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Carbonaceous Materials: Fabrication, Characterization and Applications
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Carbonaceous Materials: Fabrication, Characterization and Applications

A special issue of Materials (ISSN 1996-1944). This special issue belongs to the section "Carbon Materials".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: 20 June 2025 | Viewed by 9283

Special Issue Editors

Dr. Iwona Zawierucha

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Guest Editor
Institute of Chemistry, Faculty of Science and Technology, Jan Dlugosz University in Czestochowa, 42-200 Czestochowa, Poland
Interests: polymer inclusion membranes; water and wastewater treatment; membrane technologies; separation processes; removal of metal ions
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals
Prof. Dr. Grzegorz Malina

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Guest Editor
Department of Hydrogeology and Engineering Geology, AGH University of Krakow, 30-059 Krakow, Poland
Interests: green/sustainable (bio)remediation; contaminants fate in soil-water systems; permeable reactive barriers; bioavailability; integrated water management; environmental risk assessment, solid waste management; treatment of aqueous waste streams; brownfields re-development
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Because of their adaptability and range of uses, carbonaceous materials have revolutionized the field of materials science. Our Special Issue focuses on the latest advancements in the synthesis and characterization of carbonaceous materials, which are unique in their morphology and properties for application various purposes. Carbonaceous materials such as biochar, carbon nanotubes, graphene, fullerene, activated carbon, and cyclodextrin polymers demonstrate superior performance in multiple applications.

We invite researchers to contribute their original research articles, communications, and reviews to this Special Issue. Topics of interest include, but are not limited to, the following:

  • Novel methods and techniques for the synthesis and fabrication of carbonaceous materials;
  • Modification of the carbonaceous materials; composites, and hybrids with tailored properties;
  • Presenting advanced techniques and tools for characterizing the structure and properties of carbonaceous materials, providing insights into their behavior in different environments;
  • Carbonaceous materials for the membrane separation process;
  • Carbonaceous materials for the removal of pollutants from water and wastewater;
  • Applications of carbonaceous materials in fields such as agriculture, energy storage, CO2 capture, and more.

We hope this Special Issue will inspire further research on the fabrication of novel carbonaceous materials. We also aim to propose efficient and sustainable methods for modifying materials to enhance their performance.

Dr. Iwona Zawierucha
Prof. Dr. Grzegorz Malina
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Materials is an international peer-reviewed open access semimonthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2600 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • biochar
  • carbon nanotubes
  • graphene
  • fullerene
  • activated carbon
  • cyclodextrin polymers
  • composites and hybrids, water and wastewater treatment, various applications of carbonaceous materials

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Published Papers (10 papers)

