Oxygen Steelmaking Process

A special issue of Metals (ISSN 2075-4701). This special issue belongs to the section "Extractive Metallurgy".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (31 May 2022) | Viewed by 42065

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Department of Mechanical and Product Design Engineering, Swinburne University of Technology, Hawthorn, VIC 3122, Australia
Interests: steelmaking; pyrometallurgy; extractive metallurgy; solar thermal energy; waste processing; metals recycling
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Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Oxygen Steelmaking is the dominant process for producing steel. The technology around Oxygen Steelmaking has evolved greatly since pioneering work in Europe in the late 1940s. There have significant developments in lance technology, refractories, sensors and control systems over the last twenty years. This has been coupled with improved scientific understanding of the physical chemistry, kinetics, heat transfer and fluid mechanics of the system. There are still significant challenges in optimizing slag foaming, slag chemistry, scrap melting, post-combustion and control systems. The general shift towards lowering the environmental impact of metal production will also drive innovation in the evolution of the process. This issue will be focused on the most recent developments and examining both technological developments and the underlying scientific issues around these technological challenges. Papers from producers, suppliers and researchers would be most welcome.

Prof. Dr. Geoffrey Brooks
Guest Editor

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Keywords

  • Oxygen Steelmaking
  • Pyrometallurgy
  • Supersonic Lances
  • Slag Chemistry
  • Heat Transfer
  • Fluid Mechanics

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Published Papers (11 papers)

