Biosensors

Research

19 pages, 4762 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Enzyme Biosensor Based on 3D-Printed Flow-Through Reactor Modified with Thiacalixarene-Functionalized Oligo (Lactic Acids)

by Dmitry Stoikov, Dominika Kappo, Alexey Ivanov, Vladimir Gorbachuk, Olga Mostovaya, Pavel Padnya, Ivan Stoikov and Gennady Evtugyn

Biosensors 2025, 15(2), 77; https://doi.org/10.3390/bios15020077 - 29 Jan 2025

Viewed by 879

Abstract

Electrochemical enzyme biosensors are extensively utilized in clinical analysis and environmental monitoring, yet achieving effective enzyme immobilization while maintaining high activity remains a challenge. In this work, we developed a flow-through enzyme biosensor system using a 3D-printed flow-through electrochemical cell fabricated from commercially [...] Read more.

Electrochemical enzyme biosensors are extensively utilized in clinical analysis and environmental monitoring, yet achieving effective enzyme immobilization while maintaining high activity remains a challenge. In this work, we developed a flow-through enzyme biosensor system using a 3D-printed flow-through electrochemical cell fabricated from commercially available poly (lactic acid). After modification with thiacalixarene-functionalized oligo (lactic acids) (OLAs), the material enabled efficient immobilization of uricase on the inner surface of a replaceable reactor of the cell. Swelling and hydrolytic stability of OLAs in cone, partial cone, and 1,3-alternate conformations were studied, with 1,3-alernate conformation demonstrating superior stability and enzyme immobilization performance. The use of OLAs enhanced immobilization efficiency by over 30% and protected the reactor from swelling, hydrolytic degradation, and enzyme loss. The biosensor was validated for amperometric uric acid determination, with a screen-printed carbon electrode modified with carbon black and Prussian Blue. This modification reduced the cathodic potential for uric acid detection to –0.05 V. The biosensor exhibited a linear detection range of 10 nM to 30 μM with a detection limit of 7 nM, and it performed effectively in artificial urine and synthetic blood plasma. The novel cell design, featuring easy assembly and low-cost replaceable parts, makes this biosensor a promising candidate for routine clinical analysis and other practical applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Feature Paper in Biosensor and Bioelectronic Devices 2024)

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11 pages, 3947 KiB

Open AccessArticle

BSA-Assisted Synthesis of Au Nanoclusters/MnO₂ Nanosheets for Fluorescence “Switch-On” Detection of Alkaline Phosphatase

by Yijiong Xue, Chengqi Bao, Hui Liu, Fanghui Ma, Minghui Yang and Xiaoqing Li

Biosensors 2025, 15(1), 49; https://doi.org/10.3390/bios15010049 - 15 Jan 2025

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 943

Abstract

A fluorescence probe for “switch-on” detection of alkaline phosphatase (ALP) was developed based on Au nanoclusters anchored MnO₂ nanosheets (Au NCs-MnO₂ NSs), which were synthesized using bovine serum albumin (BSA) as template through a simple one-pot approach. In the sensing system, [...] Read more.

A fluorescence probe for “switch-on” detection of alkaline phosphatase (ALP) was developed based on Au nanoclusters anchored MnO₂ nanosheets (Au NCs-MnO₂ NSs), which were synthesized using bovine serum albumin (BSA) as template through a simple one-pot approach. In the sensing system, MnO₂ NSs function as both energy acceptors and target identifiers, effectively quenches the fluorescence of Au NCs via fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET). The presence of ALP catalyzes the hydrolysis of L-ascorbic acid-2-phosphate (AAP) to ascorbic acid (AA), reducing MnO₂ NSs to Mn²⁺ and facilitate the fluorescence recovery of Au NCs. The fluorescence assay offers the advantages of facile preparation, cost-effectiveness, good specificity, and high sensitivity. Moreover, the assay exhibits a broad linear range (0.005 U/mL to 8 U/mL) for ALP detection with a remarkable limit of detection of 0.0015 U/mL. Notably, this assay demonstrates promising applicability for detection ALP in human serum samples, thereby providing valuable potential for clinical applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Feature Paper in Biosensor and Bioelectronic Devices 2024)

