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Electronics
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Future Generation Non-Terrestrial Networks
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Future Generation Non-Terrestrial Networks

A special issue of Electronics (ISSN 2079-9292). This special issue belongs to the section "Networks".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: 15 October 2025 | Viewed by 8879

Special Issue Editors

Dr. Federica Rinaldi

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Department of Information, University Mediterranea of Reggio Calabria, 89122 Reggio Calabria, Italy
Interests: 5G/6G, Non-Terrestrial Network (NTN), Integrated Terrestrial-NTN systems, Radio Resource Management (RRM), Device-to-Device (D2D), and multimedia broadcast/multicast service (MBMS)
Dr. Chiara Suraci

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
DIIES Department, University Mediterranea of Reggio Calabria, 89122 Reggio Calabria, Italy
Interests: 5G; eHealth; virtualization; network security; D2D
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals
Dr. Helka-Liina Määttänen

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Ericsson Research Finland, 02420 Hirsalantie, Finland
Interests: 5G mobile communication; broadband networks; satellite communication; Internet of Things; autonomous aerial vehicles; mobility management; resource allocation; telecommunication congestion control; MIMO communication; precoding; radio links; wireless channels

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

The Sixth Generation (6G) is being designed to meet the ever more stringent network requirements posed by emerging services, i.e., ultra-low latency, extreme capacity, high efficiency, and strong reliability.

In this context, the Future Generation Non-terrestrial Network (NTN) may be an excellent candidate to provide 6G services. Indeed, the interest in space communications and the Internet of Space Things (IoST) has significantly grown with the aim to provide access to any service anytime and anywhere owing to the broad coverage area or to satellite constellations that ensure global connectivity.

Future Generation NTN ensures service continuity of Machine-to-Machine (M2M)/Internet of Thing (IoT) devices or to people traveling on board moving platforms and service availability in case of both critical communications and future transmissions (i.e., maritime, aeronautical, railway). Furthermore, Future Generation NTN is expected to be an efficient solution to enable network scalability owing to the provision of multicast/broadcast resources for the delivery of data to network edges and user terminals.

NTN integration within the 6G wireless ecosystem is essential to ensure service availability, continuity, ubiquity, and scalability. The deployment of a unified wireless system including both terrestrial and NTNs allows for global connectivity that could be facilitated by the exploitation of the same radio technology. Therefore, the main NTN aspects to deal with are: (i) propagation delay, (ii) propagation channel, (iii) Frequency Plan and Channel Bandwidth, (iv) Link budget, (v) cell pattern generation, (vi) NTN platform mobility, and (vii) NTN terminal mobility.

NTN security is another challenging issue since NTNs are vulnerable to adversaries and malicious attacks. In fact, Future Generation NTNs are likely to handle large amounts of personal and sensitive data. Protecting the privacy of user information is critical to prevent unauthorized disclosure or misuse. Network operators must employ strong data encryption techniques, implement privacy-enhancing technologies, and adhere to strict data protection regulations to safeguard user privacy. The encryption algorithms used in these networks must also be robust and resistant to the quantum computing threats that are expected to characterize future 6G scenarios. In addition, strong authentication mechanisms are needed to verify the identity of devices connected to the network and prevent unauthorized access to the network. Addressing these security issues requires a multi-layered approach, including robust cryptography, authentication protocols, intrusion detection systems, secure satellite design, and cooperation among multiple stakeholders, including network operators, government agencies, and international organizations. Continued research and collaboration are critical to keeping up with emerging threats and ensuring the security and resilience of Future Generation NTNs.

Finally, Future Generation NTN shall leverage the following 6G key enablers: Terahertz (THz) communications, Optical Wireless Communication (OWC), Intelligent Reflecting Surfaces (IRS) or Reconfigurable Intelligent Surfaces (RIS), Cloudification, Blockchain, and Network and service orchestration and management.

This Special Issue aims to gather new solutions, procedures, methodologies, developments, applications to enable NTN in 6G.