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Research

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13 pages, 4873 KiB  
Article
Effect of Cr2O3 on Physicochemical Properties of CaO-SiO2-FetO Slags during BOF Smelting Process of Chromium-Bearing Iron
by Shannan Li, Jianli Li, Yue Yu and Hangyu Zhu
Metals 2022, 12(7), 1110; https://doi.org/10.3390/met12071110 - 28 Jun 2022
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1582
Abstract
The productivity of basic-oxygen-furnace (BOF) smelting process is directly affected by the slag-forming speed during the initial stage of converter. Therefore, it is essential to study the effect of different Cr2O3 content on the physicochemical properties of the primary slag [...] Read more.
The productivity of basic-oxygen-furnace (BOF) smelting process is directly affected by the slag-forming speed during the initial stage of converter. Therefore, it is essential to study the effect of different Cr2O3 content on the physicochemical properties of the primary slag in the smelting process of chromium-bearing semi-steel. In this work, Factsage8.1 software, X-ray diffraction (XRD), scanning electron microscope (SEM), energy dispersive spectroscopy (EDS) and a high-temperature melting point tester were used to study the effects of different Cr2O3 content on the melting temperature, solidification behavior, mineral composition, and other physicochemical properties of the CaO-SiO2-FetO system. The results showed that the melting temperature of slag samples increased from 1223 °C to 1354 °C as Cr2O3 increased from 0 wt% to 9.09 wt%. With the increase of Cr2O3, the content of CaFeSi2O6 decreased. Moreover, due to the addition of Cr2O3, the chromium-bearing spinel solid solution (Fe(Fe,Cr)2O4) began to form in the slag. Furthermore, Cr2O3 promoted the increase in the volume of free solid particles in the slag, resulting in an increase in slag viscosity. All in all, the increase of Cr2O3 content in the CaO-SiO2-FetO system will adversely affect the semi-steel steelmaking process. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Oxygen Steelmaking Process)
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23 pages, 3878 KiB  
Article
Global Droplet Heat Transfer in Oxygen Steelmaking Process
by Nirmal Madhavan, Geoffrey A. Brooks, M. Akbar Rhamdhani, Bapin K. Rout and Aart Overbosch
Metals 2022, 12(6), 992; https://doi.org/10.3390/met12060992 - 10 Jun 2022
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1881
Abstract
Generated droplets in a basic oxygen furnace (BOF) process create an interfacial area between metal and slag/emulsion that helps in heat transfer during different stages of the blowing period. Previous studies have developed extensive models to understand bloating behavior and overall refining kinetics [...] Read more.
Generated droplets in a basic oxygen furnace (BOF) process create an interfacial area between metal and slag/emulsion that helps in heat transfer during different stages of the blowing period. Previous studies have developed extensive models to understand bloating behavior and overall refining kinetics contributed by the droplets in a BOF process. Except for the recent study on single droplet heat transfer by the current authors, no studies in the open literature have addressed the heat transfer contributed by droplets in a BOF. The present work is an extension of single droplet heat transfer, wherein a global droplet heat transfer model is developed by integrating kinetic and dynamic aspects of generated droplets during the blowing period. The model was developed based on previous chemical kinetic studies and input values from plant trials. The results from the global droplet heat transfer model are integrated into the overall zone heat balance calculations to predict the temperature evolution profile of hot spot, slag, and hot metal zones during the blowing period. The results highlight that the hot spot temperature ranges from 1900 °C to 2090 °C, with a peak value of around 2300 °C observed during the middle of the blow. Furthermore, computing the overall droplet heat transfer efficiency, it was observed that the droplets transfer 90% of the heat to the slag up to the first 10 min of the blow, and then the heat transfer efficiency drops towards the end of the blow. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Oxygen Steelmaking Process)
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21 pages, 3777 KiB  
Article
Hybrid Method for Endpoint Prediction in a Basic Oxygen Furnace
by Ruibin Wang, Itishree Mohanty, Amiy Srivastava, Tapas Kumar Roy, Prakash Gupta and Kinnor Chattopadhyay
Metals 2022, 12(5), 801; https://doi.org/10.3390/met12050801 - 5 May 2022
Cited by 14 | Viewed by 2292
Abstract
Strict monitoring and prediction of endpoints in a Basic Oxygen Furnace (BOF) are essential for end-product quality and overall process efficiency. Existing control models are mostly developed based on thermodynamic principles or by deploying advanced sensors. This article aims to propose a novel [...] Read more.
Strict monitoring and prediction of endpoints in a Basic Oxygen Furnace (BOF) are essential for end-product quality and overall process efficiency. Existing control models are mostly developed based on thermodynamic principles or by deploying advanced sensors. This article aims to propose a novel hybrid algorithm for endpoint temperature, carbon, and phosphorus, based on heat and mass balance and a data-driven technique. Three types of static models were established in this study: firstly, theoretical models, based on user-specified inputs, were formulated based on mass and energy balance; secondly, artificial neural networks (ANN) were developed for endpoints predictions; finally, the proposed hybrid model was established, based upon exchanging outputs among theoretical models and ANNs. Data of steelmaking production details collected from 28,000 heats from Tata Steel India were used for this article. Machine learning model validation was carried out with five-fold cross-validation to ensure generalizations in model predictions. ANNs are found to achieve better predictive accuracies than theoretical models in all three endpoints. However, they cannot be directly applied in any steelmaking plants, due to possible variations in the production setting. After applying the hybrid algorithm, normalized root mean squared errors are reduced for endpoint carbon and phosphorus by 3.7% and 9.77%. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Oxygen Steelmaking Process)
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18 pages, 3345 KiB  
