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Cells
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The Role of PPARs in Disease
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The Role of PPARs in Disease

A special issue of Cells (ISSN 2073-4409). This special issue belongs to the section "Cells of the Cardiovascular System".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (30 April 2020) | Viewed by 73051

Printed Edition Available!
A printed edition of this Special Issue is available here.

Special Issue Editors

Dr. Nicole Wagner

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Guest Editor
Institute of Biology Valrose, University of Nice Sophia Antipolis, 06107 Nice, France
Interests: PPARs; cancer; development; angiogenesis; transcriptional regulation; tumor angiogenesis; mechanisms of tumor progression; cancer treatment
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals
Dr. Kay-Dietrich Wagner

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Guest Editor
CNRS, INSERM, iBV, Université Côte d’Azur, 06107 Nice, France
Interests: vessel formation in development and disease; transcriptional control; epigenetics; cardiovascular disease
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors (PPARs) are nuclear receptors. They function as ligand-activated transcription factors. They exist in three isoforms, PPARα, PPARβ (formerly PPARδ), and PPARγ. For all PPARs, lipids are endogenous ligands, linking them directly to metabolism. PPARs form heterodimers with retinoic X receptors, and, upon ligand binding, modulate gene expression of downstream target genes, depending on the presence of co-repressors or co-activators. This results in a complex, cell type-specific regulation of proliferation, differentiation, and cell survival. Specific synthetic agonists for all PPARs are available. PPARα and PPARγ agonists are already in clinical use for the treatment of hyperlipidemia and type 2 diabetes, respectively. More recently, PPAR β/δ activation came into focus as an interesting novel approach for the treatment of metabolic syndrome and associated cardiovascular diseases.

In summary, PPARs are linked to metabolic disorders and are interesting pharmaceutical targets. However, it remains unclear whether PPARs act as oncogenes or as tumour suppressors. The function of PPARs in different types of cancer is highly controversial at present. This might result from the different experimental models used to examine it and from the varying contribution of PPARs to endothelial cell proliferation, inflammation, and tumour cell proliferation, differentiation, and apoptosis, as all these processes are critically involved in cancer growth. Thus, further clinical studies are required to evaluate the safety of PPAR agonists.

This Special Issue of Cells will bring together the most recent advances in understanding the various aspects of the action of PPARs, from basic science to applied therapeutic approaches, and will provide new insights into our understanding of PPARs.

Sincerely yours,

Dr. Nicole Wagner
Dr. Kay-Dietrich Wagner
Guest Editors

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Keywords

  • PPARs and metabolism
  • PPARs and cancer
  • PPARs in cardiovascular diseases
  • PPARs and immunological responses
  • Molecular mechanisms of PPAR actions
  • PPARs and angiogenesis
  • PPARs in inflammation

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Related Special Issue

Published Papers (11 papers)

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Editorial

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6 pages, 214 KiB  
Editorial
The Role of PPARs in Disease
by Nicole Wagner and Kay-Dietrich Wagner
Cells 2020, 9(11), 2367; https://doi.org/10.3390/cells9112367 - 28 Oct 2020
Cited by 126 | Viewed by 7401
Abstract
Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors (PPARs) are nuclear receptors that function as ligand-activated transcription factors. They exist in three isoforms: PPARα, PPARβ/δ, and PPARγ. For all PPARs, lipids are endogenous ligands, linking them directly to metabolism. PPARs form heterodimers with retinoic X receptors, and upon [...] Read more.
Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors (PPARs) are nuclear receptors that function as ligand-activated transcription factors. They exist in three isoforms: PPARα, PPARβ/δ, and PPARγ. For all PPARs, lipids are endogenous ligands, linking them directly to metabolism. PPARs form heterodimers with retinoic X receptors, and upon ligand binding, they modulate the gene expression of downstream target genes, depending on the presence of co-repressors or co-activators. This results in a complex, cell type-specific regulation of proliferation, differentiation, and cell survival. PPARs are linked to metabolic disorders and are interesting pharmaceutical targets. PPARα and PPARγ agonists are already in clinical use for the treatment of hyperlipidemia and type 2 diabetes, respectively. More recently, PPARβ/δ activation came into focus as an interesting novel approach for the treatment of metabolic syndrome and associated cardiovascular diseases; however, this has been limited due to the highly controversial function of PPARβ/δ in cancer. This Special Issue of Cells brings together the most recent advances in understanding the various aspects of the action of PPARs, and it provides new insights into our understanding of PPARs, implying also the latest therapeutic perspectives for the utility of PPAR modulation in different disease settings. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Role of PPARs in Disease)

