Applications of Wireless Sensor Networks and Internet of Things

A special issue of Future Internet (ISSN 1999-5903). This special issue belongs to the section "Internet of Things".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (30 November 2023) | Viewed by 12707

Special Issue Editors

Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, University of West Attica, 12244 Athens, Greece
Interests: embedded systems; wireless sensor networks with IoT applications in smart grids; smart cities; internet of energy; LPWAN technologies; cyber–physical systems
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals
Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, University of West Attica, 12244 Athens, Greece
Interests: wireless sensors networks; embedded systems; wearables; sensors; renewable resources systems; automotive; and autonomous vehicles design; Internet of Things; data acquisition; cyber–physical systems; autonomous vehicles; hardware design; smart agriculture; energy management
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

The rise of the Internet of Things (IoT) has been rapid, and it is estimated that by 2030 over 125 billion devices will be included within the IoT sphere. Internet of Things (IoT) applications are becoming increasingly popular and are discussed in the context of a variety of residential, industrial, and commercial sectors. The application areas/verticals vary from sensor networks for smart city infrastructure, smart home or building management, precision agriculture and forest protection and monitoring, private and industrial transportation, and the Internet of energy, among others. In this context, low power wide area networks (LPWAN) technologies have evolved in the last decade with numerous solutions, while 5G mobile communications enables a massive IoT area and promises a very high density for a wide variety of application scenarios. However, the requirements for massive IoT applications with cellular IoT technologies in licensed spectrum bands, such as LTE IoT extensions NB -IoT and eMTC, have shown that the maximum scalability is limited. As an alternative to licensed technologies, LPWANs operating in unlicensed spectrum bands enable simple, low-cost network operation independent of commercial network operators. With this approach the various IoT service providers are responsible for planning and operating the network with an unknown number of LPWAN network operators and subscribers in the unlicensed spectrum bands resulting in questions about the performance of these deployments.

This Special Issue intends to bring together the contributions from researchers of various scientific areas aiming to define the importance of the various critical components of designing and deploying IoT applications based on Wireless Sensor Networking technologies. Original research papers, reviews, successful cases studies and applications, as well as opinion papers with high quality and novelty on “Applications of Wireless Sensor Networks and Internet of Things”, are more than welcome.

Prof. Dr. Panagiotis Papageorgas
Dr. Dimitrios Piromalis
Prof. Dr. Dionisis Kandris
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Future Internet is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 1600 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • IoT
  • wireless sensor networks
  • LPWAN
  • NBIoT
  • sigfox
  • LoRaWAN
  • wireless node
  • smart cities
  • smart home
  • precision agriculture
  • WSNs in industry
  • WSNs in healthcare
  • environmental monitoring

Published Papers (10 papers)

