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A special issue of Energies (ISSN 1996-1073). This special issue belongs to the section "E: Electric Vehicles".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (25 April 2025) | Viewed by 46663

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Special Issue Editors

Prof. Dr. Rafał Stanisław Jurecki

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Department of Automotive Engineering and Transport, Faculty of Mechatronics and Mechanical Engineering, Kielce University of Technology, 25-314 Kielce, Poland
Interests: research and modeling of driver behavior; active and passive safety of vehicles; EV and BEV road vehicle testing; vehicle diagnostics; drive system; vehicle operation
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Prof. Dr. Marek Guzek

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Guest Editor

Faculty of Transport, Warsaw University of Technology, ul. Koszykowa 75, 00-662 Warszawa, Poland
Interests: vehicle dynamics; vehicle safety; accident analysis, accident reconstruction
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Prof. Dr. Jerzy Jackowski

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Guest Editor

Military University of Technology, Institute of Vehicle and Transportation, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, gen. Sylwestra Kaliskiego 2 Street, 00-908 Warsaw, Poland
Interests: vehicle testing and modeling; active and passive vehicle safety; vehicle testing; tire testing; testing and modeling of non-pneumatic tires; crash tests; safety of persons with disabilities
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

The role of vehicles in the road transport of people and goods is significant. In order for appropriate transport tasks to be carried out by vehicles, they must use energy, which can be supplied from various sources. While a vehicle is moving, continuous energy transformations and dynamic phenomena occur.

Since vehicle congestion generates high environmental costs, work is underway to improve their energy efficiency. Such research is striving to reduce and optimize energy consumption (including fuel) as well as limit the emissions of harmful exhaust components (ecological concerns).

Electrical and hybrid (EVS) drive systems and complicated energy-management systems are continuously being created and tested. Energy management in cars with traditional engines is generally addressed by improving the motion of vehicles, including the behavior of drivers under various road conditions. In addition, analyses are being conducted to improve the energy processes undertaken by the elements of vehicles (e.g., vehicle body, suspension, brakes system, and tires); such processes affect the motion dynamics of vehicles. Such investigations contribute to research progress in improving road safety.

Crash tests are commonly implemented to dynamically assess passive safety elements, including the effectiveness of energy scattering.

An important research area concerns the creation of new safety systems, as well as improving those presently in use; such safety systems include assistant systems which support drivers by automating some functions. For these systems to work correctly, they must be properly powered by energy. Such research is important in our prevention of road accidents, which can reduce the number of victims as well as the related social and economic costs.

We invite scientists, specialists, and industry representatives to submit their research on topics within this field.

Prof. Dr. Rafał Stanisław Jurecki
Prof. Dr. Guzek Marek
Prof. Dr. Jerzy Jackowski
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Energies is an international peer-reviewed open access semimonthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2600 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

road vehicle
electric/hybrid cars (EVs)
autonomous vehicles
energy efficiency
energy management
vehicle testing and diagnostics
vehicle dynamics and stability
vehicle/driver testing and modelling
vehicle safety
vehicle control systems
vehicle energy consumption
pollution
vehicle communication systems
comfort of vehicles
accident analysis
crashworthiness
sustainable energy
energy storage systems

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Published Papers (13 papers)

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Research

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29 pages, 5514 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Research on Energy Management Strategies for Fuel Cell Hybrid Vehicles Based on Time Classification

by Lihua Ye, Zixing Zhang, Qinglong Zhao, Xu Zhao, Zhou He and Aiping Shi

Energies 2025, 18(8), 2103; https://doi.org/10.3390/en18082103 - 18 Apr 2025

Viewed by 326

Abstract

In order to minimize the carbon emission and energy consumption of fuel cell hybrid vehicles and, at the same time, solve the problem of low accuracy of working condition identification in the working condition identification strategy, this paper proposes an energy management strategy for SUVs on the basis of the working condition identification energy management strategy by using the time classification method. First, the mathematical model of the whole vehicle power system is established, and the driving conditions are constructed using actual collected vehicle driving data. On this basis, the working condition identification model was established, and then the energy management strategy of time working condition classification was established on the basis of the working condition identification model, and the equivalent hydrogen consumption of the two strategies was calculated by the Pontryagin minimization strategy. The results show that the strategy proposed in this paper reduces the equivalent hydrogen consumption by 2.707% compared with the condition identification strategy. This improvement not only greatly improves the energy efficiency of the fuel cell hybrid vehicle but also provides new ideas for the optimization of future energy management strategies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Motor Vehicles Energy Management)