Research

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22 pages, 19797 KiB  
Article
In Vitro-Generated Hypertrophic-Like Adipocytes Displaying PPARG Isoforms Unbalance Recapitulate Adipocyte Dysfunctions In Vivo
by Marianna Aprile, Simona Cataldi, Caterina Perfetto, Maria Rosaria Ambrosio, Paola Italiani, Rosarita Tatè, Matthias Blüher, Alfredo Ciccodicola and Valerio Costa
Cells 2020, 9(5), 1284; https://doi.org/10.3390/cells9051284 - 21 May 2020
Cited by 13 | Viewed by 5344
Abstract
Reduced neo-adipogenesis and dysfunctional lipid-overloaded adipocytes are hallmarks of hypertrophic obesity linked to insulin resistance. Identifying molecular features of hypertrophic adipocytes requires appropriate in vitro models. We describe the generation of a model of human hypertrophic-like adipocytes directly comparable to normal adipose cells [...] Read more.
Reduced neo-adipogenesis and dysfunctional lipid-overloaded adipocytes are hallmarks of hypertrophic obesity linked to insulin resistance. Identifying molecular features of hypertrophic adipocytes requires appropriate in vitro models. We describe the generation of a model of human hypertrophic-like adipocytes directly comparable to normal adipose cells and the pathologic evolution toward hypertrophic state. We generate in vitro hypertrophic cells from mature adipocytes, differentiated from human mesenchymal stem cells. Combining optical, confocal, and transmission electron microscopy with mRNA/protein quantification, we characterize this cellular model, confirming specific alterations also in subcutaneous adipose tissue. Specifically, we report the generation and morphological/molecular characterization of human normal and hypertrophic-like adipocytes. The latter displays altered morphology and unbalance between canonical and dominant negative (PPARGΔ5) transcripts of PPARG, paralleled by reduced expression of PPARγ targets, including GLUT4. Furthermore, the unbalance of PPARγ isoforms associates with GLUT4 down-regulation in subcutaneous adipose tissue of individuals with overweight/obesity or impaired glucose tolerance/type 2 diabetes, but not with normal weight or glucose tolerance. In conclusion, the hypertrophic-like cells described herein are an innovative tool for studying molecular dysfunctions in hypertrophic obesity and the unbalance between PPARγ isoforms associates with down-regulation of GLUT4 and other PPARγ targets, representing a new hallmark of hypertrophic adipocytes. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Role of PPARs in Disease)
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15 pages, 1990 KiB  
Article
Vascular Lipidomic Profiling of Potential Endogenous Fatty Acid PPAR Ligands Reveals the Coronary Artery as Major Producer of CYP450-Derived Epoxy Fatty Acids
by Matthew L. Edin, Fred B. Lih, Bruce D. Hammock, Scott Thomson, Darryl C. Zeldin and David Bishop-Bailey
Cells 2020, 9(5), 1096; https://doi.org/10.3390/cells9051096 - 29 Apr 2020
Cited by 11 | Viewed by 4252
Abstract
A number of oxylipins have been described as endogenous PPAR ligands. The very short biological half-lives of oxylipins suggest roles as autocrine or paracrine signaling molecules. While coronary arterial atherosclerosis is the root of myocardial infarction, aortic atherosclerotic plaque formation is a common [...] Read more.