Article
Contribution of CO2 Emissions from Basic Oxygen Steelmaking Process
by Nirmal Madhavan, Geoffrey Brooks, M. Akbar Rhamdhani and Adam Bordignon
Metals 2022, 12(5), 797; https://doi.org/10.3390/met12050797 - 5 May 2022
Cited by 9 | Viewed by 6898
Abstract
The steelmaking process is an energy-intensive multi-stage process, and the step involving the conversion of molten iron to steel, commonly performed in a basic oxygen furnace (BOF), makes an important contribution to greenhouse gas generation. The effective utilization of energy is one of [...] Read more.
The steelmaking process is an energy-intensive multi-stage process, and the step involving the conversion of molten iron to steel, commonly performed in a basic oxygen furnace (BOF), makes an important contribution to greenhouse gas generation. The effective utilization of energy is one of the major challenges in the process, as minor variations of operational parameters can have significant negative effects on the converter in terms of CO2 emissions. A recent study published by the same authors analyzed the BOF process by developing a general mass and energy balance model. The present study utilizes these models to quantify the contribution of global warming potential (GWP) from the BOF and analyses its sensitivity with the parameters such as hot metal composition, the temperature of hot metal, tapping temperature, scrap quantity, and levels of post-combustion. The term GWP in this study refers to the quantified CO2 values obtained by summing up the carbon dioxide associated with the production of CaO associated with the mass of flux and carbon dioxide generated from the off-gas (considering C in hot metal is completely oxidized to CO2). The results from the analysis indicates that for a tapping temperature increase from 1650 °C to 1683 °C, the percentage change in the global warming potential (GWP) was found to be approximately 1%. The study identified that increasing the scrap percentage in the feed would be the most effective approach to effectively utilizing chemical energy from the process and reduce CO2 emissions. However, increasing scrap above 30% of the total feed is likely to raise issues around: (a) the presence of residual elements in scrap affecting the quality of liquid steel, (b) the effective utilization of post-combustion heat within the furnace, and (c) the recovery of off-gas heat for scrap preheating (assuming no steam recovery from the off-gas system). If these issues could be addressed at the industrial level, a significant reduction in CO2 emissions from the BOF process could be achieved. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Oxygen Steelmaking Process)
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17 pages, 26463 KiB  
Article
Contribution of Hot-Spot Zone in Decarburization of BOF Steel-Making: Fundamental Analysis Based upon the FactSage-Macro Program
by Prasenjit Singha and Ajay Kumar Shukla
Metals 2022, 12(4), 638; https://doi.org/10.3390/met12040638 - 7 Apr 2022
Cited by 9 | Viewed by 2888
Abstract
An improved computational model to describe the decarburization process in basic oxygen furnaces for steel making is presented in this work. A dynamic model was thus developed to calculate the decarburization rate and its breakup as a contribution coming from the hot-spot zone [...] Read more.
An improved computational model to describe the decarburization process in basic oxygen furnaces for steel making is presented in this work. A dynamic model was thus developed to calculate the decarburization rate and its breakup as a contribution coming from the hot-spot zone (under jet impact) and emulsion zone (by droplet and slag reactions). In this work, multiple interconnected equilibrium/adiabatic stoichiometric-reactor-based approaches are used to describe the overall basic oxygen steel-making process. The macroprogramming facility of FactSage™ software was used to understand the thermodynamics and kinetics of basic oxygen steel-making processes. The temperature, compositions, and volumes of various phases are estimated with the use of this model. Hot-spot temperatures in the range from 2000 to 3000 °C as a benchmark was considered for calculations. The major contribution of decarburization was established to come from hot-spot reactions in the major part of the blow, except in the last part when emulsion phase reactions govern it. This development represents an original contribution to our understanding of the BOF steel-making process. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Oxygen Steelmaking Process)
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17 pages, 4091 KiB  
Article
Green LD (BOF) Steelmaking—Reduced CO2 Emissions via Increased Scrap Rate
by Bernhard Voraberger, Gerald Wimmer, Uxia Dieguez Salgado, Erich Wimmer, Krzysztof Pastucha and Alexander Fleischanderl
Metals 2022, 12(3), 466; https://doi.org/10.3390/met12030466 - 10 Mar 2022
Cited by 16 | Viewed by 8333
Abstract
The basic oxygen furnace (BOF) is the dominating primary steelmaking process. It is an autothermal process where hot metal and scrap are used as charging materials. The decarbonization and transformation of integrated BOF steelmaking will be the most important challenge in the coming [...] Read more.
The basic oxygen furnace (BOF) is the dominating primary steelmaking process. It is an autothermal process where hot metal and scrap are used as charging materials. The decarbonization and transformation of integrated BOF steelmaking will be the most important challenge in the coming years. Steel scrap is a charge material without new CO2 emissions, whose availability is expected to grow significantly and will play a key role in this decarbonization process. Several solutions have been developed by Primetals Technologies to provide additional energy for processing higher scrap rates in integrated BOF steelmaking. Such solutions include simple upgrade packages installed on existing converters such as process models for heat optimization, post-combustion, and scrap preheating lances. For higher scrap rates from 30% to 50%, a combination blowing converter and JET converter is required to provide sufficient mixing during scrap melting and the highest heat transfer from the increased post-combustion. Hybrid EAF–BOF operation and limitations regarding scrap quality also need to be considered for the transformation of steelmaking. Scrap sorting and processing can be a solution to reduce residual levels in crude steel for high scrap rates. Based on reference plant data, the CO2 reduction potential of the presented solution versus the effort and complexity of implementation is compared. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Oxygen Steelmaking Process)