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21 pages, 2596 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Comparative Analysis of Charging Station Technologies for Light Electric Vehicles for the Exploitation in Small Islands

by Salvatore Favuzza, Gaetano Zizzo, Antony Vasile, Davide Astolfi and Marco Pasetti

Energies 2025, 18(6), 1477; https://doi.org/10.3390/en18061477 - 17 Mar 2025

Viewed by 264

Abstract

The worldwide growing adoption of Light Electric Vehicles (LEVs) indicates that such technology might in the near future be decisive for improving the sustainability of transportation. The segment of LEVs has some peculiar features compared to electric mobility in general, which then deserve a devoted investigation. Stakeholders are called to implement the most appropriate technology depending on the context, by taking into account multi-faceted factors, which are the investigation object of this work. At first, a methodology is formulated for estimating the power and energy impact of LEVs recharging. Based on this, and assessed that the load constituted by LEVs is in general modest but might create some problems in lowly structured networks, it becomes conceivable to develop Charging Station (CS) technologies which are alternative to the grid connection at a point of delivery. Yet, it is fundamental to develop accurate methodologies for the techno-economic and environmental analysis. This work considers a use case developed at the University of Brescia (Italy): a CS operating off-grid, powered by PhotoVoltaics (PV). Its peculiarity is that it is transportable, which makes it more appealing for rural/remote areas or when the charging demand is highly not homogeneous in time. On these grounds, this work specializes to a context where the proposed solution might be more appealing: small isolated islands, in particular Favignana in Sicily (Italy). It is estimated that the adoption of the proposed off-grid CS is by far advantageous as regards the greenhouse gases emissions but it is more economically profitable than the grid connection only if the number of users per day is less than order of 200. Hence this work provides meaningful indications on the usefulness of off-grid CS powered by PV in peculiar contexts and furnishes a general method for their techno-economic and environmental assessment. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Motor Vehicles Energy Management)

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15 pages, 10189 KiB

Open AccessArticle

An Adaptive Energy Management Strategy for Off-Road Hybrid Tracked Vehicles

by Lijin Han, Wenhui Shi and Ningkang Yang

Energies 2025, 18(6), 1371; https://doi.org/10.3390/en18061371 - 11 Mar 2025

Viewed by 410

Abstract

Conventional energy management strategies based on reinforcement learning often fail to achieve their intended performance when applied to driving conditions that significantly deviate from their training conditions. Therefore, the conventional reinforcement-learning-based strategy is not suitable for complex off-road conditions. This research suggests an energy management strategy for hybrid tracked vehicles operating in off-road conditions that is based on adaptive reinforcement learning. Power demand is described using a Markov chain model that is updated online in a recursive way. The technique updates the MC model and recalculates the reinforcement learning algorithm using the intrinsic matrix norm (IMN) as a criteria. According to the simulation results, the suggested method can increase the adaptability of energy management based on the reinforcement learning strategy in off-road conditions, as evidenced by the 7.66% reduction in equivalent fuel consumption when compared with the conventional Q-learning based energy management strategy. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Motor Vehicles Energy Management)

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22 pages, 2782 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Research on Multi-Objective Parameter Matching and Stepwise Energy Management Strategies for Hybrid Energy Storage Systems

by Wenna Xu, Hao Huang, Chun Wang, Yixin Hu and Xinmei Gao

Energies 2025, 18(6), 1354; https://doi.org/10.3390/en18061354 - 10 Mar 2025

Viewed by 513

Abstract

Electric vehicle technologies present promising solutions for achieving energy conservation and emission reduction goals. However, efficiently distributing power across hybrid energy storage systems (HESSs) remains a major challenge in enhancing overall system performance. To address this, this paper proposes an energy management strategy (EMS) based on stepwise rules optimized by Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO). The approach begins by applying a multi-objective optimization method, utilizing the Non-dominated Sorting Genetic Algorithm II (NSGA-II) to fine-tune the parameters of lithium-ion batteries and ultracapacitors for an optimal balance in system performance. Additionally, an innovative stepwise-based EMS has been designed using adaptive PSO. This strategy builds a real-time control mechanism by dynamically adjusting the power distribution gradient threshold, taking into account the compensation for the state of charge (SOC). Comparative analysis across three typical operating conditions—urban, suburban, and highway—demonstrates that the stepwise-rule optimized strategy reduces the energy consumption of the HESS by 3.19%, 7.9%, and 5.37%. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Motor Vehicles Energy Management)