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17 pages, 2598 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Anti-Tissue-Transglutaminase IgA Antibodies Presence Determination Using Electrochemical Square Wave Voltammetry and Modified Electrodes Based on Polypyrrole and Quantum Dots

by Angela Gabriela Pãun, Simona Popescu, Alisa Ioana Ungureanu, Roxana Trusca, Alina Popp, Cristina Dumitriu and George-Octavian Buica

Biosensors 2025, 15(1), 42; https://doi.org/10.3390/bios15010042 - 13 Jan 2025

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 963

Abstract

A novel electrochemical detection method utilizing a cost-effective hybrid-modified electrode has been established. A glassy carbon (GC) modified electrode was tested for its ability to measure electrochemical tTG antibody levels, which are essential for diagnosing and monitoring Celiac disease (CD). Tissue transglutaminase protein [...] Read more.

A novel electrochemical detection method utilizing a cost-effective hybrid-modified electrode has been established. A glassy carbon (GC) modified electrode was tested for its ability to measure electrochemical tTG antibody levels, which are essential for diagnosing and monitoring Celiac disease (CD). Tissue transglutaminase protein biomolecules are immobilized on a quantum dots-polypyrrole nanocomposite in the improved electrode. Initial, quantum dots (QDs) were obtained from Bombyx mori silk fibroin and embedded in polypyrrole film. Using carbodiimide coupling, a polyamidoamine (PAMAM) dendrimer was linked with GQDs-polypyrrole film to improve sensor sensitivity. The tissue transglutaminase (tTG) antigen was cross-linked onto PAMAM using N-(3-dimethylaminopropyl)-N′-ethylcarbodiimide hydrochloride (EDC)-N-hydroxy succinimide (NHS) chemistry to develop a nanoprobe that can detect human serum anti-tTG antibodies. The physicochemical characteristics of the synthesized nanocomposite were examined by FTIR, UV-visible, FE-SEM, EDX, and electrochemical studies. The novel electrode measures anti-tissue antibody levels in real time using human blood serum samples. The modified electrode has great repeatability and an 8.7 U/mL detection limit. Serum samples from healthy people and CD patients were compared to standard ELISA kit assays. SPSS and Excel were used for statistical analysis. The improved electrode and detection system can identify anti-tissue antibodies up to 80 U/mL. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Feature Paper in Biosensor and Bioelectronic Devices 2024)

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17 pages, 2167 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Stress Monitoring in Pandemic Screening: Insights from GSR Sensor and Machine Learning Analysis

by Antonios Georgas, Anna Panagiotakopoulou, Grigorios Bitsikas, Katerina Vlantoni, Angelo Ferraro and Evangelos Hristoforou

Biosensors 2025, 15(1), 14; https://doi.org/10.3390/bios15010014 - 2 Jan 2025

Viewed by 1759

Abstract

This study investigates the impact of patient stress on COVID-19 screening. An attempt was made to measure the level of anxiety of individuals undertaking rapid tests for SARS-CoV-2. To this end, a galvanic skin response (GSR) sensor that was connected to a microcontroller [...] Read more.

This study investigates the impact of patient stress on COVID-19 screening. An attempt was made to measure the level of anxiety of individuals undertaking rapid tests for SARS-CoV-2. To this end, a galvanic skin response (GSR) sensor that was connected to a microcontroller was used to record the individual stress levels. GSR data were collected from 51 individuals at SARS-CoV-2 testing sites. The recorded data were then compared with theoretical estimates to draw insights into stress patterns. Machine learning analysis was applied for the optimization of the sensor results. Classification algorithms allowed the automatic reading of the sensor results and individual identification as “stressed” or “not stressed”. The findings confirmed the initial hypothesis that there was a significant increase in stress levels during the rapid test. This observation is critical, as heightened anxiety may influence a patient’s willingness to participate in screening procedures, potentially reducing the effectiveness of public health screening strategies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Feature Paper in Biosensor and Bioelectronic Devices 2024)

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12 pages, 2809 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Microspectrometer-Enabled Real-Time Concentration Monitoring in the Microfluidic Protein Enrichment Chip

by Dong-Li Li, Wen-Shu Huang, Yi Hung Wu and Chun-Ping Jen

Biosensors 2025, 15(1), 1; https://doi.org/10.3390/bios15010001 - 24 Dec 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 971

Abstract

This study presents a novel microspectrometer-integrated microfluidic system for real-time protein concentration monitoring. The device employs electrokinetic principles for efficient protein preconcentration in a PDMS and Nafion film channel. Using FITC-labeled BSA as a model protein, the system demonstrated a linear correlation between [...] Read more.