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Research

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14 pages, 7056 KiB  
Article
Evaluation of the Porosity and Morphology of Microstructured Charcoal
by Andrzej Biessikirski, Michał Dworzak, Grzegorz Piotr Kaczmarczyk, Grzegorz Machowski, Magdalena Ziąbka, Agata Kaczmarczyk, Joanna Jakóbczyk and Suzana Gotovac-Atlagić
Materials 2025, 18(8), 1730; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma18081730 - 10 Apr 2025
Viewed by 350
Abstract
This study presents a comprehensive assessment of the morphology and porosity of microstructured charcoal using a combination of scanning electron microscopy (SEM), computed tomography (CT), and mercury intrusion porosimetry (MIP) methods. SEM analysis revealed a parallel arrangement of tube-like structures interspersed with smaller [...] Read more.
This study presents a comprehensive assessment of the morphology and porosity of microstructured charcoal using a combination of scanning electron microscopy (SEM), computed tomography (CT), and mercury intrusion porosimetry (MIP) methods. SEM analysis revealed a parallel arrangement of tube-like structures interspersed with smaller pores, confirming the presence of fibrous formations. MIP evaluation was conducted in two research series. MIP results identified macropores as the primary contributors to mercury intrusion; however, a minor volume of mercury also intrudes to the mesopores. The total pore area was determined to range between 70.7 and 88.5 m2·g−1, with porosity values of approximately 58.0–62.4% across different experimental series. These variations highlight the heterogeneous nature of the sample. Additionally, the uniformity of the charring process during dry wood distillation was indicated by wall thickness measurements, which ranged narrowly from 5.7 to 25 µm. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Carbonaceous Materials: Fabrication, Characterization and Applications)
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23 pages, 5210 KiB  
Article
Pyrolysis and Combustion Kinetics of Garden Waste Pellets as Solid Biofuel for Thermochemical Energy Recovery
by Jonatan Gutiérrez and Juan F. Pérez
Materials 2025, 18(7), 1634; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma18071634 - 3 Apr 2025
Viewed by 284
Abstract
The fallen leaf has the potential to be energy-valorized in cities with sustainability goals. Thermochemical characterization of garden waste through pyrolysis and combustion kinetics will establish the reactivity of this lignocellulosic biomass as biofuel for thermochemical conversion processes for energy recovery. Herein, the [...] Read more.
The fallen leaf has the potential to be energy-valorized in cities with sustainability goals. Thermochemical characterization of garden waste through pyrolysis and combustion kinetics will establish the reactivity of this lignocellulosic biomass as biofuel for thermochemical conversion processes for energy recovery. Herein, the thermal degradation of two types of pellets produced from fallen leaf (pellets without glycerol PG0, and pellets with 5 wt% glycerol PG5) are characterized under inert and oxidative atmospheres using three different approaches: thermogravimetry (TG) and differential thermogravimetry (DTG) analyses, TG-based reactivity, and reaction kinetics from three model-free isoconversional methods. The model-free isoconversional methods are Flynn–Wall–Ozawa (FWO), Kissinger–Akahira–Sunose (KAS), and Friedman, which were applied for estimating the kinetic parameters, activation energy (Eα) and pre-exponential factor, using different heating rates (20, 30, and 40 °C/min) to ensure reliable data interpretation. The pyrolysis results showed that PG5 was more reactive compared to PG0 because the addition of glycerol during the pelletizing process increased the volatile matter and oxygen content in PG5. Likewise, the higher reactivity of PG5 under pyrolysis was determined by average activation energy (Eα) with an average value of 96.82 kJ/mol compared to 106.46 kJ/mol for PG0. During the combustion process, Eα was 90.70 kJ/mol and 90.29 kJ/mol for PG0 and PG5, respectively. Finally, both materials exhibited higher reactivity under an oxidative atmosphere. Therefore, according to our results, the pellets produced from leaf litter can be used as biofuels for thermochemical processes, highlighting that using glycerol as a binder favors the reactivity of the densified garden waste. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Carbonaceous Materials: Fabrication, Characterization and Applications)
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20 pages, 3420 KiB  
Article
The Effects of Chemically Modified Biochar on Biomethane Production from Glucose and Sugar Beet Pulp
by Julia K. Nowak, Joanna Rosik, Kacper Szadziński, Marvin T. Valentin, Katarzyna E. Kosiorowska, Andrzej Białowiec, Sylwia Stegenta-Dąbrowska and Kacper Świechowski
Materials 2025, 18(7), 1608; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma18071608 - 2 Apr 2025
Viewed by 379
Abstract
The research aimed to study the effects of straw-derived biochar and two types of chemically modified biochar on biomethane production from glucose as a model substrate and sugar beet pulp as a real substrate. The biochar chemical modification with H3PO4 [...] Read more.