A number of oxylipins have been described as endogenous PPAR ligands. The very short biological half-lives of oxylipins suggest roles as autocrine or paracrine signaling molecules. While coronary arterial atherosclerosis is the root of myocardial infarction, aortic atherosclerotic plaque formation is a common readout of in vivo atherosclerosis studies in mice. Improved understanding of the compartmentalized sources of oxylipin PPAR ligands will increase our knowledge of the roles of PPAR signaling in diverse vascular tissues. Here, we performed a targeted lipidomic analysis of ex vivo-generated oxylipins from porcine aorta, coronary artery, pulmonary artery and perivascular adipose. Cyclooxygenase (COX)-derived prostanoids were the most abundant detectable oxylipin from all tissues. By contrast, the coronary artery produced significantly higher levels of oxylipins from CYP450 pathways than other tissues. The TLR4 ligand LPS induced prostanoid formation in all vascular tissue tested. The 11-HETE, 15-HETE, and 9-HODE were also induced by LPS from the aorta and pulmonary artery but not coronary artery. Epoxy fatty acid (EpFA) formation was largely unaffected by LPS. The pig CYP2J homologue CYP2J34 was expressed in porcine vascular tissue and primary coronary artery smooth muscle cells (pCASMCs) in culture. Treatment of pCASMCs with LPS induced a robust profile of pro-inflammatory target genes: TNFα, ICAM-1, VCAM-1, MCP-1 and CD40L. The soluble epoxide hydrolase inhibitor TPPU, which prevents the breakdown of endogenous CYP-derived EpFAs, significantly suppressed LPS-induced inflammatory target genes. In conclusion, PPAR-activating oxylipins are produced and regulated in a vascular site-specific manner. The CYP450 pathway is highly active in the coronary artery and capable of providing anti-inflammatory oxylipins that prevent processes of inflammatory vascular disease progression. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Role of PPARs in Disease)
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30 pages, 23331 KiB  
Article
Vascular PPARβ/δ Promotes Tumor Angiogenesis and Progression
by Kay-Dietrich Wagner, Siyue Du, Luc Martin, Nathalie Leccia, Jean-François Michiels and Nicole Wagner
Cells 2019, 8(12), 1623; https://doi.org/10.3390/cells8121623 - 12 Dec 2019
Cited by 36 | Viewed by 6213
Abstract
Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors (PPARs) are nuclear receptors, which function as transcription factors. Among them, PPARβ/δ is highly expressed in endothelial cells. Pharmacological activation with PPARβ/δ agonists had been shown to increase their angiogenic properties. PPARβ/δ has been suggested to be involved in the [...] Read more.
Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors (PPARs) are nuclear receptors, which function as transcription factors. Among them, PPARβ/δ is highly expressed in endothelial cells. Pharmacological activation with PPARβ/δ agonists had been shown to increase their angiogenic properties. PPARβ/δ has been suggested to be involved in the regulation of the angiogenic switch in tumor progression. However, until now, it is not clear to what extent the expression of PPARβ/δ in tumor endothelium influences tumor progression and metastasis formation. We addressed this question using transgenic mice with an inducible conditional vascular-specific overexpression of PPARβ/δ. Following specific over-expression of PPARβ/δ in endothelial cells, we induced syngenic tumors. We observed an enhanced tumor growth, a higher vessel density, and enhanced metastasis formation in the tumors of animals with vessel-specific overexpression of PPARβ/δ. In order to identify molecular downstream targets of PPARβ/δ in the tumor endothelium, we sorted endothelial cells from the tumors and performed RNA sequencing. We identified platelet-derived growth factor receptor beta (Pdgfrb), platelet-derived growth factor subunit B (Pdgfb), and the tyrosinkinase KIT (c-Kit) as new PPARβ/δ -dependent molecules. We show here that PPARβ/δ activation, regardless of its action on different cancer cell types, leads to a higher tumor vascularization which favors tumor growth and metastasis formation. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Role of PPARs in Disease)
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Review