This study presents a novel microspectrometer-integrated microfluidic system for real-time protein concentration monitoring. The device employs electrokinetic principles for efficient protein preconcentration in a PDMS and Nafion film channel. Using FITC-labeled BSA as a model protein, the system demonstrated a linear correlation between protein concentration and absorbance at 491 nm. Notably, it achieved a 833-fold concentration increase from an initial 10 nM within 20 min. The compact microspectrometer system offers enhanced accuracy and sensitivity compared to traditional fluorescence microscopy methods. This innovation presents a promising solution for portable and point-of-care diagnostic applications, facilitating timely disease detection and monitoring. The findings highlight the potential for this technology to advance protein analysis and biomarker discovery in clinical settings, potentially improving patient outcomes through enhanced diagnostic capabilities. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Feature Paper in Biosensor and Bioelectronic Devices 2024)

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18 pages, 5794 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Competitive Electrochemical Apta-Assay Based on cDNA–Ferrocene and MXenes for Staphylococcus aureus Surface Protein A Detection

by Ana-Maria Tătaru, Alexandra Canciu, Alin-Dan Chiorean, Ioana Runcan, Alexandru Radu, Mădălina Adriana Bordea, Maria Suciu, Mihaela Tertiș, Andreea Cernat and Cecilia Cristea

Biosensors 2024, 14(12), 636; https://doi.org/10.3390/bios14120636 - 21 Dec 2024

Viewed by 1109

Abstract

Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus) represents one of the most frequent worldwide causes of morbidity and mortality due to an infectious agent. It is a part of the infamous ESKAPE group, which is highly connected with increased rates of healthcare-associated infections and [...] Read more.

Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus) represents one of the most frequent worldwide causes of morbidity and mortality due to an infectious agent. It is a part of the infamous ESKAPE group, which is highly connected with increased rates of healthcare-associated infections and antimicrobial resistance. S. aureus can cause a large variety of diseases. Protein A (PrA) is a cell-wall-anchored protein of S. aureus with multiple key roles in colonization and pathogenesis and can be considered as a marker of S. aureus. The development of aptasensors, having an aptamer as a specific biorecognition element, increases selectivity, especially when working with complex matrices. The association with state-of-the-art materials, such as MXenes, can further improve the analytical performance. A competitive aptasensor configuration based on a ferrocene (Fc)-labeled cDNA hybridized (cDNA-Fc S13) on a specific aptamer (APT) for PrA in the presence of MXene nanosheets was designed for the indirect detection of S. aureus. The aptasensor displayed a linear range of 10–125 nM, an LOD of 3.33 nM, and a response time under 40 min. This configuration has been tested in real samples from volunteers diagnosed with S. aureus infections with satisfactory results, enabling the perspective to develop decentralized devices for the rapid detection of bacterial strains. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Feature Paper in Biosensor and Bioelectronic Devices 2024)

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17 pages, 4829 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Cell-Based Electrochemical Biosensor for the Detection of Infectious Hepatitis A Virus

by Dilmeet Kaur, Malak A. Esseili and Ramaraja P. Ramasamy

Biosensors 2024, 14(12), 576; https://doi.org/10.3390/bios14120576 - 27 Nov 2024

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1427

Abstract

Hepatitis A virus (HAV), a major cause of acute liver infections, is transmitted through the fecal–oral route and close contact with infected individuals. Current HAV standardized methods rely on the detection of virus antigen or RNA, which do not differentiate between infectious and [...] Read more.

Hepatitis A virus (HAV), a major cause of acute liver infections, is transmitted through the fecal–oral route and close contact with infected individuals. Current HAV standardized methods rely on the detection of virus antigen or RNA, which do not differentiate between infectious and non-infectious HAV. The objective of this study was to develop a prototype cell-based electrochemical biosensor for detection of infectious HAV. A cell culture-adapted HAV strain (HM175/18f) and its permissive cells (FRhK-4), along with gold nanoparticle-modified screen-printed electrodes, were used to develop the biosensor. Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy was used to quantify the electrical impedance signal. Nyquist plots showed successful fabrication of the cell-based biosensor. The optimum period of HAV incubation with the biosensor was 6 h. A significant linear relationship (R² = 0.98) was found between the signal and a 6-log range of HAV titers, with a limit of detection of ~5 TCID₅₀/mL (tissue culture infectious dose). The biosensor did not detect non-target viruses such as feline calicivirus and human coronavirus 229E. The biosensor was stable for 3 to 7 days at an abusive temperature (37 °C), retaining ~90 to 60% of the original signal, respectively. In conclusion, this prototype cell-based biosensor is capable of rapidly detecting low levels of infectious HAV. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Feature Paper in Biosensor and Bioelectronic Devices 2024)