The research aimed to study the effects of straw-derived biochar and two types of chemically modified biochar on biomethane production from glucose as a model substrate and sugar beet pulp as a real substrate. The biochar chemical modification with H3PO4 acid and KOH base resulted in a change in biochar surface area properties and its functional group’s abundance and a decrease in biochar mass yield production. The anaerobic digestion process was performed in batch reactors kept at 37 °C for 20 days. The substrate-to-inoculum ratio by volatile solids was 0.5, while the mass of added biochar corresponded to 16 g·L−1. The results showed that neither the addition of biochar nor the chemically modified biochar had any positive effects on biomethane production or its kinetics in the case of both substrates. The highest methane production was found in reactors without biochar added, respectively, 385 and 324 mL·gVS−1 for glucose and sugar beet pulp. It is hypothesized that the anaerobic digestion process was performed under optimal conditions, and therefore, biochar could not enhance methane production. Additionally, biochar may have adsorbed some volatile fatty acids, making them less available to anaerobic microorganisms. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Carbonaceous Materials: Fabrication, Characterization and Applications)
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19 pages, 2869 KiB  
Article
Low-Cost Chestnut-Based Biocarbons Physically Activated via CO2 or Steam: Evaluation of the Structural and Adsorption Properties
by Barbara Charmas, Barbara Wawrzaszek, Katarzyna Jedynak and Agata Jawtoszuk
Materials 2025, 18(7), 1497; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma18071497 - 27 Mar 2025
Viewed by 369
Abstract
The aim of this paper was to obtain activated biocarbons from the natural biomass of horse chestnut seeds (Aesculus hippocastanum) by physical activation with two different activating agents, carbon dioxide and water vapor, and to evaluate their structural and adsorption properties. [...] Read more.
The aim of this paper was to obtain activated biocarbons from the natural biomass of horse chestnut seeds (Aesculus hippocastanum) by physical activation with two different activating agents, carbon dioxide and water vapor, and to evaluate their structural and adsorption properties. The effect of the pyrolysis atmosphere on the surface development and porosity as well as the structure and adsorption properties of the materials in relation to the selected organic adsorbates (tetracycline (TC), naproxen (NPX), and methyl orange (MO)), which may constitute a potential contamination of the aquatic environment, was evaluated. Activated biocarbons were characterized using N2 low-temperature adsorption/desorption, Raman and FT-IR spectroscopy, and thermogravimetric analysis (TGA). The nature of the surface (pHpzc and Boehm titration) was also studied. Micro/mesoporous biocarbons were obtained with an SBET area in the range of ~534 to 646 m2/g, in which micropores constituted ~70%. It was proved that the obtained materials are characterized by high adsorption values (~120 mg/g, ~150 mg/g, and ~252 mg/g) and removal rates %R (~80%, ~95%, and ~75%) for TC, NPX, and MO, respectively. The results indicate that chestnut-derived activated biocarbons are a promising, cost-effective and environmentally friendly alternative for removing organic contaminants from aqueous solutions. Future research should focus on optimizing activation parameters and assessing the long-term performance of adsorbents. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Carbonaceous Materials: Fabrication, Characterization and Applications)
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19 pages, 8800 KiB  
Article
Magnetic Biochar Prepared with Rosa roxburghii Residue as Adsorbents for Congo Red Removal
by Xiaojuan Zhang, Xueqin Yang, Feiran Xie, Xianglan Chen, Yutao Zhang and Qiuyun Zhang
Materials 2025, 18(6), 1306; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma18061306 - 16 Mar 2025
Viewed by 430
Abstract
In this work, magnetic biochars (MBCs) were produced with the chemical coprecipitation method. The resulting materials were dried at 50 °C for 12 h and characterized via SEM-EDS, XRD, FT-IR, BET, TGA, and VSM techniques to evaluate their efficacy in removing Congo red [...] Read more.
In this work, magnetic biochars (MBCs) were produced with the chemical coprecipitation method. The resulting materials were dried at 50 °C for 12 h and characterized via SEM-EDS, XRD, FT-IR, BET, TGA, and VSM techniques to evaluate their efficacy in removing Congo red (CR). The effects of solution pH, CR concentration, MBC1:1 mass, and a variety of ions on the adsorption performance were systematically examined. According to the experimental results, for 200 mL of 50 mg/L CR, the highest adsorption capacity of 20 mg MBC1:1 was 172.88 mg/g in a 2 h period at pH 7. Additionally, the pseudo-second-order (PSO) model-based kinetic analysis exhibited that the process of adsorption adhered to this model. Furthermore, the interaction between MBC1:1 and CR was best described by Langmuir multilayer adsorption, according to isotherm analysis. All of these theoretical and practical findings point to the great potential of MBC1:1 as adsorbents for the applications of wastewater treatment. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Carbonaceous Materials: Fabrication, Characterization and Applications)
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9 pages, 1485 KiB  
Article
Hybrids of Deep HOMO Organic Cyanoacrylic Acid Dyes and Graphene Nanomaterials for Water Splitting Photoanodes
by Alejandro Ansón-Casaos, Ana M. Benito, Wolfgang K. Maser, Jesús Orduna, Belén Villacampa and María-Jesús Blesa