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18 pages, 2198 KiB  
Review
PGC-1α in Disease: Recent Renal Insights into a Versatile Metabolic Regulator
by Joseph M. Chambers and Rebecca A. Wingert
Cells 2020, 9(10), 2234; https://doi.org/10.3390/cells9102234 - 3 Oct 2020
Cited by 50 | Viewed by 6967
Abstract
Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma co-activator 1 alpha (PGC-1α) is perhaps best known as a master regulator of mitochondrial biogenesis and function. However, by virtue of its interactions as a coactivator for numerous nuclear receptors and transcription factors, PGC-1α also regulates many tissue-specific tasks [...] Read more.
Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma co-activator 1 alpha (PGC-1α) is perhaps best known as a master regulator of mitochondrial biogenesis and function. However, by virtue of its interactions as a coactivator for numerous nuclear receptors and transcription factors, PGC-1α also regulates many tissue-specific tasks that include adipogenesis, angiogenesis, gluconeogenesis, heme biosynthesis, thermogenesis, and cellular protection against degeneration. Knowledge about these functions continue to be discovered with ongoing research. Unsurprisingly, alterations in PGC-1α expression lead to a range of deleterious outcomes. In this review, we provide a brief background on the PGC-1 family with an overview of PGC-1α’s roles as an adaptive link to meet cellular needs and its pathological consequences in several organ contexts. Among the latter, kidney health is especially reliant on PGC-1α. Thus, we discuss here at length how changes in PGC-1α function impact the states of renal cancer, acute kidney injury (AKI) and chronic kidney disease (CKD), as well as emerging data that illuminate pivotal roles for PGC-1α during renal development. We survey a new intriguing association of PGC-1α function with ciliogenesis and polycystic kidney disease (PKD), where recent animal studies revealed that embryonic renal cyst formation can occur in the context of PGC-1α deficiency. Finally, we explore future prospects for PGC-1α research and therapeutic implications for this multifaceted coactivator. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Role of PPARs in Disease)
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18 pages, 1424 KiB  
Review
Sirt1-PPARS Cross-Talk in Complex Metabolic Diseases and Inherited Disorders of the One Carbon Metabolism
by Viola J. Kosgei, David Coelho, Rosa-Maria Guéant-Rodriguez and Jean-Louis Guéant
Cells 2020, 9(8), 1882; https://doi.org/10.3390/cells9081882 - 11 Aug 2020
Cited by 37 | Viewed by 5682
Abstract
Sirtuin1 (Sirt1) has a NAD (+) binding domain and modulates the acetylation status of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-γ coactivator-1α (PGC1α) and Fork Head Box O1 transcription factor (Foxo1) according to the nutritional status. Sirt1 is decreased in obese patients and increased in weight loss. [...] Read more.
Sirtuin1 (Sirt1) has a NAD (+) binding domain and modulates the acetylation status of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-γ coactivator-1α (PGC1α) and Fork Head Box O1 transcription factor (Foxo1) according to the nutritional status. Sirt1 is decreased in obese patients and increased in weight loss. Its decreased expression explains part of the pathomechanisms of the metabolic syndrome, diabetes mellitus type 2 (DT2), cardiovascular diseases and nonalcoholic liver disease. Sirt1 plays an important role in the differentiation of adipocytes and in insulin signaling regulated by Foxo1 and phosphatidylinositol 3′-kinase (PI3K) signaling. Its overexpression attenuates inflammation and macrophage infiltration induced by a high fat diet. Its decreased expression plays a prominent role in the heart, liver and brain of rat as manifestations of fetal programming produced by deficit in vitamin B12 and folate during pregnancy and lactation through imbalanced methylation/acetylation of PGC1α and altered expression and methylation of nuclear receptors. The decreased expression of Sirt1 produced by impaired cellular availability of vitamin B12 results from endoplasmic reticulum stress through subcellular mislocalization of ELAVL1/HuR protein that shuttles Sirt1 mRNA between the nucleus and cytoplasm. Preclinical and clinical studies of Sirt1 agonists have produced contrasted results in the treatment of the metabolic syndrome. A preclinical study has produced promising results in the treatment of inherited disorders of vitamin B12 metabolism. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Role of PPARs in Disease)
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53 pages, 3403 KiB  
Review
Peroxisome Proliferator-Activated Receptors and Their Novel Ligands as Candidates for the Treatment of Non-Alcoholic Fatty Liver Disease
by Anne Fougerat, Alexandra Montagner, Nicolas Loiseau, Hervé Guillou and Walter Wahli
Cells 2020, 9(7), 1638; https://doi.org/10.3390/cells9071638 - 8 Jul 2020