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12 pages, 1275 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Choline Oxidase-Incorporated ATRP-Based Cerium Nanogels as Nanozymes for Colorimetric Detection of Hydrogen Peroxide and Choline

by Trung Hieu Vu, Byung Jo Yu and Moon Il Kim

Biosensors 2024, 14(12), 563; https://doi.org/10.3390/bios14120563 - 21 Nov 2024

Viewed by 1062

Abstract

Choline is an important molecule in monitoring food safety and infant nutrition. Here, we report Ce nanogels synthesized by atom transfer radical polymerization (ATRP) employing Ce-coordinated acryloyl-lysine polymer brushes (Ce@SiO₂ NGs) as highly efficient cascade nanozymes for colorimetric detection of choline. The [...] Read more.

Choline is an important molecule in monitoring food safety and infant nutrition. Here, we report Ce nanogels synthesized by atom transfer radical polymerization (ATRP) employing Ce-coordinated acryloyl-lysine polymer brushes (Ce@SiO₂ NGs) as highly efficient cascade nanozymes for colorimetric detection of choline. The synthesized Ce@SiO₂ NGs demonstrated remarkable peroxidase-like activity with a porous exterior, which are essential to entrap choline oxidase (COx) to yield COx@Ce@SiO₂ NGs and construct a cascade reaction system to detect choline. Immobilized COx catalyzed the oxidation of choline in food samples to produce H₂O₂, which subsequently induced the oxidation of chromogenic substrate 3,3′,5,5′-tetramethylbenzidine (TMB) to produce blue color signals. This method enabled the selective and sensitive detection of target choline with a satisfactory linear range of 4–400 μM, which is sufficient to analyze foodborne choline. The practical utility of the COx@Ce@SiO₂ NG-based assay was successfully validated to determine choline spiked in commercially available milk and infant formula with high accuracy and precision values. This approach provides a simple and affordable method of choline detection and has the potential to lead to more developments in ATRP-based nanozymes for diverse biosensing applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Feature Paper in Biosensor and Bioelectronic Devices 2024)

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10 pages, 1238 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Noninvasive Monitoring of Glycemia Level in Diabetic Patients by Wearable Advanced Biosensors

by Elena V. Daboss, Maria A. Komkova, Vita N. Nikitina, Egor A. Andreev, Darya V. Vokhmyanina and Arkady A. Karyakin

Biosensors 2024, 14(10), 486; https://doi.org/10.3390/bios14100486 - 8 Oct 2024

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2150

Abstract

We report on the possibility of noninvasive diabetes monitoring through continuous analysis of sweat. The prediction of the blood glucose level in diabetic patients is possible on the basis of their sweat glucose content due to the positive correlation discovered. The ratio between [...] Read more.

We report on the possibility of noninvasive diabetes monitoring through continuous analysis of sweat. The prediction of the blood glucose level in diabetic patients is possible on the basis of their sweat glucose content due to the positive correlation discovered. The ratio between the blood glucose and sweat glucose concentrations for a certain diabetic subject is stable within weeks, excluding requirements for frequent blood probing. The glucose variations in sweat display allometric (non-linear) dependence on those in blood, allowing more precise blood glucose estimation. Selective (avoiding false-positive responses) and sensitive (sweat glucose is on average 30–50 times lower) detection is possible with biosensors based on the glucose oxidase enzyme coupled with a Prussian Blue transducer. Reliable glucose detection in just secreted sweat would allow noninvasive monitoring of the glycemia level in diabetic patients. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Feature Paper in Biosensor and Bioelectronic Devices 2024)

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Graphical abstract

10 pages, 2607 KiB

Open AccessCommunication

Optical Interferometric Device for Rapid and Specific Detection of Biological Cells

by Sándor Valkai, Dániel Petrovszki, Zsombor Fáskerti, Margaréta Baumgärtner, Brigitta Biczók, Kira Dakos, Kevin Dósa, Berill B. Kirner, Anna E. Kocsis, Krisztina Nagy, István Andó and András Dér

Biosensors 2024, 14(9), 421; https://doi.org/10.3390/bios14090421 - 29 Aug 2024

Viewed by 4673

Abstract

Here, we report a rapid and accurate optical method for detecting cells from liquid samples in a label-free manner. The working principle of the method is based on the interference of parts of a conical laser beam, coming from a single-mode optical fiber [...] Read more.

