technology. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Advances in Low-Energy Processes for Geo-Energy Development: 2nd Edition)
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18 pages, 3228 KB  
Article
Quantitative Evaluation Methods and Applications for Gravel Characteristics Distribution in Conglomerate Reservoirs
by Zhenhu Lv, Jietao Xu, Tianbo Liang, Ping Li, Xiaolu Chen, Hao Cheng and Yupeng Zhang
Processes 2025, 13(12), 3911; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr13123911 - 3 Dec 2025
Viewed by 856
Abstract
Conglomerate reservoirs often exhibit chaotic internal structures and strong heterogeneity due to the influence of gravel, which seriously restricts the balanced initiation of multiple clusters and the balanced expansion of artificial fractures in the volume fracturing section of horizontal wells. Therefore, clarifying the [...] Read more.
Conglomerate reservoirs often exhibit chaotic internal structures and strong heterogeneity due to the influence of gravel, which seriously restricts the balanced initiation of multiple clusters and the balanced expansion of artificial fractures in the volume fracturing section of horizontal wells. Therefore, clarifying the distribution pattern of gravel in conglomerate reservoirs is of great significance for the design and parameter optimization of horizontal well segmentation and clustering. This work conducts research on the interpretation results of imaging logging, establishes a characterization model for the distribution characteristics of gravel around horizontal wells, develops gravel feature recognition and analysis software for conglomerate reservoirs using image processing technology, and effectively obtains the morphology of gravel in imaging logging. Based on this, a correlation model between conventional logging and imaging logging is constructed to predict the distribution of gravel in horizontal wells without imaging logging. Using the Kriging interpolation method, a “point line surface” gravel distribution prediction method is proposed. Through three methods of imaging logging, downhole eagle-eye camera, and on-site coring, the model accuracy is found to be greater than 80%, guiding segmented clustering to avoid high gravel areas. During the fracturing process, the wellhead pressure is lower than that of adjacent wells, enabling greater fluid savings per well. The production effect is better than that of adjacent wells in the same block, providing a reference for the study of gravel distribution characteristics in conglomerate oil reservoirs. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Advances in Low-Energy Processes for Geo-Energy Development: 2nd Edition)
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33 pages, 6034 KB  
Article
Development and Application of Software for Calculating the Crack Arrest Toughness of Impurity-Containing Carbon Dioxide Pipelines Based on the BTCM
by Xinze Li, Dezhong Wang, Xingyu Jiang, Yuetian Yu and Xiaokai Xing
Processes 2025, 13(12), 3807; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr13123807 - 25 Nov 2025
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 689
Abstract
To ensure the safety of supercritical CO2 pipelines and address the limitations of full-scale fracture tests, such as high risk and substantial investment, software for evaluating the crack arrest toughness of CO2 pipelines containing impurities was developed based on the Battelle [...] Read more.
To ensure the safety of supercritical CO2 pipelines and address the limitations of full-scale fracture tests, such as high risk and substantial investment, software for evaluating the crack arrest toughness of CO2 pipelines containing impurities was developed based on the Battelle Two-Curve Model (BTCM) in this study. The software is programmed in Python (v.3.12.4), with a graphical user interface (GUI) built using PyQt6 (v.6.10.0) and a three-tier architecture design. It integrates the resistance curve model and the decompression wave model. To determine the thermodynamic state of the fluid, a large property database covering pure components and various mixtures is embedded, incorporating state equations such as PR, HEOS, and GERG-2008. The software can generate pressure drop curves, decompression curves, and resistance curves. The pressure plateau can be quickly identified by examining the pressure drop curve. Whether the pipeline can achieve self-crack arrest can be rapidly judged by comparing the positional relationships between the decompression curve and the resistance curve. To verify the accuracy of the software’s calculation results, comparisons were conducted with previous decompression wave experimental data, full-scale burst test data of a CO2 pipeline, and the international HLP model. The calculation error of the software is within 10%. The development and application of this software provide a convenient, efficient, and accurate practical tool for the calculation of crack arrest toughness and crack arrest evaluation of supercritical CO2 pipelines. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Advances in Low-Energy Processes for Geo-Energy Development: 2nd Edition)
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19 pages, 3551 KB  
Article
A New Kind of Thermosensitive Screen Used for Wellbore Stability
by Yanlong Zhao, Yuheng Wei, Xing Qin and Yifei Ran
Processes 2025, 13(11), 3674; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr13113674 - 13 Nov 2025
Viewed by 421
Abstract
In light of frequently occurring wellbore instability such as wellbore collapse and sand production that often occur in drilling and the completion of shale oil and gas development, we propose one-run shape memory thermosensitive screen technology that can expand spontaneously at a specific [...] Read more.