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27 pages, 8510 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Assessment of Driver Performance and Energy Efficiency in Transportation Tasks when Vehicle Weight Undergoes Significant Changes

by Tomasz Lech Stańczyk, Leon Prochowski, Damian Cegłowski, Emilia M. Szumska and Mateusz Ziubiński

Energies 2023, 16(15), 5626; https://doi.org/10.3390/en16155626 - 26 Jul 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1751

Abstract

The results of the analysis of the operation of heavy-duty vehicles with high load capacity (tractor units with trailers) have been presented. The road transport of cargo relies heavily on vehicles of this type. Performing this role is associated with high energy consumption. Laden and unladen driving were investigated. The collected data guaranteed the constancy of numerous parameters, including the investigation of the same model vehicles under both loaded and unloaded conditions on identical roads. The assessment focused on changes in driving techniques and energy consumption during significant variations in vehicle weight. The evaluation was grounded in the measurement results of kinematic parameters, namely driving speed, acceleration, and braking deceleration. The aforementioned parameters are typically employed in analysing driving techniques (DBP—driver behaviour profile). The energy consumption of traffic was then assessed in light of the analysed changes in driving technique. The weight of the load was 24 t, increasing the weight of the vehicle by 175%. The increase in weight has caused a 68.4% increase in the energy required for driving. The change in vehicle mass has a relatively minor effect on the average, median, and modal values of driving speed. In contrast, the impact on acceleration is far greater. This is partly because the examined models of tractor units are equipped with high-power engines (420 hp). Furthermore, 81% of the roads used for transportation tasks are motorways and expressways. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Motor Vehicles Energy Management)

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19 pages, 16730 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Experimental Testing of Energy-Absorbing Structures Used to Enhance the Crashworthiness of the Vehicles

by Jerzy Jackowski, Paweł Posuniak, Karol Zielonka and Rafał Jurecki

Energies 2023, 16(5), 2183; https://doi.org/10.3390/en16052183 - 24 Feb 2023

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 3121

Abstract

Selected structures intended to absorb impact energy have been analysed in respect of their use in the rear underrun protective devices (RUPD) of motor trucks. The main purpose of the RUPD is to prevent a passenger car from running under the rear of a motor truck provided with such a device. From the point of view of the safety of the car occupants, it is important to take into account the components whose additional role would be to absorb a part of the impact energy so that the loads on the said occupants were minimised. This article presents experimental test results concerning selected energy-absorbing structures. Based on quasi-static strength tests, simplified material models were defined. As a result of experimental crash tests, the possible applications of selected energy absorbers to the RUPDs as their components accountable for the passive safety of passenger cars were indicated. Absorbers proposed in this paper can be considered effective energy-absorbing structures, e.g., in the case of the central impact of a medium-class car with a speed of about 40 km/h. They are relatively inexpensive in production and easily implementable to motor trucks, even taking into account some limitations related to the type-approval regulations on the European market. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Motor Vehicles Energy Management)

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20 pages, 5890 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Application of Modelling and Simulation in Durability Tests of Vehicles and Their Components

by Zbigniew Lozia

Energies 2022, 15(24), 9398; https://doi.org/10.3390/en15249398 - 12 Dec 2022

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 1887

Abstract

The use of simulation and modelling has been proposed for determining the excitations to be applied in the procedures of laboratory testing of a car’s structural components, without the need to test the complete vehicle. The paper presents the general concept as well as an example of the procedure. It covers determining the spectrum and time-domain realization of a load on a selected node of the vehicle structure under durability tests. The author used both the mathematical and physical model of the tractor-semitrailer unit, where the input was considered as a random process resulting from the road profile. He calculated the transmittance modules and the power spectral densities of the vertical force on the joint between the tractor’s fifth wheel and the kingpin of the semitrailer and the extreme values of the dynamic components of this force. The inverse discrete Fourier transform makes it possible to generate the realization of the said force. It can be used in durability studies. The limitation of the work to the testing of a specific structural node reduces the scope and, in consequence, the cost of the process. The method presented may also be used for various types of vehicle models, including hybrid and electric vehicles. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Motor Vehicles Energy Management)