Here, we report a rapid and accurate optical method for detecting cells from liquid samples in a label-free manner. The working principle of the method is based on the interference of parts of a conical laser beam, coming from a single-mode optical fiber directly, and reflected from a flat glass surface. The glass is functionalized by antibodies against the cells to be detected from the liquid sample. Cells bound to that surface modify the reflected beam, and hence, change the resulting interference pattern, too. By registering and interpreting the variation in the image, the presence of cells from the sample can be detected. As for a demonstration, cell suspensions from a U937 cell line were used in glass chambers functionalized by antibodies (TMG6-5 (mIgG1)) to which the cells specifically bind. The limit of detection (LOD) of the method was also estimated. This proof-of-concept setup offers a cost-effective and easy-to-use way of rapid and specific detection of any type of cells (including pathogens) from suspensions (e.g., body fluids). The possible portability of the device predicts its applicability as a rapid test in clinical diagnostics. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Feature Paper in Biosensor and Bioelectronic Devices 2024)

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10 pages, 2573 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A 3D-Printed Do-It-Yourself ELISA Plate Reader as a Biosensor Tested on TNFα Assay

by Miroslav Pohanka, Ondřej Keresteš and Jitka Žáková

Biosensors 2024, 14(7), 331; https://doi.org/10.3390/bios14070331 - 6 Jul 2024

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2351

Abstract

Simple analytical devices suitable for the analysis of various biochemical and immunechemical markers are highly desirable and can provide laboratory diagnoses outside standard hospitals. This study focuses on constructing an easily reproducible do-it-yourself ELISA plate reader biosensor device, assembled from generally available and [...] Read more.

Simple analytical devices suitable for the analysis of various biochemical and immunechemical markers are highly desirable and can provide laboratory diagnoses outside standard hospitals. This study focuses on constructing an easily reproducible do-it-yourself ELISA plate reader biosensor device, assembled from generally available and inexpensive parts. The colorimetric biosensor was based on standard 96-well microplates, 3D-printed parts, and a smartphone camera as a detector was utilized here as a tool to replace the ELISA method, and its function was illustrated in the assay of TNFα as a model immunochemical marker. The assay provided a limit of detection of 19 pg/mL when the B channel of the RGB color model was used for calibration. The assay was well correlated with the ELISA method, and no significant matrix effect was observed for standard biological samples or interference of proteins expected in a sample. The results of this study will inform the development of simple analytical devices easily reproducible by 3D printing and found on generally available electronics. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Feature Paper in Biosensor and Bioelectronic Devices 2024)

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14 pages, 2533 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Soft-Template-Based Manufacturing of Gold Nanostructures for Energy and Sensing Applications

by Tushar Kanti Maiti, Wanli Liu, Asghar Niyazi, Adam M. Squires, Sujay Chattpoadhyay and Mirella Di Lorenzo

Biosensors 2024, 14(6), 289; https://doi.org/10.3390/bios14060289 - 3 Jun 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1438

Abstract

Implantable and wearable bioelectronic systems can enable tailored therapies for the effective management of long-term diseases, thus minimising the risk of associated complications. In this context, glucose fuel cells hold great promise as in- or on-body energy harvesters for ultra-low-power bioelectronics and as [...] Read more.

