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Advancements in Smart Electric Mobility Systems: Integration of Renewable Energy and Energy Storage

A special issue of Energies (ISSN 1996-1073). This special issue belongs to the section "E: Electric Vehicles".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: 15 October 2025 | Viewed by 10026

Special Issue Editors

Dr. Nicoletta Matera

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Department of Energy, Politecnico di Milano, 20156 Milan, Italy
Interests: electric vehicle; vehicle-to-grid; renewable energy; solar power; wind power; electricity storage; grid; microgrid; energy systems; artificial neural networks; multi-objective optimization of energy systems; energy reliability; phase change materials; greenhouses; microclimate; green roofs
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals
Prof. Dr. Sonia Leva

E-Mail Website1 Website2
Guest Editor
Department of Energy, Politecnico di Milano, 20156 Milan, Italy
Interests: photovoltaic system; grid; power sharing; inverters; forecasting; nowcasting; machine learning; degradation; battery management systems; polymer solar cells; organic photovoltaics; electric vehicle; vehicle-to-grid; microgrid; energy systems; maximum power point trackers; electric power plant loads; electricity price; power markets; heterogeneous networks; base stations; energy efficiency, life cycle assessment; wind power; regenerative braking; bicycles; motorcycles; car sharing; autonomous vehicles
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals
Dr. Michela Longo

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Department of Energy, Politecnico di Milano, 20156 Milan, Italy
Interests: electric vehicles; optimization algorithm; smart mobility; transportation sector; e-mobility; infrastructure
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

In the field of Smart Electric Mobility Systems, the seamless integration of Renewable Energy Sources (RESs) and efficient energy storage technologies heralds a promising era of sustainable transportation. This Special Issue aims to present state-of-the-art research and developments in the field of Smart Electric Mobility Systems, seeking to optimize the synergy between renewable energy generation and energy storage, paving the way for greener and more resilient mobility solutions. Topics of interest include the development of devices, models, control strategies, and system architectures for the integration of different mobility infrastructures with Renewable Energy Sources (RESs), Battery Electric Storage Systems (BESSs), and the grid. In addition, emphasis will be given to the development of sustainable materials for energy storage and conversion and integrated photovoltaics, focusing on aspects such as safety, second life, and recyclability. In the landscape of smart electric mobility, devising a smart charging strategy is pivotal for maximizing the utilization of renewable energy and energy storage systems. By dynamically adjusting charging schedules based on factors like energy availability, demand fluctuations, and grid conditions, such strategies aim to enhance efficiency, minimize costs, and reduce the environmental footprint of electric vehicle charging infrastructure. Contributions related to smart charging strategies are also welcome.

All these research topics fall within the objectives of the MOST–Sustainable Mobility Center; and they have received funding from the European Union Next-GenerationEU (PIANO NAZIONALE DI RIPRESA E RESILIENZA (PNRR)—MISSIONE 4 COMPONENTE 2, INVESTIMENTO 1.4—D.D. 1033 17/06/2022, CN00000023).

In this Special Issue, original research articles and reviews are welcome. Research areas may include (but are not limited to) the following:

  • Smart Electric Mobility Systems;
  • Renewable Energy Sources;
  • Battery Electric Storage Systems;
  • Sustainable materials for the system components;
  • Grid integration;
  • Smart charging strategies;
  • Recyclability;
  • The techno-economic investigation of EV infrastructures fed by RES.

We look forward to receiving your contributions.

Dr. Nicoletta Matera
Prof. Dr. Sonia Leva
Dr. Michela Longo
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Energies is an international peer-reviewed open access semimonthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2600 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • electric mobility systems
  • renewable energy sources (RESs)
  • battery electric storage systems (BESSs)
  • infrastructure
  • sustainable materials
  • grid

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Published Papers (7 papers)