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Research

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27 pages, 1086 KiB  
Article
Implementing Internet of Things Service Platforms with Network Function Virtualization Serverless Technologies
by Mauro Femminella and Gianluca Reali
Future Internet 2024, 16(3), 91; https://doi.org/10.3390/fi16030091 - 08 Mar 2024
Viewed by 789
Abstract
The need for adaptivity and scalability in telecommunication systems has led to the introduction of a software-based approach to networking, in which network functions are virtualized and implemented in software modules, based on network function virtualization (NFV) technologies. The growing demand for low [...] Read more.
The need for adaptivity and scalability in telecommunication systems has led to the introduction of a software-based approach to networking, in which network functions are virtualized and implemented in software modules, based on network function virtualization (NFV) technologies. The growing demand for low latency, efficiency, flexibility and security has placed some limitations on the adoption of these technologies, due to some problems of traditional virtualization solutions. However, the introduction of lightweight virtualization approaches is paving the way for new and better infrastructures for implementing network functions. This article discusses these new virtualization solutions and shows a proposal, based on serverless computing, that uses them to implement container-based virtualized network functions for the delivery of advanced Internet of Things (IoT) services. It includes open source software components to implement both the virtualization layer, implemented through Firecracker, and the runtime environment, based on Kata containers. A set of experiments shows that the proposed approach is fast, in order to boost new network functions, and more efficient than some baseline solutions, with minimal resource footprint. Therefore, it is an excellent candidate to implement NFV functions in the edge deployment of serverless services for the IoT. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Applications of Wireless Sensor Networks and Internet of Things)
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17 pages, 7744 KiB  
Article
Evaluating MPTCP Congestion Control Algorithms: Implications for Streaming in Open Internet
by Łukasz Piotr Łuczak, Przemysław Ignaciuk and Michał Morawski
Future Internet 2023, 15(10), 328; https://doi.org/10.3390/fi15100328 - 04 Oct 2023
Viewed by 1188
Abstract
In today’s digital era, the demand for uninterrupted and efficient data streaming is paramount across various sectors, from entertainment to industrial automation. While the traditional single-path solutions often fell short in ensuring rapid and consistent data transfers, Multipath TCP (MPTCP) emerges as a [...] Read more.
In today’s digital era, the demand for uninterrupted and efficient data streaming is paramount across various sectors, from entertainment to industrial automation. While the traditional single-path solutions often fell short in ensuring rapid and consistent data transfers, Multipath TCP (MPTCP) emerges as a promising alternative, enabling simultaneous data transfer across multiple network paths. The efficacy of MPTCP, however, hinges on the choice of appropriate congestion control (CC) algorithms. Addressing the present knowledge gap, this research provides a thorough evaluation of key MPTCP CC algorithms in the context of streaming applications in open Internet environments. Our findings reveal that BALIA stands out as the most suitable choice for MPTCP streaming, adeptly balancing waiting time, throughput, and Head-of-Line blocking reduction. Conversely, the wVegas algorithm, with its delay-centric approach, proves less adequate for multipath streaming. This study underscores the imperative to fine-tune MPTCP for streaming applications, at the same time offering insights for future development areas and innovations. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Applications of Wireless Sensor Networks and Internet of Things)
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27 pages, 2600 KiB  
Article
FL-LoRaMAC: A Novel Framework for Enabling On-Device Learning for LoRa-Based IoT Applications
by Shobhit Aggarwal and Asis Nasipuri
Future Internet 2023, 15(9), 307; https://doi.org/10.3390/fi15090307 - 10 Sep 2023
Viewed by 1544
Abstract
The Internet of Things (IoT) enables us to gain access to a wide range of data from the physical world that can be analyzed for deriving critical state information. In this regard, machine learning (ML) is a valuable tool that can be used [...] Read more.
The Internet of Things (IoT) enables us to gain access to a wide range of data from the physical world that can be analyzed for deriving critical state information. In this regard, machine learning (ML) is a valuable tool that can be used to develop models based on observed physical data, leading to efficient analytical decisions, including anomaly detection. In this work, we address some key challenges for applying ML in IoT applications that include maintaining privacy considerations of user data that are needed for developing ML models and minimizing the communication cost for transmitting the data over the IoT network. We consider a representative application of the anomaly detection of ECG signals that are obtained from a set of low-cost wearable sensors and transmitted to a central server using LoRaWAN, which is a popular and emerging low-power wide-area network (LPWAN) technology. We present a novel framework utilizing federated learning (FL) to preserve data privacy and appropriate features for uplink and downlink communications between the end devices and the gateway to optimize the communication cost. Performance results obtained from computer simulations demonstrate that the proposed framework leads to a 98% reduction in the volume of data that is required to achieve the same level of performance as in traditional centralized ML. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Applications of Wireless Sensor Networks and Internet of Things)
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31 pages, 4468 KiB  
Article
Non-Invasive Monitoring of Vital Signs for the Elderly Using Low-Cost Wireless Sensor Networks: Exploring the Impact on Sleep and Home Security
by Carolina Del-Valle-Soto, Ramon A. Briseño, Leonardo J. Valdivia, Ramiro Velázquez and Juan Arturo Nolazco-Flores
Future Internet 2023, 15(9), 287; https://doi.org/10.3390/fi15090287 - 24 Aug 2023
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1371
Abstract
Wireless sensor networks (WSN) are useful in medicine for monitoring the vital signs of elderly patients. These sensors allow for remote monitoring of a patient’s state of health, making it easier for elderly patients, and allowing to avoid or at least to extend [...] Read more.