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16 pages, 3878 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Analysis of Energy Recovered during the Braking of an Electric Vehicle in Different Driving Conditions

by Emilia M. Szumska and Rafał Jurecki

Energies 2022, 15(24), 9369; https://doi.org/10.3390/en15249369 - 10 Dec 2022

Cited by 14 | Viewed by 4471

Abstract

The partial recovery of kinetic energy during braking allows the vehicle’s battery to be additionally charged and thus extends the range of an electric vehicle. Because of the different operating strategies of the braking energy recovery system, it is important to understand the factors influencing the level of recovered energy. The driving conditions at the place of use have a direct impact on the energy efficiency of an electric vehicle. The purpose of this paper was to analyze the energy recovered during braking in different driving conditions. The tests were based on the parameters of actual trips made along urban and suburban routes, and express roads. The collected actual speed profiles were used for the simulation studies. AVL cruise vehicle simulation software was used in the study. Simulation tests revealed that the levels of energy recovered during braking in an electric vehicle were the highest in urban conditions. The amount of energy recovered during urban driving can account for 20% of the total trip energy. In driving conditions characterized by different intensities caused by trips at different times of the day, similar values of recovered energy were recorded. When driving in the afternoon hours, the level of recovered energy per 1 km was about 2% lower than when driving in rush hour conditions. From the results presented in this paper, it can be concluded that driving conditions have an impact on the level of recovered energy. The type of road on which the electric vehicle drives is particularly important. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Motor Vehicles Energy Management)

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Review

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25 pages, 2193 KiB

Open AccessReview

Electric Vehicles—An Overview of Current Issues—Part 1—Environmental Impact, Source of Energy, Recycling, and Second Life of Battery

by Marek Guzek, Jerzy Jackowski, Rafał S. Jurecki, Emilia M. Szumska, Piotr Zdanowicz and Marcin Żmuda

Energies 2024, 17(1), 249; https://doi.org/10.3390/en17010249 - 3 Jan 2024

Cited by 14 | Viewed by 11728

Abstract

The rapid transition to electric-drive vehicles is taking place globally. Most automakers are adding electric models to their lineups to prepare for the new electric future. From the analysis of the automotive market, it is evident that there is a growing interest in such vehicles. They are expected to account for half the models released after 2030. Electric-drive vehicles include battery-electric vehicles. As indicated in the research literature and emphasized by experts, electric vehicles (EVs) are supposed to be an environmentally friendly alternative to conventional vehicles. The rising number and variety of EVs contribute to a better understanding of their performance. With more EVs on the market, there are problems to be solved and challenges to overcome. This article is the first part of a two-article series reviewing the strengths and weaknesses of EVs. The article analyzes the environmental effects of EVs at each stage of their life cycle, compares large- and small-scale recycling methods, and explores the potential applications of second-life batteries. This article is an attempt to find out how environmentally friendly EVs are. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Motor Vehicles Energy Management)

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34 pages, 2949 KiB

Open AccessReview

Review on Battery State Estimation and Management Solutions for Next-Generation Connected Vehicles

by Giuseppe Di Luca, Gabriele Di Blasio, Alfredo Gimelli and Daniela Anna Misul

Energies 2024, 17(1), 202; https://doi.org/10.3390/en17010202 - 29 Dec 2023

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 2805

Abstract

The transport sector is tackling the challenge of reducing vehicle pollutant emissions and carbon footprints by means of a shift to electrified powertrains, i.e., battery electric vehicles (BEVs) and plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs). However, electrified vehicles pose new issues associated with the design and energy management for the efficient use of onboard energy storage systems (ESSs). Thus, strong attention should be devoted to ensuring the safety and efficient operation of the ESSs. In this framework, a dedicated battery management system (BMS) is required to contemporaneously optimize the battery’s state of charge (SoC) and to increase the battery’s lifespan through tight control of its state of health (SoH). Despite the advancements in the modern onboard BMS, more detailed data-driven algorithms for SoC, SoH, and fault diagnosis cannot be implemented due to limited computing capabilities. To overcome such limitations, the conceptualization and/or implementation of BMS in-cloud applications are under investigation. The present study hence aims to produce a new and comprehensive review of the advancements in battery management solutions in terms of functionality, usability, and drawbacks, with specific attention to cloud-based BMS solutions as well as SoC and SoH prediction and estimation. Current gaps and challenges are addressed considering V2X connectivity to fully exploit the latest cloud-based solutions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Motor Vehicles Energy Management)

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19 pages, 889 KiB

Open AccessReview

A Review on Composite Materials for Energy Harvesting in Electric Vehicles

by Nithesh Naik, P. Suresh, Sanjay Yadav, M. P. Nisha, José Luis Arias-Gonzáles, Juan Carlos Cotrina-Aliaga, Ritesh Bhat, Manohara D. Jalageri, Yashaarth Kaushik and Aakif Budnar Kunjibettu