Cited by 87 | Viewed by 7378
Abstract
Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) is a major health issue worldwide, frequently associated with obesity and type 2 diabetes. Steatosis is the initial stage of the disease, which is characterized by lipid accumulation in hepatocytes, which can progress to non-alcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH) with [...] Read more.
Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) is a major health issue worldwide, frequently associated with obesity and type 2 diabetes. Steatosis is the initial stage of the disease, which is characterized by lipid accumulation in hepatocytes, which can progress to non-alcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH) with inflammation and various levels of fibrosis that further increase the risk of developing cirrhosis and hepatocellular carcinoma. The pathogenesis of NAFLD is influenced by interactions between genetic and environmental factors and involves several biological processes in multiple organs. No effective therapy is currently available for the treatment of NAFLD. Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors (PPARs) are nuclear receptors that regulate many functions that are disturbed in NAFLD, including glucose and lipid metabolism, as well as inflammation. Thus, they represent relevant clinical targets for NAFLD. In this review, we describe the determinants and mechanisms underlying the pathogenesis of NAFLD, its progression and complications, as well as the current therapeutic strategies that are employed. We also focus on the complementary and distinct roles of PPAR isotypes in many biological processes and on the effects of first-generation PPAR agonists. Finally, we review novel and safe PPAR agonists with improved efficacy and their potential use in the treatment of NAFLD. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Role of PPARs in Disease)
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27 pages, 1291 KiB  
Review
Alzheimer’s Disease, a Lipid Story: Involvement of Peroxisome Proliferator-Activated Receptor α
by Francisco Sáez-Orellana, Jean-Noël Octave and Nathalie Pierrot
Cells 2020, 9(5), 1215; https://doi.org/10.3390/cells9051215 - 14 May 2020
Cited by 32 | Viewed by 5702
Abstract
Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is the leading cause of dementia in the elderly. Mutations in genes encoding proteins involved in amyloid-β peptide (Aβ) production are responsible for inherited AD cases. The amyloid cascade hypothesis was proposed to explain the pathogeny. Despite the fact that [...] Read more.
Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is the leading cause of dementia in the elderly. Mutations in genes encoding proteins involved in amyloid-β peptide (Aβ) production are responsible for inherited AD cases. The amyloid cascade hypothesis was proposed to explain the pathogeny. Despite the fact that Aβ is considered as the main culprit of the pathology, most clinical trials focusing on Aβ failed and suggested that earlier interventions are needed to influence the course of AD. Therefore, identifying risk factors that predispose to AD is crucial. Among them, the epsilon 4 allele of the apolipoprotein E gene that encodes the major brain lipid carrier and metabolic disorders such as obesity and type 2 diabetes were identified as AD risk factors, suggesting that abnormal lipid metabolism could influence the progression of the disease. Among lipids, fatty acids (FAs) play a fundamental role in proper brain function, including memory. Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor α (PPARα) is a master metabolic regulator that regulates the catabolism of FA. Several studies report an essential role of PPARα in neuronal function governing synaptic plasticity and cognition. In this review, we explore the implication of lipid metabolism in AD, with a special focus on PPARα and its potential role in AD therapy. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Role of PPARs in Disease)
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22 pages, 356 KiB  
Review
Therapeutic Potential of Peroxisome Proliferator-Activated Receptor (PPAR) Agonists in Substance Use Disorders: A Synthesis of Preclinical and Human Evidence
by Justin Matheson and Bernard Le Foll
Cells 2020, 9(5), 1196; https://doi.org/10.3390/cells9051196 - 12 May 2020
Cited by 28 | Viewed by 3590
Abstract
Targeting peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors (PPARs) has received increasing interest as a potential strategy to treat substance use disorders due to the localization of PPARs in addiction-related brain regions and the ability of PPAR ligands to modulate dopamine neurotransmission. Robust evidence from animal models [...] Read more.