Wireless sensor networks (WSN) are useful in medicine for monitoring the vital signs of elderly patients. These sensors allow for remote monitoring of a patient’s state of health, making it easier for elderly patients, and allowing to avoid or at least to extend the interval between visits to specialized health centers. The proposed system is a low-cost WSN deployed at the elderly patient’s home, monitoring the main areas of the house and sending daily recommendations to the patient. This study measures the impact of the proposed sensor network on nine vital sign metrics based on a person’s sleep patterns. These metrics were taken from 30 adults over a period of four weeks, the first two weeks without the sensor system while the remaining two weeks with continuous monitoring of the patients, providing security for their homes and a perception of well-being. This work aims to identify relationships between parameters impacted by the sensor system and predictive trends about the level of improvement in vital sign metrics. Moreover, this work focuses on adapting a reactive algorithm for energy and performance optimization for the sensor monitoring system. Results show that sleep metrics improved statistically based on the recommendations for use of the sensor network; the elderly adults slept more and more continuously, and the higher their heart rate, respiratory rate, and temperature, the greater the likelihood of the impact of the network on the sleep metrics. The proposed energy-saving algorithm for the WSN succeeded in reducing energy consumption and improving resilience of the network. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Applications of Wireless Sensor Networks and Internet of Things)
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16 pages, 995 KiB  
Article
An Efficient Adaptive Data-Link-Layer Architecture for LoRa Networks
by Micael Coutinho, Jose A. Afonso and Sérgio F. Lopes
Future Internet 2023, 15(8), 273; https://doi.org/10.3390/fi15080273 - 17 Aug 2023
Viewed by 1004
Abstract
LoRa is one of the most popular low-power wireless network technologies for implementation of the Internet of Things, with the advantage of providing long-range communication, but lower data rates, when compared with technologies such as Zigbee or Bluetooth. LoRa is a single-channel physical [...] Read more.
LoRa is one of the most popular low-power wireless network technologies for implementation of the Internet of Things, with the advantage of providing long-range communication, but lower data rates, when compared with technologies such as Zigbee or Bluetooth. LoRa is a single-channel physical layer technology on top of which LoRaWAN implements a more complex multi-channel network with enhanced functionalities, such as adaptive data rate. However, LoRaWAN relies on expensive hardware to support these functionalities. This paper proposes a LoRa data-link-layer architecture based on a multi-layer star network topology that adapts relevant LoRa parameters for each end node dynamically taking into account its link distance and quality in order to balance communication range and energy consumption. The developed solution is comprised of multiple components, including a LoRa parameter calculator to help the user to configure the network parameters, a contention-free MAC protocol to avoid collisions, and an adaptive spreading factor and transmission power mechanism. These components work together to ensure a more efficient use of the chosen ISM band and end node resources, but with low-cost implementation and operation requirements. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Applications of Wireless Sensor Networks and Internet of Things)
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14 pages, 2825 KiB  
Article
Correlation Analysis Model of Environment Parameters Using IoT Framework in a Biogas Energy Generation Context
by Angelique Mukasine, Louis Sibomana, Kayalvizhi Jayavel, Kizito Nkurikiyeyezu and Eric Hitimana
Future Internet 2023, 15(8), 265; https://doi.org/10.3390/fi15080265 - 09 Aug 2023
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 935
Abstract
Recently, the significance and demand for biogas energy has dramatically increased. However, biogas operators lack automated and intelligent mechanisms to produce optimization. The Internet of Things (IoT) and Machine Learning (ML) have become key enablers for the real-time monitoring of biogas production environments. [...] Read more.
Recently, the significance and demand for biogas energy has dramatically increased. However, biogas operators lack automated and intelligent mechanisms to produce optimization. The Internet of Things (IoT) and Machine Learning (ML) have become key enablers for the real-time monitoring of biogas production environments. This paper aimed to implement an IoT framework to gather environmental parameters for biogas generation. In addition, data analysis was performed to assess the effect of environmental parameters on biogas production. The edge-based computing architecture was designed comprising sensors, microcontrollers, actuators, and data acquired for the cloud Mongo database via MQTT protocol. Data were captured at a home digester on a time-series basis for 30 days. Further, Pearson distribution and multiple linear regression models were explored to evaluate environmental parameter effects on biogas production. The constructed regression model was evaluated using R2 metrics, and this was found to be 73.4% of the variability. From a correlation perspective, the experimental result shows a strong correlation of biogas production with an indoor temperature of 0.78 and a pH of 0.6. On the other hand, outdoor temperature presented a moderated correlation of 0.4. This implies that the model had a relatively good fit and could effectively predict the biogas production process. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Applications of Wireless Sensor Networks and Internet of Things)
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13 pages, 1554 KiB  
Article
Virtual Grid-Based Routing for Query-Driven Wireless Sensor Networks
by Shushant Kumar Jain, Rinkoo Bhatia, Neeraj Shrivastava, Sharad Salunke, Mohammad Farukh Hashmi and Neeraj Dhanraj Bokde
Future Internet 2023, 15(8), 259; https://doi.org/10.3390/fi15080259 - 30 Jul 2023
Viewed by 977
Abstract
In the context of query-driven wireless sensor networks (WSNs), a unique scenario arises where sensor nodes are solicited by a base station, also known as a sink, based on specific areas of interest (AoIs). Upon receiving a query, designated sensor nodes are tasked [...] Read more.