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15 pages, 3777 KiB  
Article
Least Squares Twin Support Vector Machines to Classify End-Point Phosphorus Content in BOF Steelmaking
by Heng Li, Sandip Barui, Sankha Mukherjee and Kinnor Chattopadhyay
Metals 2022, 12(2), 268; https://doi.org/10.3390/met12020268 - 31 Jan 2022
Cited by 8 | Viewed by 2664
Abstract
End-point phosphorus content in steel in a basic oxygen furnace (BOF) acts as an indicator of the quality of manufactured steel. An undesirable amount of phosphorus is removed from the steel by the process of dephosphorization. The degree of phosphorus removal is captured [...] Read more.
End-point phosphorus content in steel in a basic oxygen furnace (BOF) acts as an indicator of the quality of manufactured steel. An undesirable amount of phosphorus is removed from the steel by the process of dephosphorization. The degree of phosphorus removal is captured numerically by the ‘partition ratio’, given by the ratio of %wt phosphorus in slag and %wt phosphorus in steel. Due to the presence of multitudes of process variables, often, it is challenging to predict the partition ratio based on operating conditions. Herein, a robust data-driven classification technique of least squares twin support vector machines (LSTSVM) is applied to classify the ‘partition ratio’ to two categories (‘High’ and ‘Low’) steels indicating a greater or lesser degree of phosphorus removal, respectively. LSTSVM is a simpler, more robust, and faster alternative to the twin support vector machines (TWSVM) with respect to non-parallel hyperplanes-based binary classifications. The relationship between the ‘partition ratio’ and the chemical composition of slag and tapping temperatures is studied based on approximately 16,000 heats from two BOF plants. In our case, a relatively higher model accuracy is achieved, and LSTSVM performed 1.5–167 times faster than other applied algorithms. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Oxygen Steelmaking Process)
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19 pages, 25234 KiB  
Article
Effect of Bottom Blowing Mode on Fluid Flow and Mixing Behavior in Converter
by Jiankun Sun, Jiangshan Zhang, Wenhui Lin, Xiaoming Feng and Qing Liu
Metals 2022, 12(1), 117; https://doi.org/10.3390/met12010117 - 7 Jan 2022
Cited by 16 | Viewed by 2418
Abstract
Bottom blowing agitation plays a crucial role in improving the reaction kinetics condition of molten bath during the steelmaking process. Herein, the influence of bottom blowing mode on the flow and mixing characteristics of molten bath and the abrasion characteristics of refractory lining [...] Read more.
Bottom blowing agitation plays a crucial role in improving the reaction kinetics condition of molten bath during the steelmaking process. Herein, the influence of bottom blowing mode on the flow and mixing characteristics of molten bath and the abrasion characteristics of refractory lining in a 6:1 scaled-down model of a 100 t converter were investigated using physical and numerical simulations together. Eight bottom blowing modes were designed (uniform, three-point linear co-direction, three-point linear unco-direction, two-point linear, circumferential linear, A-type, V-type, and triangle alternating). The results indicated that bottom blowing mode has a significant effect on the local flow field at the inner ring of bottom tuyeres, the velocity interval distribution, and the turbulent kinetic energy, which in turn determines the tracer diffusion path and rate as well the mixing time of molten bath. Reasonable non-uniform bottom blowing modes promote the interaction between the various stirring sub-zones of the molten bath. Among them, the three-point linear co-direction mode and A-type mode have the highest mixing efficiency under the conditions of bottom blowing and combined blowing, respectively, which is superior to the uniform mode. In addition, the bottom blowing mode changed the location and degree of abrasion of the refractory lining, and the total abrasion of the non-uniform mode was reduced. The average value and fluctuation degree of integral wall shear stress for the A-type mode were minimal. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Oxygen Steelmaking Process)
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14 pages, 2957 KiB  
Article
Effect of the Basicity on Mineralogical Phases and Micro-Structure of Dephosphorization Slag in the New Double Slag Converter Steelmaking Process
by Wenkui Yang, Jian Yang, Runhao Zhang, Han Sun and Yunlong Qiu
Metals 2021, 11(9), 1480; https://doi.org/10.3390/met11091480 - 17 Sep 2021
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 1874
Abstract
In the present work, the effect of the basicity at the lower range from 0.98 to 2.13 on dephosphorization of hot metal at 1623 K was studied through high-temperature laboratorial experiments. With the increase of the basicity from 0.98 to 2.13, the P [...] Read more.
In the present work, the effect of the basicity at the lower range from 0.98 to 2.13 on dephosphorization of hot metal at 1623 K was studied through high-temperature laboratorial experiments. With the increase of the basicity from 0.98 to 2.13, the P and C contents in hot metal rapidly decrease and increase at first, and then gradually decrease and increase, respectively. From the scanning electron microscopy-energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (SEM-EDS) and X-ray diffraction (XRD) results, with the increase of the basicity, the phase containing the high P content changes from the matrix phase into the phosphorus (P)-rich phase. Under the present experimental conditions, the P-rich phase can only be precipitated from the liquid slag when the basicity is higher than 1.55, which is a benefit to the dephosphorization. As the Raman intensity of the P-O-Ca structure unit in the P-rich phase is significantly higher than that of the P-O-Si structure unit, most of the phosphorus in the P-rich phase exists in the P-O-Ca structure unit and a small amount of phosphorus exists in the P-O-Si structure unit. With the increase of the basicity of the dephosphorization slag, the activity coefficient of P2O5, γ(P2O5) , in the liquid phase decreases, while the basicity in the liquid phase increases. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Oxygen Steelmaking Process)
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Review