Implantable and wearable bioelectronic systems can enable tailored therapies for the effective management of long-term diseases, thus minimising the risk of associated complications. In this context, glucose fuel cells hold great promise as in- or on-body energy harvesters for ultra-low-power bioelectronics and as self-powered glucose sensors. We report here the generation of gold nanostructures through a gold electrodeposition method in a soft template for the abiotic electrocatalysis of glucose in glucose fuel cells. Two different types of soft template were used: a lipid cubic phase-based soft template composed of Phytantriol and Brij^®-56, and an emulsion-based soft template composed of hexane and sodium dodecyl sulphate (SDS). The resulting gold structures were first characterised by SAXS, SEM and TEM to elucidate their structure, and then their electrocatalytic activity towards glucose was compared in both a three-electrode set-up and in a fuel cell set-up. The Phytantriol/Brij^®-56 template led to a nanofeather-like Au structure, while the hexane/SDS template led to a nanocoral-like Au structure. These templated electrodes exhibited similar electrochemical active surface areas (0.446 cm² with a roughness factor (RF) of 14.2 for Phytantriol/Brij^®-56 templated nanostructures and 0.421 cm² with an RF of 13.4 for hexane/SDS templated nanostructures), and a sensitivity towards glucose of over 7 μA mM⁻¹ cm⁻². When tested as the anode of an abiotic glucose fuel cell (in a phosphate-buffered solution with a glucose concentration of 6 mM), a maximum power density of 7 μW cm⁻² was reached; however the current density in the case of the fuel cell with the Phytantriol/Brij^®-56 templated anode was approximately two times higher, reaching the value of 70 μA cm⁻². Overall, this study demonstrates two simple, cost-effective and efficient strategies to manipulate the morphology of gold nanostructures, and thus their catalytic property, paving the way for the successful manufacturing of functional abiotic glucose fuel cells. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Feature Paper in Biosensor and Bioelectronic Devices 2024)

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Review

Jump to: Research, Other

35 pages, 11162 KiB

Open AccessReview

Hydrogen Peroxide Fuel Cells and Self-Powered Electrochemical Sensors Based on the Principle of a Fuel Cell with Biomimetic and Nanozyme Catalysts

by Yunong Zhang, Yuxin Liu, Andreas Offenhäusser and Yulia Mourzina

Biosensors 2025, 15(2), 124; https://doi.org/10.3390/bios15020124 - 19 Feb 2025

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 926

Abstract

The operating principle of a fuel cell is attracting increasing attention in the development of self-powered electrochemical sensors (SPESs). In this type of sensor, the chemical energy of the analyzed substance is converted into electrical energy in a galvanic cell through spontaneous electrochemical [...] Read more.

The operating principle of a fuel cell is attracting increasing attention in the development of self-powered electrochemical sensors (SPESs). In this type of sensor, the chemical energy of the analyzed substance is converted into electrical energy in a galvanic cell through spontaneous electrochemical reactions, directly generating an analytical signal. Unlike conventional (amperometric, voltammetric, and impedimetric) sensors, no external energy in the form of an applied potential is required for the redox detection reactions to occur. SPESs therefore have several important advantages over conventional electrochemical sensors. They do not require a power supply and modulation system, which saves energy and costs. The devices also offer greater simplicity and are therefore more compatible for applications in wearable sensor devices as well as in vivo and in situ use. Due to the dual redox properties of hydrogen peroxide, it is possible to develop membraneless fuel cells and fuel-cell-based hydrogen peroxide SPESs, in which hydrogen peroxide in the analyzed sample is used as the only source of energy, as both an oxidant and a reductant (fuel). This also suppresses the dependence of the devices on the availability of oxygen. Electrode catalyst materials for different hydrogen peroxide reaction pathways at the cathode and the anode in a one-compartment cell are a key technology for the implementation and characteristics of hydrogen peroxide SPESs. This article provides an overview of the operating principle and designs of H₂O₂–H₂O₂ fuel cells and H₂O₂ fuel-cell-based SPESs, focusing on biomimetic and nanozyme catalysts, and highlights recent innovations and prospects of hydrogen-peroxide-based SPESs for (bio)electrochemical analysis. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Feature Paper in Biosensor and Bioelectronic Devices 2024)

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37 pages, 8367 KiB

Open AccessReview

Advances in Surface-Enhanced Raman Spectroscopy for Urinary Metabolite Analysis: Exploiting Noble Metal Nanohybrids

by Ningbin Zhao, Peizheng Shi, Zengxian Wang, Zhuang Sun, Kaiqiang Sun, Chen Ye, Li Fu and Cheng-Te Lin

Biosensors 2024, 14(12), 564; https://doi.org/10.3390/bios14120564 - 21 Nov 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1189

Abstract

This review examines recent advances in surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy (SERS) for urinary metabolite analysis, focusing on the development and application of noble metal nanohybrids. We explore the diverse range of hybrid materials, including carbon-based, metal–organic-framework (MOF), silicon-based, semiconductor, and polymer-based systems, which have [...] Read more.

