Energy Systems: Design, Management, Control and Monitoring

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38 pages, 4688 KB

Open AccessArticle

Justice-Flexibility-Oriented Modeling of Multi-Carrier Sustainable Microgrids

by Hamidreza Arasteh, Liu Zhang, Pierluigi Siano, Daogui Tang, Anand Rajendran, Cesar Diaz-Londono, Jorge De La Cruz and Josep M. Guerrero

Smart Cities 2026, 9(9), 151; https://doi.org/10.3390/smartcities9090151 - 11 Sep 2026

Viewed by 213

Abstract

As power systems become increasingly user-centric and participatory, fairness is emerging as an important consideration in operational decision-making. However, justice-related aspects are often assessed only after system operation, limiting their role in scheduling strategies. An Operational Energy Justice (OEJ) model is proposed in this paper to incorporate equality in load-shedding distribution as a measurable and optimizable objective in multi-energy microgrid scheduling. A novel justice index based on load-shedding distribution among load points is introduced. The proposed model includes energy justice, economic cost, environmental impact, flexibility, and load shedding. In addition, a flexibility evaluation criterion is developed to assess the capability of the electric-thermal system to adapt to varying operating conditions. Three test systems are employed to validate the proposed approach and assess both effectiveness and scalability. The results demonstrate that incorporating the justice objective leads to an approximately 0.41% increase in operational cost compared with the corresponding fairness-unaware operating point, while simultaneously reducing total load shedding and substantially improving the equality of curtailment distribution. Furthermore, a controlled comparison with an identical total amount of load shedding shows that achieving a fairer distribution of curtailment requires only a 0.45% increase in operational cost. The findings confirm that the integration of justice into microgrid scheduling enables just, flexible, economical, and sustainable operation of the systems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Energy Systems: Design, Management, Control and Monitoring)

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24 pages, 8663 KB

Open AccessArticle

Micro Short-Circuit Diagnosis of eVTOL Lithium-Ion Batteries Under High-Rate Discharge via Multiscale Residual Analysis

by Pinjie Shangguan, Zeyu Chen, Haojie Li and Meng Jiao

Batteries 2026, 12(9), 345; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries12090345 - 7 Sep 2026

Viewed by 258

Abstract

Accurate diagnosis of micro short-circuits (MSCs) is essential for ensuring the safety of lithium-ion batteries used in electric vertical take-off and landing (eVTOL) aircraft. Unlike conventional electric vehicles, eVTOL batteries normally operate under high-rate discharge conditions, where strong polarization and rapid voltage variations are apt to mask the weak signatures of MSCs. To address this challenge, this study proposes an MSC diagnosis method based on multiscale voltage residual analysis. A battery model is first established to characterize the normal response under high-rate discharge, and the discrepancy between the measured and estimated terminal voltages is used to construct the model residual. Features describing the overall voltage evolution, residual statistical distribution, and multiscale residual fluctuations are then extracted. Specifically, the shadow region integral area and voltage–capacity slope are used to characterize the global voltage trajectory, while the residual mean and kurtosis quantify the systematic deviation and non-Gaussian fluctuation of the residual. Wavelet decomposition is further applied to capture the low- and high-frequency residual characteristics. After feature reduction, eight representative features are retained to establish the diagnostic model. Experimental validation under high-rate discharge conditions demonstrates that the proposed method can effectively identify MSCs despite interference from abnormal aging, thereby reducing the false alarms caused by feature similarity. This study provides a reliable approach for micro short-circuit diagnosis of eVTOL lithium-ion batteries under strong polarization and highly dynamic operating conditions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Energy Systems: Design, Management, Control and Monitoring)

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41 pages, 57581 KB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Coordinated LADRC and GPOA-P&O MPPT for Robust Fault Ride-Through and Power Stability in Grid-Connected PV Systems

by Tianhao Zhu, Zhenglu Shi, Hui Xiao, Zhihong Zeng, Chao Min, AL-Wesabi Ibrahim, Hassan M. Hussein Farh and Abdullah M. Al-Shaalan