In the context of query-driven wireless sensor networks (WSNs), a unique scenario arises where sensor nodes are solicited by a base station, also known as a sink, based on specific areas of interest (AoIs). Upon receiving a query, designated sensor nodes are tasked with transmitting their data to the sink. However, the routing of these queries from the sink to the sensor nodes becomes intricate when the sink is mobile. The sink’s movement after issuing a query can potentially disrupt the performance of data delivery. To address these challenges, we have proposed an innovative approach called Query-driven Virtual Grid-based Routing Protocol (VGRQ), aiming to enhance energy efficiency and reduce data delivery delays. In VGRQ, we construct a grid consisting of square-shaped virtual cells, with the number of cells matching the count of sensor nodes. Each cell designates a specific node as the cell header (CH), and these CHs establish connections with each other to form a chain-like structure. This chain serves two primary purposes: sharing the mobile sink’s location information and facilitating the transmission of queries to the AoI as well as data to the sink. By employing the VGRQ approach, we seek to optimize the performance of query-driven WSNs. It enhances energy utilization and reduces data delivery delays. Additionally, VGRQ results in ≈10% and ≈27% improvement in energy consumption when compared with QRRP and QDVGDD, respectively. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Applications of Wireless Sensor Networks and Internet of Things)
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17 pages, 1573 KiB  
Article
Efficient Mobile Sink Routing in Wireless Sensor Networks Using Bipartite Graphs
by Anas Abu Taleb, Qasem Abu Al-Haija and Ammar Odeh
Future Internet 2023, 15(5), 182; https://doi.org/10.3390/fi15050182 - 14 May 2023
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1249
Abstract
Wireless sensor networks (W.S.N.s) are a critical research area with numerous practical applications. W.S.N.s are utilized in real-life scenarios, including environmental monitoring, healthcare, industrial automation, smart homes, and agriculture. As W.S.N.s advance and become more sophisticated, they offer limitless opportunities for innovative solutions [...] Read more.
Wireless sensor networks (W.S.N.s) are a critical research area with numerous practical applications. W.S.N.s are utilized in real-life scenarios, including environmental monitoring, healthcare, industrial automation, smart homes, and agriculture. As W.S.N.s advance and become more sophisticated, they offer limitless opportunities for innovative solutions in various fields. However, due to their unattended nature, it is essential to develop strategies to improve their performance without draining the battery power of the sensor nodes, which is their most valuable resource. This paper proposes a novel sink mobility model based on constructing a bipartite graph from a deployed wireless sensor network. The proposed model uses bipartite graph properties to derive a controlled mobility model for the mobile sink. As a result, stationary nodes will be visited and planned to reduce routing overhead and enhance the network’s performance. Using the bipartite graph’s properties, the mobile sink node can visit stationary sensor nodes in an optimal way to collect data and transmit it to the base station. We evaluated the proposed approach through simulations using the NS-2 simulator to investigate the performance of wireless sensor networks when adopting this mobility model. Our results show that using the proposed approach can significantly enhance the performance of wireless sensor networks while conserving the energy of the sensor nodes. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Applications of Wireless Sensor Networks and Internet of Things)
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35 pages, 12618 KiB  
Article
Optimizing the Quality of Service of Mobile Broadband Networks for a Dense Urban Environment
by Agbotiname Lucky Imoize, Friday Udeji, Joseph Isabona and Cheng-Chi Lee
Future Internet 2023, 15(5), 181; https://doi.org/10.3390/fi15050181 - 12 May 2023
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1331
Abstract
Mobile broadband (MBB) services in Lagos, Nigeria are marred with poor signal quality and inconsistent user experience, which can result in frustrated end-users and lost revenue for service providers. With the introduction of 5G, it is becoming more necessary for 4G LTE users [...] Read more.
Mobile broadband (MBB) services in Lagos, Nigeria are marred with poor signal quality and inconsistent user experience, which can result in frustrated end-users and lost revenue for service providers. With the introduction of 5G, it is becoming more necessary for 4G LTE users to find ways of maximizing the technology while they await the installation and implementation of the new 5G networks. A comprehensive analysis of the quality of 4G LTE MBB services in three different locations in Lagos is performed. Minimal optimization techniques using particle swarm optimization (PSO) are used to propose solutions to the identified problems. A methodology that involves data collection, statistical analysis, and optimization techniques is adopted to measure key performance indicators (KPIs) for MBB services in the three locations: UNILAG, Ikorodu, and Oniru VI. The measured KPIs include reference signal received power (RSRP), reference signal received quality (RSRQ), received signal strength indicator (RSSI), and signal-to-noise ratio (SINR). Specific statistical analysis was performed, and the mean, standard deviation, skewness, and kurtosis were calculated for the measured KPIs. Additionally, the probability distribution functions for each KPI were plotted to infer the quality of MBB services in each location. Subsequently, the PSO algorithm was used to optimize the KPIs in each location, and the results were compared with the measured data to evaluate the effectiveness of the optimization. Generally, the optimization process results in an improvement in the quality of service (QoS) in the investigated environments. Findings also indicated that a single KPI, such as RSRP, is insufficient for assessing the quality of MBB services as perceived by end-users. Therefore, multiple KPIs should be considered instead, including RSRQ and RSSI. In order to improve MBB performance in Lagos, recommendations require mapping and replanning of network routes and hardware design. Additionally, it is clear that there is a significant difference in user experience between locations with good and poor reception and that consistency in signal values does not necessarily indicate a good user experience. Therefore, this study provides valuable insights and solutions for improving the quality of MBB services in Lagos and can help service providers better understand the needs and expectations of their end users. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Applications of Wireless Sensor Networks and Internet of Things)
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Review