This review examines recent advances in surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy (SERS) for urinary metabolite analysis, focusing on the development and application of noble metal nanohybrids. We explore the diverse range of hybrid materials, including carbon-based, metal–organic-framework (MOF), silicon-based, semiconductor, and polymer-based systems, which have significantly improved SERS performance for detecting key urinary biomarkers. The principles underlying SERS enhancement in these nanohybrids are discussed, elucidating both electromagnetic and chemical enhancement mechanisms. We analyze various fabrication methods that enable precise control over nanostructure morphology, composition, and surface chemistry. The review critically evaluates the analytical performance of different hybrid systems for detecting specific urinary metabolites, considering factors such as sensitivity, selectivity, and stability. We address the analytical challenges associated with SERS-based urinary metabolite analysis, including sample preparation, matrix effects, and data interpretation. Innovative solutions, such as the integration of SERS with microfluidic devices and the application of machine learning algorithms for spectral analysis, are highlighted. The potential of these advanced SERS platforms for point-of-care diagnostics and personalized medicine is discussed, along with future perspectives on wearable SERS sensors and multi-modal analysis techniques. This comprehensive overview provides insights into the current state and future directions of SERS technology for urinary metabolite detection, emphasizing its potential to revolutionize non-invasive health monitoring and disease diagnosis. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Feature Paper in Biosensor and Bioelectronic Devices 2024)

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24 pages, 7527 KiB

Open AccessReview

CRISPR–Cas Systems Associated with Electrolyte-Gated Graphene-Based Transistors: How They Work and How to Combine Them

by Pierre Guermonprez, Pierre Nioche, Louis Renaud, Nicolas Battaglini, Sébastien Sanaur, Eric Krejci and Benoît Piro

Biosensors 2024, 14(11), 541; https://doi.org/10.3390/bios14110541 - 7 Nov 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1900

Abstract

In this review, recent advances in the combination of CRISPR–Cas systems with graphene-based electrolyte-gated transistors are discussed in detail. In the first part, the functioning of CRISPR–Cas systems is briefly explained, as well as the most common ways to convert their molecular activity [...] Read more.

In this review, recent advances in the combination of CRISPR–Cas systems with graphene-based electrolyte-gated transistors are discussed in detail. In the first part, the functioning of CRISPR–Cas systems is briefly explained, as well as the most common ways to convert their molecular activity into measurable signals. Other than optical means, conventional electrochemical transducers are also developed. However, it seems that the incorporation of CRISPR/Cas systems into transistor devices could be extremely powerful, as the former provides molecular amplification, while the latter provides electrical amplification; combined, the two could help to advance in terms of sensitivity and compete with conventional PCR assays. Today, organic transistors suffer from poor stability in biological media, whereas graphene materials perform better by being extremely sensitive to their chemical environment and being stable. The need for fast and inexpensive sensors to detect viral RNA arose on the occasion of the COVID-19 crisis, but many other RNA viruses are of interest, such as dengue, hepatitis C, hepatitis E, West Nile fever, Ebola, and polio, for which detection means are needed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Feature Paper in Biosensor and Bioelectronic Devices 2024)

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19 pages, 8697 KiB

Open AccessReview

In Situ and Label-Free Quantification of Membrane Protein–Ligand Interactions Using Optical Imaging Techniques: A Review

by Caixin Huang, Jingbo Zhang, Zhaoyang Liu, Jiying Xu, Ying Zhao and Pengfei Zhang

Biosensors 2024, 14(11), 537; https://doi.org/10.3390/bios14110537 - 6 Nov 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1374

Abstract

Membrane proteins are crucial for various cellular processes and are key targets in pharmacological research. Their interactions with ligands are essential for elucidating cellular mechanisms and advancing drug development. To study these interactions without altering their functional properties in native environments, several advanced [...] Read more.