Machines 2026, 14(8), 876; https://doi.org/10.3390/machines14080876 - 1 Aug 2026

Viewed by 393

Abstract

Grid-connected photovoltaic (PV) systems require low-voltage ride-through (LVRT) to function reliably, particularly in the presence of symmetrical and asymmetric disturbances. Conventional PI-based control systems occasionally show limited resilience, particularly in the presence of distorted or imbalanced grid voltage. This paper proposes an enhanced LVRT control strategy for three-phase grid-connected PV systems by integrating a new rapid indirect Global Peak-Oriented Adaptive P&O MPPT method, referred to as (GPOA-P&O), with LADRC and DSOGI-FLL synchronization. The GPOA-P&O algorithm improves maximum power tracking by identifying the global peak and avoiding local maximum points, thereby reducing power fluctuations. Meanwhile, the cascaded LADRC controllers provide accurate voltage and current regulation, effectively suppressing DC-link overvoltage during grid disturbances. DSOGI-FLL ensures accurate positive-sequence phase-locking, enabling compliant reactive current injection even under severe voltage asymmetry, in accordance with grid-code requirements. The proposed method also eliminates second-order power oscillations and maintains constant inverter current regardless of fault severity. Case studies in 2024a MATLAB/Simulink and hardware-in-the-loop experimental platform demonstrate superior stability, fault ride-through capability, and grid-support performance compared to conventional approaches such as PI control and optimized SCSO-tuned PI. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Energy Systems: Design, Management, Control and Monitoring)

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25 pages, 9533 KB

Open AccessArticle

Cluster Optimization of an Integrated Energy System for a Park Based on Demand Response

by Hongwei Yue, Hongkai Yuan, Kaikai Man, Zhuo Zuo and Peng Sun

Electronics 2026, 15(15), 3335; https://doi.org/10.3390/electronics15153335 - 28 Jul 2026

Viewed by 342

Abstract

To address the issues of insufficient operational flexibility and low energy coordination efficiency of the integrated energy system in the park under the integration of large-scale distributed renewable energy, it is essential to carry out research on multi-energy complementary cluster division and optimal operation to improve regional energy utilization efficiency. Focusing on the multi-energy coupling system of electric heating and gas in the park, this paper proposes a method of electric heating and gas collaborative cluster division that considers the demand response potential. First, the multi-energy coupling topology model of the integrated energy system in the park is constructed, and the demand response potential index of each sub-region is quantitatively evaluated. A modularity evaluation function integrating multi-energy coupling characteristics is proposed. Based on the improved Louvain algorithm, the dynamic cluster division of the electric heating and gas system in the park is realized. On this basis, a cluster-level optimization operation model considering demand response resource integration is established, and optimal scheduling is carried out with the goal of minimizing operating costs. Finally, an industrial park in Northeast China is used as an actual case for verification. The results show that the proposed cluster division method can divide the park into four electricity, heating, and gas integrated energy clusters with clear characteristics and close coupling. After the integration of demand response resources, the overall operating cost of the system is reduced and the new energy consumption rate is increased. This verifies the effectiveness and superiority of the proposed method and provides technical support for the optimal operation of the integrated energy system in the park. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Energy Systems: Design, Management, Control and Monitoring)

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48 pages, 3169 KB

Open AccessReview

Energy Management Strategies for Fuel Cell Hybrid Ships: Classification, Comparison, and Outlook

by Mengxin Bai, Weishun Ke, Chentao Wu, Huan Cheng, Junmiao Zhang and Xinglin Yang