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27 pages, 2022 KiB  
Review
Overview of Protocols and Standards for Wireless Sensor Networks in Critical Infrastructures
by Spyridon Daousis, Nikolaos Peladarinos, Vasileios Cheimaras, Panagiotis Papageorgas, Dimitrios D. Piromalis and Radu Adrian Munteanu
Future Internet 2024, 16(1), 33; https://doi.org/10.3390/fi16010033 - 21 Jan 2024
Viewed by 1456
Abstract
This paper highlights the crucial role of wireless sensor networks (WSNs) in the surveillance and administration of critical infrastructures (CIs), contributing to their reliability, security, and operational efficiency. It starts by detailing the international significance and structural aspects of these infrastructures, mentions the [...] Read more.
This paper highlights the crucial role of wireless sensor networks (WSNs) in the surveillance and administration of critical infrastructures (CIs), contributing to their reliability, security, and operational efficiency. It starts by detailing the international significance and structural aspects of these infrastructures, mentions the market tension in recent years in the gradual development of wireless networks for industrial applications, and proceeds to categorize WSNs and examine the protocols and standards of WSNs in demanding environments like critical infrastructures, drawing on the recent literature. This review concentrates on the protocols and standards utilized in WSNs for critical infrastructures, and it concludes by identifying a notable gap in the literature concerning quality standards for equipment used in such infrastructures. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Applications of Wireless Sensor Networks and Internet of Things)
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