Materials 2025, 18(2), 463; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma18020463 - 20 Jan 2025
Viewed by 1034
Abstract
Dye-sensitization is a promising strategy to improve the light absorption and photoactivity abilities of wide-bandgap semiconductors, like TiO2. For effective water-splitting photoanodes with no sacrificial agents, the electrochemical potential of the dye must exceed the thermodynamic threshold needed for the oxygen [...] Read more.
Dye-sensitization is a promising strategy to improve the light absorption and photoactivity abilities of wide-bandgap semiconductors, like TiO2. For effective water-splitting photoanodes with no sacrificial agents, the electrochemical potential of the dye must exceed the thermodynamic threshold needed for the oxygen evolution reaction. This study investigates two promising organic cyanoacrylic dyes, designed to meet that criterion by means of theoretical calculations. Both yellow-colored dyes were synthesized and characterized by optical and photoelectrochemical techniques, demonstrating strong light absorption in the visible region, suitable experimental reduction potentials, and adsorption from the organic solvent onto mesoporous TiO2 layers. In addition, to promote immobilization in aqueous electrolytes, the dyes were hybridized with graphene oxide or multi-walled carbon nanotubes. Photoelectrochemical analysis of the dye-sensitized photoelectrodes demonstrated efficient charge transfer from the dyes to the TiO2 photoanode under simulated solar light. While the starting photocurrent notably surpassed the blank TiO2, a subsequent decay points to kinetic obstacles that still need to be overcome. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Carbonaceous Materials: Fabrication, Characterization and Applications)
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12 pages, 3908 KiB  
Article
Poly-Amino-β-Cyclodextrin Microparticles for the Reduction of Xenobiotics and Emerging Contaminants, Including Pharmaceuticals, from the Natural Environment
by Wojciech Ciesielski, Damian Kulawik, Beata Girek, Kinga Kozieł-Trąbska, Iwona Zawierucha and Tomasz Girek
Materials 2024, 17(22), 5424; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma17225424 - 6 Nov 2024
Viewed by 935
Abstract
The contamination of the natural environment by xenobiotics and emerging contaminants, including pharmaceuticals, poses significant risks to ecosystems and human health. Among these contaminants, hormones and pharmaceutical compounds are particularly concerning due to their persistence and potential biological effects even at low concentrations. [...] Read more.
The contamination of the natural environment by xenobiotics and emerging contaminants, including pharmaceuticals, poses significant risks to ecosystems and human health. Among these contaminants, hormones and pharmaceutical compounds are particularly concerning due to their persistence and potential biological effects even at low concentrations. In this study, we investigated the efficacy of poly-amino-β-cyclodextrin (PA-β-CD) microparticles in adsorbing and reducing specific xenobiotics and pharmaceuticals from aqueous solutions. Our research focused on four contaminants: two hormones, testosterone and progesterone, and two pharmaceutical drugs, diclofenac and carbamazepine. High-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) was employed to quantify the adsorption capacity and efficiency of PA-β-CD microparticles. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Carbonaceous Materials: Fabrication, Characterization and Applications)
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18 pages, 6764 KiB  
Article
Evolution of Holes and Cracks in Pre-Carbonized Glassy Carbon
by Yi Yang, Wei Wang and Haihui Ruan
Materials 2024, 17(21), 5274; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma17215274 - 30 Oct 2024
Viewed by 853
Abstract
Being a type of carbonaceous material, glassy carbon possesses thermomechanical properties akin to ceramics, offering both mechanical and chemical stability at high temperatures; therefore, it can be applied in electrochemistry and high-temperature manufacturing. However, the direct pyrolysis of a bulk precursor leads to [...] Read more.
Being a type of carbonaceous material, glassy carbon possesses thermomechanical properties akin to ceramics, offering both mechanical and chemical stability at high temperatures; therefore, it can be applied in electrochemistry and high-temperature manufacturing. However, the direct pyrolysis of a bulk precursor leads to internal pores and cracks, usually resulting in fracture. Our characterization results show that at temperatures below 400 °C, large pores do not form, and pre-carbonized glassy carbon (PGC) formed at 350 °C has a dense microstructure without cracks. It exhibits a high compressive strength of ~370 MPa and flexural strength of ~190 MPa, making it suitable for load-bearing applications. Additionally, the PGC-350 material shows small mass loss (~5%) and reasonably low thermal expansion (2.5 × 10−6/°C) when heated to 350 °C again. These properties suggest the potential of PGC for high-temperature applications. As a demonstration, PGC formed at 350 °C was employed to fabricate molds to press chalcogenide glass blanks, which exhibited favorable molding results for various surface morphologies. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Carbonaceous Materials: Fabrication, Characterization and Applications)
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Review