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Research

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48 pages, 2592 KiB  
Article
Coordinated Electric Vehicle Demand Management in the Unit Commitment Problem Integrated with Transmission Constraints
by Dimitrios Stamatakis and Athanasios I. Tolis
Energies 2025, 18(16), 4293; https://doi.org/10.3390/en18164293 - 12 Aug 2025
Viewed by 300
Abstract
Advancements in battery technology, marked by reduced costs and enhanced efficiency, are steadily making electric vehicles (EVs) more accessible to consumers. This trend is fueling global growth in EV fleet sizes, allowing EVs to compete directly with internal combustion engine vehicles. However, this [...] Read more.
Advancements in battery technology, marked by reduced costs and enhanced efficiency, are steadily making electric vehicles (EVs) more accessible to consumers. This trend is fueling global growth in EV fleet sizes, allowing EVs to compete directly with internal combustion engine vehicles. However, this rapid growth in EV numbers is likely to introduce challenges to the power grid, necessitating effective load management strategies. This work proposes an optimization method where EV load management is integrated into the Transmission Constrained Unit Commitment Problem (TCUCP). A Differential Evolution (DE) variant, enhanced with heuristic repair sub-algorithms, is employed to address the TCUCP. The heuristic sub-algorithms, adapted from earlier approaches to the simpler Unit Commitment Problem (UCP), are updated to incorporate power flow constraints and ensure the elimination of transmission line violations. Additionally, new repair mechanisms are introduced that combine priority lists with grid information to minimize violation. The proposed formulation considers EVs as both flexible loads and energy sources in a large urban environment powered by two grid nodes, accounting for the vehicles’ daily movement patterns. The algorithm exhibits exceptionally fast convergence to a feasible solution in fewer than 150 generations, despite the nonlinearity of the problem. Depending on the scenario, the total production cost is reduced by up to 45% within these generations. Moreover, the results of the proposed model, when compared with a MILP algorithm, achieve values with a relative difference of approximately 1%. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advancements in Smart Electric Mobility Systems: Integration of Renewable Energy and Energy Storage)
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19 pages, 5879 KiB  
Article
Operational Energy Consumption Map for Urban Electric Buses: Case Study for Warsaw
by Maciej Kozłowski and Andrzej Czerepicki
Energies 2025, 18(13), 3281; https://doi.org/10.3390/en18133281 - 23 Jun 2025
Viewed by 380
Abstract
This paper addresses the critical need for detailed electricity and peak power demand maps for urban public transportation vehicles. Current approaches often rely on overly general assumptions, leading to considerable errors in specific applications or, conversely, overly specific measurements that limit generalisability. We [...] Read more.
This paper addresses the critical need for detailed electricity and peak power demand maps for urban public transportation vehicles. Current approaches often rely on overly general assumptions, leading to considerable errors in specific applications or, conversely, overly specific measurements that limit generalisability. We aim to present a comprehensive data-driven methodology for analysing energy consumption within a large urban agglomeration. The method leverages a unique and extensive set of real-world performance data, collected over two years from onboard recorders on all public bus lines in the Capital City of Warsaw. This large dataset enables a robust probabilistic analysis, ensuring high accuracy of the results. For this study, three representative bus lines were selected. The approach involves isolating inter-stop trips, for which instantaneous power waveforms and energy consumption are determined using classical mathematical models of vehicle drive systems. The extracted data for these sections is then characterised using probability distributions. This methodology provides accurate calculation results for specific operating conditions and allows for generalisation with additional factors like air conditioning or heating. The direct result of this paper is a detailed urban map of energy demand and peak power for public transport vehicles. Such a map is invaluable for planning new traffic routes, verifying existing ones regarding energy consumption, and providing a reliable input source for strategic charger deployment analysis along the route. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advancements in Smart Electric Mobility Systems: Integration of Renewable Energy and Energy Storage)
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15 pages, 8254 KiB  
Article
Energy and Exergy Analysis of Conventional Automobile Engines: Evaluation of Waste Heat Recovery Potential to Drive Parasitic Loads
by Muhammad Ishaq Khan, Lorenzo Maccioni and Franco Concli
Energies 2025, 18(13), 3264; https://doi.org/10.3390/en18133264 - 22 Jun 2025
Viewed by 290
Abstract
Road transport plays a significant role in the economic growth of a country. Conventional internal combustion engines (ICEs) are widely used in automobiles, with an efficiency range of 25% to 35%, while the remaining energy is lost through cooling and exhaust gases. Additionally, [...] Read more.