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16 pages, 2274 KiB  
Review
Research Progress on Injection Technology in Converter Steelmaking Process
by Ming Lv, Shuangping Chen, Lingzhi Yang and Guangsheng Wei
Metals 2022, 12(11), 1918; https://doi.org/10.3390/met12111918 - 9 Nov 2022
Cited by 8 | Viewed by 2415
Abstract
During the converter steelmaking process, gas-slag-metal three-phase emulsification is realized by injecting gas to complete metallurgical tasks such as slagging, dephosphorization, decarburization, and heating. As green and intelligent development of the steel industry progresses, converter steelmaking injection technology is also constantly innovating. In [...] Read more.
During the converter steelmaking process, gas-slag-metal three-phase emulsification is realized by injecting gas to complete metallurgical tasks such as slagging, dephosphorization, decarburization, and heating. As green and intelligent development of the steel industry progresses, converter steelmaking injection technology is also constantly innovating. In this review, the types and applications of top blowing injection elements, bottom blowing injection elements, and injection the medium are reviewed. Three different types of combined blowing processes are compared. At the same time, the advantages and disadvantages of different bottom blowing elements and injection media are respectively discussed. Finally, based on the research and application status of converter injection technology, the development direction of converter steelmaking injection technology is discussed. Accelerating the innovation of converter steelmaking injection technology, especially the improvement and breakthrough of high efficiency, reductions the environmental burden, and long life technology, will play an important role in promoting the transformation and improvement of the steel industry. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Oxygen Steelmaking Process)
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24 pages, 6216 KiB  
Review
70 Years of LD-Steelmaking—Quo Vadis?
by Jürgen Cappel, Frank Ahrenhold, Martin W. Egger, Herbert Hiebler and Johannes Schenk
Metals 2022, 12(6), 912; https://doi.org/10.3390/met12060912 - 26 May 2022
Cited by 8 | Viewed by 6165
Abstract
Basic Oxygen Furnace (BOF) steelmaking is, worldwide, the most frequently applied process. According to the world steel organization statistical report, 2021, it saw a total production share of 73.2%, or 1371.2 million tons per year of the world steel production in 2020. The [...] Read more.
Basic Oxygen Furnace (BOF) steelmaking is, worldwide, the most frequently applied process. According to the world steel organization statistical report, 2021, it saw a total production share of 73.2%, or 1371.2 million tons per year of the world steel production in 2020. The rest is produced in Electric Arc Furnace (EAF)-based steel mills (26.3%), and only a very few open-hearth and induction furnace-based steel mills. The BOF technology remains the leading technology applied based on its undoubted advantages in productivity and liquid steel composition control. The BOF technology started as the LD process 70 years ago, with the first heat applied in November 1952 in a steel mill in Linz, Austria. The name LD was formed from the first letters of the two sites with the first industrial scale plants, Linz and Donawitz, both in Austria. The history and development of the process have been honored in multiple anniversary publications over the last few decades. Nevertheless, the focus of the steel industry worldwide is significantly changing following a social and political trend and the requirement for fossil-free energy generation and industrial production to be in accordance with the world climate targets committed to in relation to the decades leading up to 2050. Iron and steel production is one of the major polluters of climate changing greenhouse gases; it must change to renewable primary energy sources and the use of climate-neutral reduction agents. Because it is very obvious that carbon, as the main component for steel strength properties, cannot be eliminated totally from the steel production process, the question arises of where a “zero carbon” approach can lead? This paper will review the ongoing success story of the LD-process, discuss the recent technology advancements, and give an outlook on the future role of the process in the steel industry. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Oxygen Steelmaking Process)
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