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19 pages, 2580 KiB  
Review
Biochar—A Filler in “Bioplastics” for Horticultural Applications
by Krystyna Malińska, Danuta Dróżdż, Przemysław Postawa and Tomasz Stachowiak
Materials 2024, 17(24), 6208; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma17246208 - 19 Dec 2024
Viewed by 1047
Abstract
Biochar is attracting a lot of attention as it is considered a novel, renewable, and bio-based filler that can be used specifically for developing and manufacturing “bioplastics” for growing plants such as mulch films and plant accessories. The manufacturing of “bioplastics” uses biopolymers [...] Read more.
Biochar is attracting a lot of attention as it is considered a novel, renewable, and bio-based filler that can be used specifically for developing and manufacturing “bioplastics” for growing plants such as mulch films and plant accessories. The manufacturing of “bioplastics” uses biopolymers but also various additives such as fillers, which are primarily used to replace some of the expensive biopolymers in a biocomposite composition and/or to improve the mechanical properties of the final products. This review aims to demonstrate the applications of biochar as a filler in bioplastics, specifically for horticultural uses; summarize the most recent findings; and discuss future research directions. With this review, we address some of the most important issues related to the requirements for biochar as a filler for bio-based and biodegradable plastics, the effect of biochar properties and loading rates on the properties of biocomposites, and the suitability of biochar for manufacturing of “bioplastics” for horticultural use. We also discuss the advantages as well as challenges and limitations to the use of biochar for manufacturing bio-based and biodegradable plastics for horticultural uses. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Carbonaceous Materials: Fabrication, Characterization and Applications)
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18 pages, 1739 KiB  
Review
Carbon-Based Adsorbents for Microplastic Removal from Wastewater
by Nii Ashitey Anuwa-Amarh, Melike Dizbay-Onat, Kaushik Venkiteshwaran and Shenghua Wu
Materials 2024, 17(22), 5428; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma17225428 - 6 Nov 2024
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2700
Abstract
Plastics are widely used across various industries due to their flexibility, cost-effectiveness, and durability. This extensive use has resulted in significant plastic pollution, with microplastics (MPs) becoming pervasive contaminants in water bodies worldwide, adversely affecting aquatic ecosystems and human health. This review explores [...] Read more.
Plastics are widely used across various industries due to their flexibility, cost-effectiveness, and durability. This extensive use has resulted in significant plastic pollution, with microplastics (MPs) becoming pervasive contaminants in water bodies worldwide, adversely affecting aquatic ecosystems and human health. This review explores the surface characteristics of carbon-based adsorbents, including biochar, activated carbon, carbon nanotubes (CNTs), and graphene, and their influence on MP removal efficiency. Key surface characteristics such as the carbon content, surface area, pore size, and particle size of adsorbents influenced adsorption efficiency. Additionally, hydrophobic interaction, van der Waals forces, π–π interactions and electrostatic interaction were found to be mechanisms by which microplastics are trapped onto adsorbents. Modified biochar and activated carbon demonstrated high adsorption efficiencies, while CNTs and graphene, with their high carbon contents and well-defined mesopores, showed outstanding performance in MP removal. Although a high surface area was generally associated with better adsorption performance, modifications significantly enhanced efficiency regardless of the initial surface area. This review emphasizes the importance of understanding the relationship between surface characteristics and adsorption efficiency to develop optimized adsorbents for MP removal from wastewater. However, challenges such as the lack of standardized testing methods, variability in biochar performance, and the high cost of regenerating carbon adsorbents remain. Future research should focus on developing cost-effective production methods, optimizing biochar production, and exploring advanced modifications to broaden the application of carbon adsorbents. Integrating advanced adsorbents into existing water treatment systems could further enhance MP removal efficiency. Addressing these challenges can improve the effectiveness and scalability of carbon-based adsorbents, significantly contributing to the mitigation of microplastic pollution in wastewater. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Carbonaceous Materials: Fabrication, Characterization and Applications)
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