Road transport plays a significant role in the economic growth of a country. Conventional internal combustion engines (ICEs) are widely used in automobiles, with an efficiency range of 25% to 35%, while the remaining energy is lost through cooling and exhaust gases. Additionally, two parasitic loads—the alternator and the air conditioning (AC) compressor—are driven by the ICE via a belt, further reducing efficiency. In this paper, energy and exergy analysis of the waste heat of exhaust gases has been performed for automobiles equipped with ICEs, i.e., R06A, F8B, K10B, 2NZ-FE, and 2ZR-FE, to evaluate their potential to drive these parasitic loads. The working cycles of these ICE models were simulated using a zero-dimensional MATLAB model based on fundamental governing equations. The results indicate that approximately 10–40 kW of energy is lost through exhaust gases under varying operating conditions for the examined ICEs. The average exhaust gas temperature and mass flow rate for these ICEs are approximately 900 K and 0.016 kg/s, respectively. Based on these findings, an E-turbine retrofit system is proposed to operate under these conditions, recovering exhaust energy to power the alternator and AC compressor. The results showed that the E-turbine generated 6.8 kW of mechanical power, which was converted into 4 kW of electrical power by the generator. This electrical power was used to supply the parasitic loads, thereby enhancing the overall efficiency of ICE. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advancements in Smart Electric Mobility Systems: Integration of Renewable Energy and Energy Storage)
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33 pages, 4839 KiB  
Article
Model-Based Design and Evaluation of State-of-the-Art Thermal Management Systems for Electrified Trucks
by Max Johansson and Lars Eriksson
Energies 2025, 18(3), 673; https://doi.org/10.3390/en18030673 - 31 Jan 2025
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1550
Abstract
Electric vehicle thermal management systems have in the last two decades grown to become complex systems. This development has come as a response to the unique challenges faced by electrified powertrains, particularly the driving range reduction in cold climate operation. The rapid increase [...] Read more.
Electric vehicle thermal management systems have in the last two decades grown to become complex systems. This development has come as a response to the unique challenges faced by electrified powertrains, particularly the driving range reduction in cold climate operation. The rapid increase in complexity makes the systems harder to design, control, and evaluate, and consequently, a need for systematic analysis and design tools has emerged. The key contribution of this work is a model-based simulation tool developed to enable the combined evaluation and control of state-of-the-art thermal management systems. To show how engineers may use the tool to solve industrially relevant problems, two simulation case studies are performed and presented. The first case study compares three thermal management system layouts of increasing complexity and shows how their performance varies as ambient temperature decreases. The second case study concerns the potential benefits of additional cooling radiators for fuel cell trucks under heavy load in hot climates. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advancements in Smart Electric Mobility Systems: Integration of Renewable Energy and Energy Storage)
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23 pages, 7332 KiB  
Article
Environmental Impact of Electrification on Local Public Transport: Preliminary Study
by Daniele Martini, Pietro Bezzini and Michela Longo
Energies 2024, 17(23), 5886; https://doi.org/10.3390/en17235886 - 23 Nov 2024
Viewed by 1658
Abstract
The objective of this study is to provide a comprehensive analysis of the environmental impact of diesel and electric buses, with a focus on pollutant emissions along a mixed urban–rural route in small urban settings. Utilizing a detailed simulation model, this research compares [...] Read more.
The objective of this study is to provide a comprehensive analysis of the environmental impact of diesel and electric buses, with a focus on pollutant emissions along a mixed urban–rural route in small urban settings. Utilizing a detailed simulation model, this research compares emissions from a diesel bus and an electric bus on a specific route in a small town in central Italy. Key findings reveal that electric buses significantly reduce local exhaust emissions but are not entirely emission-free, considering the full life cycle, including electricity generation. The Well-to-Wheel analysis shows lower CO2 emissions for the electric bus compared with the diesel bus, with a substantial part of the emissions occurring at power generation facilities. Non-exhaust emissions, especially Total Suspended Particles, are similar for both bus types. This study highlights the advantages of adopting electric buses in urban areas to decrease local air pollution and greenhouse gas emissions. However, it also underscores the importance of cleaner electricity generation methods to fully leverage the environmental benefits of electric vehicles. The findings provide valuable insights for decision makers and urban planners in developing sustainable urban transportation systems. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advancements in Smart Electric Mobility Systems: Integration of Renewable Energy and Energy Storage)
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Review