Targeting peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors (PPARs) has received increasing interest as a potential strategy to treat substance use disorders due to the localization of PPARs in addiction-related brain regions and the ability of PPAR ligands to modulate dopamine neurotransmission. Robust evidence from animal models suggests that agonists at both the PPAR-α and PPAR-γ isoforms can reduce both positive and negative reinforcing properties of ethanol, nicotine, opioids, and possibly psychostimulants. A reduction in the voluntary consumption of ethanol following treatment with PPAR agonists seems to be the most consistent finding. However, the human evidence is limited in scope and has so far been less promising. There have been no published human trials of PPAR agonists for treatment of alcohol use disorder, despite the compelling preclinical evidence. Two trials of PPAR-α agonists as potential smoking cessation drugs found no effect on nicotine-related outcomes. The PPAR-γ agonist pioglitazone showed some promise in reducing heroin, nicotine, and cocaine craving in two human laboratory studies and one pilot trial, yet other outcomes were unaffected. Potential explanations for the discordance between the animal and human evidence, such as the potency and selectivity of PPAR ligands and sex-related variability in PPAR physiology, are discussed. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Role of PPARs in Disease)
29 pages, 368 KiB  
Review
PPAR Beta/Delta and the Hallmarks of Cancer
by Nicole Wagner and Kay-Dietrich Wagner
Cells 2020, 9(5), 1133; https://doi.org/10.3390/cells9051133 - 4 May 2020
Cited by 86 | Viewed by 9875
Abstract
Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors (PPARs) belong to the nuclear hormone receptor family. Three different isoforms, PPAR alpha, PPAR beta/delta and PPAR gamma have been identified. They all form heterodimers with retinoic X receptors to activate or repress downstream target genes dependent on the presence/absence [...] Read more.
Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors (PPARs) belong to the nuclear hormone receptor family. Three different isoforms, PPAR alpha, PPAR beta/delta and PPAR gamma have been identified. They all form heterodimers with retinoic X receptors to activate or repress downstream target genes dependent on the presence/absence of ligands and coactivators or corepressors. PPARs differ in their tissue expression profile, ligands and specific agonists and antagonists. PPARs attract attention as potential therapeutic targets for a variety of diseases. PPAR alpha and gamma agonists are in clinical use for the treatment of dyslipidemias and diabetes. For both receptors, several clinical trials as potential therapeutic targets for cancer are ongoing. In contrast, PPAR beta/delta has been suggested as a therapeutic target for metabolic syndrome. However, potential risks in the settings of cancer are less clear. A variety of studies have investigated PPAR beta/delta expression or activation/inhibition in different cancer cell models in vitro, but the relevance for cancer growth in vivo is less well documented and controversial. In this review, we summarize critically the knowledge of PPAR beta/delta functions for the different hallmarks of cancer biological capabilities, which interplay to determine cancer growth. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Role of PPARs in Disease)
22 pages, 6568 KiB  
Review
PPAR-Mediated Toxicology and Applied Pharmacology
by Yue Xi, Yunhui Zhang, Sirui Zhu, Yuping Luo, Pengfei Xu and Zhiying Huang
Cells 2020, 9(2), 352; https://doi.org/10.3390/cells9020352 - 3 Feb 2020
Cited by 61 | Viewed by 8227
Abstract
Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors (PPARs), members of the nuclear hormone receptor family, attract wide attention as promising therapeutic targets for the treatment of multiple diseases, and their target selective ligands were also intensively developed for pharmacological agents such as the approved drugs fibrates and [...] Read more.
Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors (PPARs), members of the nuclear hormone receptor family, attract wide attention as promising therapeutic targets for the treatment of multiple diseases, and their target selective ligands were also intensively developed for pharmacological agents such as the approved drugs fibrates and thiazolidinediones (TZDs). Despite their potent pharmacological activities, PPARs are reported to be involved in agent- and pollutant-induced multiple organ toxicity or protective effects against toxicity. A better understanding of the protective and the detrimental role of PPARs will help to preserve efficacy of the PPAR modulators but diminish adverse effects. The present review summarizes and critiques current findings related to PPAR-mediated types of toxicity and protective effects against toxicity for a systematic understanding of PPARs in toxicology and applied pharmacology. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Role of PPARs in Disease)
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