Energies 2023, 16(8), 3348; https://doi.org/10.3390/en16083348 - 10 Apr 2023

Cited by 15 | Viewed by 4655

Abstract

The field of energy harvesting is expanding to power various devices, including electric vehicles, with energy derived from their surrounding environments. The unique mechanical and electrical qualities of composite materials make them ideal for energy harvesting applications, and they have shown tremendous promise in this area. Yet additional studies are needed to fully grasp the promise of composite materials for energy harvesting in electric vehicles. This article reviews composite materials used for energy harvesting in electric vehicles, discussing mechanical characteristics, electrical conductivity, thermal stability, and cost-effectiveness. As a bonus, it delves into using composites in piezoelectric, electromagnetic, and thermoelectric energy harvesters. The high strength-to-weight ratio provided by composite materials is a major benefit for energy harvesting. Especially important in electric vehicles, where saving weight means saving money at the pump and driving farther between charges, this quality is a boon to the field. Many composite materials and their possible uses in energy harvesting systems are discussed in the article. These composites include polymer-based composites, metal-based composites, bio-waste-based hybrid composites and cement-based composites. In addition to describing the promising applications of composite materials for energy harvesting in electric vehicles, the article delves into the obstacles that must be overcome before the technology can reach its full potential. Energy harvesting devices could be more effective and reliable if composite materials were cheaper and less prone to damage. Further study is also required to determine the durability and dependability of composite materials for use in energy harvesting. However, composite materials show promise for energy harvesting in E.V.s. Further study and development are required before their full potential can be realized. This article discusses the significant challenges and potential for future research and development in composite materials for energy harvesting in electric vehicles. It thoroughly evaluates the latest advances and trends in this field. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Motor Vehicles Energy Management)

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33 pages, 4476 KiB

Open AccessReview

A Comprehensive Analysis of Online and Offline Energy Management Approaches for Optimal Performance of Fuel Cell Hybrid Electric Vehicles

by Mubashir Rasool, Muhammad Adil Khan and Runmin Zou

Energies 2023, 16(8), 3325; https://doi.org/10.3390/en16083325 - 8 Apr 2023

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 3773

Abstract

The global impact of hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs) is exponentially rising as it is an emission-free and reliable alternative to fossil fuel-based vehicles that cause enormous negative impacts on the socioeconomic and environmental sectors. Fuel cell hybrid electric vehicles (FCHEV) have been widely considered in the latest research as an energy-efficient, environmentally friendly, and longer-range green transportation alternative. The performance of these FCHEVs, however, is primarily dependent upon the optimal selection of Energy Management Strategies (EMSs) adopted for optimum power split and energy resource management. This research reviews the latest EMS techniques presented in the literature and highlights their working principle, operation, and impact on the FCHEV performance and reliability. This research also highlights the challenges associated with the globalization of FCHEVs and recommends future work and research directions essential for optimal FCHEV performance and commercialization. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Motor Vehicles Energy Management)

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23 pages, 3504 KiB

Open AccessReview

A Comprehensive Review of Electric Vehicles in Energy Systems: Integration with Renewable Energy Sources, Charging Levels, Different Types, and Standards

by Kamran Taghizad-Tavana, As’ad Alizadeh, Mohsen Ghanbari-Ghalehjoughi and Sayyad Nojavan

Energies 2023, 16(2), 630; https://doi.org/10.3390/en16020630 - 4 Jan 2023

Cited by 41 | Viewed by 8234

Abstract

Due to the rapid expansion of electric vehicles (EVs), they are expected to be one of the main contributors to transportation. The increasing use of fossil fuels as one of the most available energy sources has led to the emission of greenhouse gases, which will play a vital role in achieving a sustainable transportation system. Developed and developing countries have long-term plans and policies to use EVs instead of internal combustion vehicles and to use renewable energy to generate electricity, which increases the number of charging stations. Recently, to meet the charging demand for EVs, the main focus of researchers has been on smart charging solutions. In addition, maintaining power quality and peak demand for grids has become very difficult due to the widespread deployment of EVs as personal and commercial vehicles. This paper provides information on EV charging control that can be used to improve the design and implementation of charging station infrastructure. An in-depth analysis of EV types, global charging standards, and the architectures of AC-DC and DC-DC converters are covered in this review article. In addition, investigating the role of EV collectors, as well as EV penetration, in electric energy systems to facilitate the integration of electric energy systems with renewable energy sources is one of the main goals of this paper. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Motor Vehicles Energy Management)

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