In this Special Issue, original research articles and reviews are welcome. Research areas may include (but not limited to) the following:

  • 6G standardization for Future Generation NTN.
  • NTN trends and issues.
  • NTN mobility and handover management.
  • Space-Air-Ground communications.
  • NTN architecture enhancements.
  • Inter-satellite communications.
  • NTN radio resource management and optimization.
  • QoS management for Future Generation NTN.
  • Multimedia broadcast/multicast delivery in Future Generation NTN.
  • Adaptive beamforming and beam management for Future Generation NTN.
  • Delay tolerant networking protocols for Future Generation NTN.
  • NTN channel modeling.
  • Internet of Space Things.
  • Free space optical wireless communications.
  • Security and privacy issues in Future Generation NTNs.
  • Data privacy and security protocols for Future Generation NTN.
  • Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning for Future Generation NTN.
  • Experiments, simulations, and modeling for Future Generation NTN.
  • Terahertz communications for Future Generation NTN.
  • Cloudification and Virtualization in Future Generation NTN.
  • Network and service orchestration and management in Future Generation NTN.

We look forward to receiving your contributions.

Dr. Federica Rinaldi
Dr. Chiara Suraci
Dr. Helka-Liina Määttänen
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Electronics is an international peer-reviewed open access semimonthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2400 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • 6G
  • NTNs
  • satellite communications
  • IoST
  • NTN Security
  • data privacy and security protocols for NTN

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Published Papers (6 papers)