In light of frequently occurring wellbore instability such as wellbore collapse and sand production that often occur in drilling and the completion of shale oil and gas development, we propose one-run shape memory thermosensitive screen technology that can expand spontaneously at a specific temperature to help strengthen the formation. Based on the theory of thermal expansion and large deformation of shape memory materials, the expansion process of the thermosensitive screen is calculated by the finite element method. After expanding to the wellbore wall, the effects of the screen squeezing force on the formation production parameters are evaluated theoretically. The analysis shows that the radial compressive stress of the thermosensitive screen decreases with the increase in the radial distance, but as the original outer diameter of the thermosensitive screen is greater than the wellbore diameter, it can provide extrusion force for the wellbore wall. According to the in situ stress model, the extrusion force after the screen contacts the wellbore can effectively improve the stress distribution near the wellbore and reduce the impact of sand production caused by formation instability. Moreover, in shale oil and gas completion, it can effectively increase the bottom hole flowing pressure and drawdown pressure. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Advances in Low-Energy Processes for Geo-Energy Development: 2nd Edition)
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27 pages, 4920 KB  
Article
An Integrated Tubing String for Synergistic Acidizing-Flowback: Simulation and Optimization Targeting Offshore Dongying Formation
by Liangliang Wang, Minghua Shi, Yi Chen, Tengfei Wang and Jiexiang Wang
Processes 2025, 13(11), 3582; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr13113582 - 6 Nov 2025
Viewed by 744
Abstract
The oil layers in the Dongying Formation offshore oilfield are severely contaminated. The near-wellbore reservoir pore throats are blocked, which seriously affects the development effect. It has become urgent to implement acidizing stimulation measures. However, the target reservoir is deeply buried, has high [...] Read more.
The oil layers in the Dongying Formation offshore oilfield are severely contaminated. The near-wellbore reservoir pore throats are blocked, which seriously affects the development effect. It has become urgent to implement acidizing stimulation measures. However, the target reservoir is deeply buried, has high reservoir pressure, and is highly sensitive. These factors result in high pressure during acidizing operations, a long single-trip time for raising and lowering the tubing string, and high costs. Moreover, acid that is not promptly returned to the surface after acidizing can cause secondary pollution to the reservoir. This work proposes an integrated tubing string to perform reverse displacement and reverse squeeze. With this, acid can be injected into the formation through the annulus between the casing and tubing. The residual acid and its post-acidizing derivative residues are rapidly lifted to the surface by the reciprocating suction action of the return pump. Based on this, the structure and specifications of the acidizing-flowback tubing string are designed through the flow rate analysis method. The tubing string is mainly affected by mechanical effects, including buoyancy, piston effect, flow viscosity effect, helical bending effect, temperature difference effect, and expansion effect. The maximum deformations are 1.4 m, 1.9 m, 0.18 m, 2.7 m, 1.8 m, and 2.5 m, respectively. The total deformation is less than 3 m. Simulation results from three groups of oil wells at different depths indicate that the axial force of the tubing string ranges from 400 to 600 kN. The stress ranges from 260 to 350 MPa, deformation is 1.1–2.4 mm, and the safety factor exceeds 3.0. This can effectively ensure the safety of on-site operations. Based on the actual field conditions, the acidizing-flowback tubing string is evaluated. This verifies the effectiveness of the acidizing-flowback tubing string. This research provides an economical and efficient operation process for acidizing operations in the Dongying Formation offshore oilfield. It achieves the goal of removing reservoir contamination and provides guidance for the unblocking and stimulation of low-permeability and sensitive reservoirs in the middle and deep layers of offshore oilfields. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Advances in Low-Energy Processes for Geo-Energy Development: 2nd Edition)
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15 pages, 5933 KB  
Article
Experimental Study on Proppant Transport and Distribution in Asymmetric Branched Fractures
by Zhitian Lu, Hai Qu, Ying Liu, Zhonghua Liu, Su Liu, Pengcheng Zhang and Kaige You
Processes 2025, 13(11), 3482; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr13113482 - 30 Oct 2025
Viewed by 896
Abstract
Hydraulic fracturing is a key technique for creating complex fractures in unconventional reservoirs to enhance energy recovery. Asymmetric branched fractures, as fundamental units, are widely observed in complex fracture networks. Effective proppant distribution within such structures is critical but remains poorly understood. To [...] Read more.
Hydraulic fracturing is a key technique for creating complex fractures in unconventional reservoirs to enhance energy recovery. Asymmetric branched fractures, as fundamental units, are widely observed in complex fracture networks. Effective proppant distribution within such structures is critical but remains poorly understood. To investigate this, a rough-walled slot with two branches was developed, where asymmetry was introduced by inserting plates with different geometries on one side. The results show that the structural asymmetry between the left and right branches can significantly induce non-uniform transport and irregular sand bed morphology. Reducing the height and width of branch fractures increases fluid velocity, limiting proppant settling within the branch. As the flow area decreases, the fluid velocity increases, driving more proppant through the branch toward the distal fracture region. Injection pressure increases as the flow area of the branch fracture decreases. At a height ratio of 0.25, sand plugging and ineffective proppant placement probably occur within the natural fracture. When the branch is located at the upper section, proppants hardly settle to form a bed, leading to closure of the fracture. The study provides new insights into optimizing proppant placement in complex fractures. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Advances in Low-Energy Processes for Geo-Energy Development: 2nd Edition)
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