Energies 2026, 19(5), 1171; https://doi.org/10.3390/en19051171 - 26 Feb 2026

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1712

Abstract

This paper reviews research on energy management strategies (EMSs) for fuel-cell hybrid ships and introduces a “topology–strategy coupling” analytical framework, dividing system topology into two layers: energy-unit composition and DC-bus interface topology. It also introduces key concepts, such as EMS-independent dispatchability and the dominant DC-bus voltage-regulation unit. Based on this framework, the paper explains why certain strategies are easier to implement, tune, and validate under specific interface structures by considering the impact of interface topology on hybrid system efficiency and typical EMS constraints. It presents a unified four category EMS taxonomy, treating hybrid EMSs as a distinct class, and provides cross-category comparisons of different strategies. Additionally, it discusses the consistency and validation challenges when learning-based strategies transition from simulation to onboard deployment and further synthesizes mainstream approaches for integrating lifetime/health considerations into EMSs and their corresponding degradation modeling. Furthermore, the paper conducts a quantitative synthesis of relevant studies from 2016 to 2025, statistically summarizing and presenting the distributional characteristics of energy-unit composition, strategy categories, commonly used methods, validation approaches, and the inclusion of lifetime/health factors. In doing so, it uses data to describe the current state of research and identifies the key challenges and future research directions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Energy Systems: Design, Management, Control and Monitoring)

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55 pages, 15873 KB

Open AccessArticle

Optimal µ-PMU Placement and Voltage Estimation in Distribution Networks: Evaluation Through Multiple Case Studies

by Asjad Ali, Noor Izzri Abdul Wahab, Mohammad Lutfi Othman, Rizwan A. Farade, Husam S. Samkari and Mohammed F. Allehyani

Sustainability 2025, 17(24), 11036; https://doi.org/10.3390/su172411036 - 9 Dec 2025

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 1674

Abstract

This study optimizes the placement of μ-PMUs using the BPSO and BGWO algorithms for the IEEE 33-bus and 69-bus systems, with a focus on minimizing deployment costs while ensuring robust system observability. Three case studies are analysed: Case 1 (normal conditions), Case 2 (single μ-PMU outage), and Case 3 (Zero Injection Buses, ZIBs). In Case 1, both algorithms identified 24 μ-PMUs as the optimal placement for the IEEE 69-bus system, achieving the minimum PMUs required for full observability. For Case 2, redundancy requirements increased the μ-PMU count to 24 μ-PMUs for the IEEE 33-bus system and 51 μ-PMUs for the IEEE 69-bus system, ensuring full observability even under a single μ-PMU failure. Case 3, leveraging Zero Injection Buses (ZIBs), reduced the μ-PMU count to 20 μ-PMUs for both BPSO and BGWO, optimizing the system configuration while maintaining observability. A trade-off analysis was performed to examine the trade-off between redundancy and PMU count, showing that increasing the number of μ-PMUs improves system resilience. Voltage and current channels were measured from the optimized placements to ensure accurate voltage measurement in all case studies. Subsequently, the Weighted Least Squares algorithm was applied for voltage estimation, serving as a peripheral to the main objective of the optimal μ-PMU placement. Voltage estimation was conducted under three noise levels: 0.01 STD for basic analysis and 0.02 and 0.04 STD to observe the impact of varying measurement noise. The results highlight that higher μ-PMU placements improve voltage estimation accuracy, particularly under higher noise levels. Statistical analysis confirms that BGWO outperforms BPSO in terms of computational efficiency, stability, and convergence, especially in large-scale systems. By enhancing grid monitoring and state estimation, this research directly contributes to the development of more resilient and efficient power networks, which is a fundamental prerequisite for integrating renewable energy sources and advancing overall power system sustainability. This research emphasizes the balance between cost and reliability in μ-PMU placement and provides a comprehensive methodology for state estimation in modern power systems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Energy Systems: Design, Management, Control and Monitoring)