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Research

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29 pages, 4136 KiB  
Article
IoT-NTN with VLEO and LEO Satellite Constellations and LPWAN: A Comparative Study of LoRa, NB-IoT, and Mioty
by Changmin Lee, Taekhyun Kim, Chanhee Jung and Zizung Yoon
Electronics 2025, 14(9), 1798; https://doi.org/10.3390/electronics14091798 - 28 Apr 2025
Viewed by 34
Abstract
This study investigates the optimization of satellite constellations for Low-Power, Wide-Area Network (LPWAN)-based Internet of Things (IoT) communications in Very Low Earth Orbit (VLEO) at 200 km and 300 km altitudes and Low Earth Orbit (LEO) at 600km using a Genetic Algorithm (GA). [...] Read more.
This study investigates the optimization of satellite constellations for Low-Power, Wide-Area Network (LPWAN)-based Internet of Things (IoT) communications in Very Low Earth Orbit (VLEO) at 200 km and 300 km altitudes and Low Earth Orbit (LEO) at 600km using a Genetic Algorithm (GA). Focusing on three LPWAN technologies—LoRa, Narrowband IoT (NB-IoT), and Mioty—we evaluate their performance in terms of revisit time, data transmission volume, and economic efficiency. Results indicate that a 300 km VLEO constellation with LoRa achieves the shortest average revisit time and requires the fewest satellites, offering notable cost benefits. NB-IoT provides the highest data transmission volume. Mioty demonstrates strong scalability but necessitates a larger satellite count. These findings highlight the potential of VLEO satellites, particularly at 300 km, combined with LPWAN solutions for efficient and scalable IoT Non-Terrestrial Network (IoT-NTN) applications. Future work will explore multi-altitude simulations and hybrid LPWAN integration for further optimization. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Future Generation Non-Terrestrial Networks)
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22 pages, 3393 KiB  
Article
A Dynamic Spatio-Temporal Traffic Prediction Model Applicable to Low Earth Orbit Satellite Constellations
by Kexuan Liu, Yasheng Zhang and Shan Lu
Electronics 2025, 14(5), 1052; https://doi.org/10.3390/electronics14051052 - 6 Mar 2025
Viewed by 578
Abstract
Low Earth Orbit (LEO) constellations support the transmission of various communication services and have been widely applied in fields such as global Internet access, the Internet of Things, remote sensing monitoring, and emergency communication. With the surge in traffic volume, the quality of [...] Read more.
Low Earth Orbit (LEO) constellations support the transmission of various communication services and have been widely applied in fields such as global Internet access, the Internet of Things, remote sensing monitoring, and emergency communication. With the surge in traffic volume, the quality of user services has faced unprecedented challenges. Achieving accurate low Earth orbit constellation network traffic prediction can optimize resource allocation, enhance the performance of LEO constellation networks, reduce unnecessary costs in operation management, and enable the system to adapt to the development of future services. Ground networks often adopt methods such as machine learning (support vector machine, SVM) or deep learning (convolutional neural network, CNN; generative adversarial network, GAN) to predict future short- and long-term traffic information, aiming to optimize network performance and ensure service quality. However, these methods lack an understanding of the high-dynamics of LEO satellites and are not applicable to LEO constellations. Therefore, designing an intelligent traffic prediction model that can accurately predict multi-service scenarios in LEO constellations remains an unsolved challenge. In this paper, in light of the characteristics of high-dynamics and the high-frequency data streams of LEO constellation traffic, the authors propose a DST-LEO satellite-traffic prediction model (a dynamic spatio-temporal low Earth orbit satellite traffic prediction model). This model captures the implicit features among satellite nodes through multiple attention mechanism modules and processes the traffic volume and traffic connection/disconnection data of inter-satellite links via a multi-source data separation and fusion strategy, respectively. After splicing and fusing at a specific scale, the model performs prediction through the attention mechanism. The model proposed by the authors achieved a short-term prediction RMSE of 0.0028 and an MAE of 0.0018 on the Abilene dataset. For long-term prediction on the Abilene dataset, the RMSE was 0.0054 and the MAE was 0.0039. The RMSE of the short-term prediction on the dataset simulated by the internal low Earth orbit constellation business simulation system was 0.0034, and the MAE was 0.0026. For the long-term prediction, the RMSE reached 0.0029 and the MAE reached 0.0022. Compared with other time series prediction models, it decreased by 22.3% in terms of the mean squared error and 18.0% in terms of the mean absolute error. The authors validated the functions of each module within the model through ablation experiments and further analyzed the effectiveness of this model in the task of LEO constellation network traffic prediction. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Future Generation Non-Terrestrial Networks)
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31 pages, 875 KiB  
Article
Hierarchical Traffic Engineering in 3D Networks Using QoS-Aware Graph-Based Deep Reinforcement Learning
by Robert Kołakowski, Lechosław Tomaszewski, Rafał Tępiński and Sławomir Kukliński
Electronics 2025, 14(5), 1045; https://doi.org/10.3390/electronics14051045 - 6 Mar 2025
Viewed by 559
Abstract
Ubiquitous connectivity is envisioned through the integration of terrestrial (TNs) and non-terrestrial networks (NTNs). However, NTNs face multiple routing and Quality of Service (QoS) provisioning challenges due to the mobility of network nodes. Distributed Software-Defined Networking (SDN) combined with Multi-Agent Deep Reinforcement Learning [...] Read more.
Ubiquitous connectivity is envisioned through the integration of terrestrial (TNs) and non-terrestrial networks (NTNs). However, NTNs face multiple routing and Quality of Service (QoS) provisioning challenges due to the mobility of network nodes. Distributed Software-Defined Networking (SDN) combined with Multi-Agent Deep Reinforcement Learning (MADRL) is widely used to introduce programmability and intelligent Traffic Engineering (TE) in TNs, yet applying DRL to NTNs is hindered by frequently changing state sizes, model scalability, and coordination issues. This paper introduces 3DQR, a novel TE framework that combines hierarchical multi-controller SDN, hierarchical MADRL based on Graph Neural Networks (GNNs), and network topology predictions for QoS path provisioning, effective load distribution, and flow rejection minimisation in future 3D networks. To enhance SDN scalability, introduced are metrics and path operations abstractions to facilitate domain agents coordination by the global agent. To the best of the authors’ knowledge, 3DQR is the first routing scheme to integrate MADRL and GNNs for optimising centralised routing and path allocation in SDN-based 3D mobile networks. The evaluations show up to a 14% reduction in flow rejection rate, a 50% improvement in traffic distribution, and effective QoS class prioritisation compared to baseline techniques. 3DQR also exhibits strong transfer capabilities, giving consistent performance gains in previously unseen environments. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Future Generation Non-Terrestrial Networks)
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18 pages, 4848 KiB  
Article
A Small Power Margin and Bandwidth Expansion Allow Data Transmission during Rainfall despite Large Attenuation: Application to GeoSurf Satellite Constellations at mm–Waves
by Emilio Matricciani
Electronics 2024, 13(9), 1639; https://doi.org/10.3390/electronics13091639 - 24 Apr 2024
Viewed by 869
Abstract
The traditional approach of considering the probability distribution of rain attenuation leads to provide very large power margin (overdesign) in data channels. We have extended a method which, with a small power margin, bandwidth expansion and variable symbol rate, avoids overdesign and can [...] Read more.
The traditional approach of considering the probability distribution of rain attenuation leads to provide very large power margin (overdesign) in data channels. We have extended a method which, with a small power margin, bandwidth expansion and variable symbol rate, avoids overdesign and can transfer the same data volume as if the link were in clear–sky conditions. It is characterized only by the link mean efficiency, suitably defined. It is useful only if: (a) data must be up– and downloaded when it is raining; (b) real–time communication is not required. We have applied it to the links of GeoSurf satellite constellations (in which, at any latitude of ground stations, propagation paths are at the local zenith) by simulating rain attenuation time series at 80 GHz (mm–wave)–the new frontier of satellite frequencies–with the Synthetic Storm Technique, from rain–rate time series recorded on–site, at sites located in different climatic regions. The power margin to be implemented at 80 GHz ranges from 2.0 dB to 7.4 dB–well within the current technology–regardless the instantaneous rain attenuation. The clear–sky bandwidth is expanded 1.75 to 2.80 times, a factor not large per se, but it may challenge current technology if the clear–sky bandwidth is already large. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Future Generation Non-Terrestrial Networks)
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23 pages, 7467 KiB  
Article
Architectural Framework and Feasibility of Internet of Things-Driven Mars Exploration via Satellite Constellations
by Oscar Ledesma, Paula Lamo, Juan A. Fraire, María Ruiz and Miguel A. Sánchez
Electronics 2024, 13(7), 1289; https://doi.org/10.3390/electronics13071289 - 30 Mar 2024
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2186
Abstract
This study outlines a technical framework for Internet of Things (IoT) communications on Mars, leveraging Long Range (LoRa) technology to connect Martian surface sensors and orbiting satellites. The designed architecture adapts terrestrial satellite constellation models to Martian environments and the specific needs of [...] Read more.
This study outlines a technical framework for Internet of Things (IoT) communications on Mars, leveraging Long Range (LoRa) technology to connect Martian surface sensors and orbiting satellites. The designed architecture adapts terrestrial satellite constellation models to Martian environments and the specific needs of interplanetary communication with Earth. It incorporates multiple layers, including Martian IoT nodes, satellite linkage, constellation configuration, and Earth communication, emphasizing potential Martian IoT applications. The analysis covers four critical feasibility aspects: the maximum communication range between surface IoT nodes and orbiting satellites, the satellite constellation’s message processing capacity to determine IoT node volume support, the communication frequency and visibility of IoT nodes based on the satellite constellation arrangement, and the interplanetary data transmission capabilities of LoRa-based IoT devices. The findings affirm LoRa’s suitability for Martian IoT communication, demonstrating extensive coverage, sufficient satellite processing capacity for anticipated IoT node volumes, and effective data transmission in challenging interplanetary conditions. This establishes the framework’s viability for advancing Mars exploration and IoT in space exploration contexts. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Future Generation Non-Terrestrial Networks)
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Review