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17 pages, 909 KiB  
Review
Potential of Natural Esters as Immersion Coolant in Electric Vehicles
by Raj Shah, Cindy Huang, Gobinda Karmakar, Sevim Z. Erhan, Majher I. Sarker and Brajendra K. Sharma
Energies 2025, 18(15), 4145; https://doi.org/10.3390/en18154145 - 5 Aug 2025
Viewed by 372
Abstract
As the popularity of electric vehicles (EVs) continues to increase, the need for effective and efficient driveline lubricants and dielectric coolants has become crucial. Commercially used mineral oils or synthetic ester-based coolants, despite performing satisfactorily, are not environmentally friendly. The fatty esters of [...] Read more.
As the popularity of electric vehicles (EVs) continues to increase, the need for effective and efficient driveline lubricants and dielectric coolants has become crucial. Commercially used mineral oils or synthetic ester-based coolants, despite performing satisfactorily, are not environmentally friendly. The fatty esters of vegetable oils, after overcoming their shortcomings (like poor oxidative stability, higher viscosity, and pour point) through chemical modification, have recently been used as potential dielectric coolants in transformers. The benefits of natural esters, including a higher flash point, breakdown voltage, dielectric character, thermal conductivity, and most importantly, readily biodegradable nature, have made them a suitable and sustainable substitute for traditional coolants in electric transformers. Based on their excellent performance in transformers, research on their application as dielectric immersion coolants in modern EVs has been emerging in recent years. This review primarily highlights the beneficial aspects of natural esters performing dual functions—cooling as well as lubricating, which is necessary for “wet” e-motors in EVs—through a comparative study with the commercially used mineral and synthetic coolants. The adoption of natural fatty esters of vegetable oils as an immersion cooling fluid is a significant sustainable step for the battery thermal management system (BTMS) of modern EVs considering environmental safety protocols. Continued research and development are necessary to overcome the ongoing challenges and optimize esters for widespread use in the rapidly expanding electric vehicle market. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advancements in Smart Electric Mobility Systems: Integration of Renewable Energy and Energy Storage)
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26 pages, 3798 KiB  
Review
An Overview About Second-Life Battery Utilization for Energy Storage: Key Challenges and Solutions
by Hua Song, Huaizhi Chen, Yanbo Wang and Xiang-E Sun
Energies 2024, 17(23), 6163; https://doi.org/10.3390/en17236163 - 6 Dec 2024
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 4552
Abstract
This article provides a comprehensive overview of the potential challenges and solutions of second-life batteries. First, safety issues of second-life batteries are investigated, which is highly related to the thermal runaway of battery systems. The critical solutions for the thermal runaway problem are [...] Read more.
This article provides a comprehensive overview of the potential challenges and solutions of second-life batteries. First, safety issues of second-life batteries are investigated, which is highly related to the thermal runaway of battery systems. The critical solutions for the thermal runaway problem are discussed, including structural optimization, parameter identification, advanced BMS, and artificial intelligence (AI)-based control strategies. Furthermore, the cell inhomogeneity problem of second-life battery systems is analyzed, where the passive balancing strategy and active balancing strategy are reviewed, respectively. Then, the compatibility issue of second-life batteries is investigated to determine whether electrical dynamic characteristics of a second-life battery can meet the performance requirements for energy storage. In addition, date security and protection methods are reviewed, including digital passport, smart meters and Internet of Things (IoT). The future trends and solutions of key challenges for second-life battery utilization are discussed. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advancements in Smart Electric Mobility Systems: Integration of Renewable Energy and Energy Storage)
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