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32 pages, 17410 KB

Open AccessArticle

An Improved Black-Winged Kite Algorithm for High-Accuracy Parameter Identification of a Photovoltaic Double Diode Model

by Quanru Chen, Kun Ding, Xiang Chen, Zenan Yang, Mingkang Xu and Fei Teng

Machines 2025, 13(8), 706; https://doi.org/10.3390/machines13080706 - 9 Aug 2025

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1074

Abstract

This study proposes an improved Black-Winged Kite Algorithm (SRQ-BKA) for accurate parameter identification of the photovoltaic (PV) double diode model (DDM). The proposed method integrates three key mechanisms: specular reflection learning (SRL) to improve initial population diversity, preventing premature convergence and enabling a more comprehensive exploration of the solution space for optimal parameters; soft rime search (SRS) to balance global exploration and local exploitation, ensuring efficient identification by dynamically adjusting the search focus; and quadratic interpolation (QI) to accelerate convergence by fine-tuning the search toward optimal parameters, enhancing accuracy and speeding up the identification process. The root mean square error (RMSE) is employed as the objective function to minimize the error between the measured and predicted I-V characteristics of the PV module. Experimental results demonstrate that the SRQ-BKA outperforms other algorithms, achieving a minimum RMSE of 0.00262 A for the DDM and exhibiting strong stability, as evidenced by an average RMSE of 0.00278 A across 1000 runs. The method also demonstrates excellent parameter identification accuracy for both the single diode model (SDM) and triple diode model (TDM), further validating its robustness and practical applicability. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Energy Systems: Design, Management, Control and Monitoring)

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26 pages, 8900 KB

Open AccessArticle

Common Rail Injector Operation Model and Its Validation

by Karol Dębowski and Mirosław Karczewski

Energies 2025, 18(9), 2271; https://doi.org/10.3390/en18092271 - 29 Apr 2025

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2480

Abstract

The aim of this study was to develop and subsequently validate a simulation model of a Common Rail (CR) system injector. The study includes a description of simulation and experimental tests conducted under various injector operating conditions. Experimental tests were performed using the STPiW-2 test bench. The operating conditions of the injector were varied in terms of injection pressure and injector opening time. The injector model was developed using the Amesim software, where simulation studies were also conducted. The simulations focused on generating injection characteristics, specifically the volume of fuel injected per injection at pressures ranging from 20 MPa to 140 MPa in 10 MPa increments. Four such injection characteristics were obtained during both experimental and simulation studies, corresponding to injector opening times of 500 µs, 1000 µs, 1500 µs, and 2000 µs. Additionally, volume characteristics were generated under the same conditions. The validation demonstrated a high level of accuracy for the developed model. The obtained injection characteristics exhibited a correlation coefficient exceeding 90% in all four cases. The most accurately replicated injection characteristic was for the 500 µs injector opening time, achieving a correlation coefficient of 99%. Meanwhile, the simulation-derived overflow volume characteristic matched the experimental results with a correlation of 98%. For longer injector opening times, the correlation coefficients were slightly lower but remained satisfactory. The study concluded that for short injector opening times, the assumed model simplifications had minimal impact on the injected fuel volume at a given pressure. However, for longer opening times, discrepancies between simulation and experimental results became more pronounced. This divergence could be attributed to pressure variability within the injector during operation and associated hydraulic phenomena. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Energy Systems: Design, Management, Control and Monitoring)

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Journal Name	Impact Factor	CiteScore	Launched Year	First Decision (median)	APC
Batteries batteries	6.3	9.8	2015	16.4 Days	CHF 2700	Submit
Electronics electronics	2.9	7.0	2012	14.8 Days	CHF 2400	Submit
Energies energies	3.9	8.3	2008	16.7 Days	CHF 2600	Submit
Machines machines	3.0	6.1	2013	15.9 Days	CHF 2400	Submit
Smart Cities smartcities	6.6	13.0	2018	25.1 Days	CHF 2000	Submit
Sustainability sustainability	4.1	8.9	2009	16.9 Days	CHF 2400	Submit

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