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25 pages, 5087 KiB  
Review
Multi-Layered Satellite Communications Systems for Ultra-High Availability and Resilience
by Marko Höyhtyä, Antti Anttonen, Mikko Majanen, Anastasia Yastrebova-Castillo, Mihaly Varga, Luca Lodigiani, Marius Corici and Hemant Zope
Electronics 2024, 13(7), 1269; https://doi.org/10.3390/electronics13071269 - 29 Mar 2024
Cited by 8 | Viewed by 3902
Abstract
Satellite communications systems provide a means to connect people and devices in hard-to-reach locations. Traditional geostationary orbit (GEO) satellite systems and low Earth orbit (LEO) constellations, having their own strengths and weaknesses, have been used as separate systems serving different markets and customers. [...] Read more.
Satellite communications systems provide a means to connect people and devices in hard-to-reach locations. Traditional geostationary orbit (GEO) satellite systems and low Earth orbit (LEO) constellations, having their own strengths and weaknesses, have been used as separate systems serving different markets and customers. In this article, we analyze how satellite systems in different orbits could be integrated together and used as a multi-layer satellite system (MLSS) to improve communication services. The optimization concerns combining the strengths of different layers that include a larger coverage area as one moves up by each layer of altitude and a shorter delay as one moves down by each layer of altitude. We review the current literature and market estimates and use the information to provide a thorough assessment of the economic, regulatory, and technological enablers of the MLSS. We define the MLSS concept and the architecture and describe our testbed and the simulation tools used as a comprehensive engineering proof-of-concept. The validation results confirm that the MLSS approach can intelligently exploit the smaller jitter of GEO and shorter delay of LEO connections, and it can increase the availability and resilience of communication services. As a main conclusion, we can say that multi-layered networks and the integration of satellite and terrestrial segments seem very promising candidates for future 6G systems. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Future Generation Non-Terrestrial Networks)
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