Membrane proteins are crucial for various cellular processes and are key targets in pharmacological research. Their interactions with ligands are essential for elucidating cellular mechanisms and advancing drug development. To study these interactions without altering their functional properties in native environments, several advanced optical imaging methods have been developed for in situ and label-free quantification. This review focuses on recent optical imaging techniques such as surface plasmon resonance imaging (SPRi), surface plasmon resonance microscopy (SPRM), edge tracking approaches, and surface light scattering microscopy (SLSM). We explore the operational principles, recent advancements, and the scope of application of these methods. Additionally, we address the current challenges and explore the future potential of these innovative optical imaging strategies in deepening our understanding of biomolecular interactions and facilitating the discovery of new therapeutic agents. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Feature Paper in Biosensor and Bioelectronic Devices 2024)

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21 pages, 4870 KiB

Open AccessReview

Recent Advances in Nanozyme Sensors Based on Metal–Organic Frameworks and Covalent–Organic Frameworks

by Xingliang Cheng, Shuojiang Liu and Yuling Hu

Biosensors 2024, 14(11), 520; https://doi.org/10.3390/bios14110520 - 23 Oct 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2243

Abstract

Nanozymes are nanomaterials that exhibit enzyme-like catalytic activity, which have drawn increasing attention on account of their unique superiorities including very high robustness, low cost, and ease of modification. Metal–organic frameworks (MOFs) and covalent–organic frameworks (COFs) have emerged as promising candidates for nanozymes [...] Read more.

Nanozymes are nanomaterials that exhibit enzyme-like catalytic activity, which have drawn increasing attention on account of their unique superiorities including very high robustness, low cost, and ease of modification. Metal–organic frameworks (MOFs) and covalent–organic frameworks (COFs) have emerged as promising candidates for nanozymes due to their abundant catalytic activity centers, inherent porosity, and tunable chemical functionalities. In this review, we first compare the enzyme-mimicking activity centers and catalytic mechanisms between MOF and COF nanozymes, and then summarize the recent research on designing and modifying MOF and COF nanozymes with inherent catalytic activity. Moreover, typical examples of sensing applications based on these nanozymes are presented, as well as the translation of enzyme catalytic activity into a visible signal response. At last, a discussion of current challenges is presented, followed by some future prospects to provide guidance for designing nanozyme sensors based on MOFs and COFs for practical applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Feature Paper in Biosensor and Bioelectronic Devices 2024)

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25 pages, 5952 KiB

Open AccessReview

The Evolution of Illicit-Drug Detection: From Conventional Approaches to Cutting-Edge Immunosensors—A Comprehensive Review

by Nigar Anzar, Shariq Suleman, Yashda Singh, Supriya Kumari, Suhel Parvez, Roberto Pilloton and Jagriti Narang

Biosensors 2024, 14(10), 477; https://doi.org/10.3390/bios14100477 - 3 Oct 2024

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2318

Abstract

The increasing use of illicit drugs has become a major global concern. Illicit drugs interact with the brain and the body altering an individual’s mood and behavior. As the substance-of-abuse (SOA) crisis continues to spread across the world, in order to reduce trafficking [...] Read more.

The increasing use of illicit drugs has become a major global concern. Illicit drugs interact with the brain and the body altering an individual’s mood and behavior. As the substance-of-abuse (SOA) crisis continues to spread across the world, in order to reduce trafficking and unlawful activity, it is important to use point-of-care devices like biosensors. Currently, there are certain conventional detection methods, which include gas chromatography (GC), mass spectrometry (MS), surface ionization, surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy (SERS), surface plasmon resonance (SPR), electrochemiluminescence (ECL), high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), etc., for the detection of abused drugs. These methods have the advantage of high accuracy and sensitivity but are generally laborious, expensive, and require trained operators, along with high sample requirements, and they are not suitable for on-site drug detection scenarios. As a result, there is an urgent need for point-of-care technologies for a variety of drugs that can replace conventional techniques, such as a biosensor, specifically an immunosensor. An immunosensor is an analytical device that integrates an antibody-based recognition element with a transducer to detect specific molecules (antigens). In an immunosensor, the highly selective antigen–antibody interaction is used to identify and quantify the target analyte. The binding event between the antibody and antigen is converted by the transducer into a measurable signal, such as electrical, optical, or electrochemical, which corresponds to the presence and concentration of the analyte in the sample. This paper provides a comprehensive overview of various illicit drugs, the conventional methods employed for their detection, and the advantages of immunosensors over conventional techniques. It highlights the critical need for on-site detection and explores emerging point-of-care testing methods. The paper also outlines future research goals in this field, emphasizing the potential of advanced technologies to enhance the accuracy, efficiency, and convenience of drug detection. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Feature Paper in Biosensor and Bioelectronic Devices 2024)

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9 pages, 1078 KiB

Open AccessBrief Report

Paralytic Shellfish Toxin Extraction from Bivalve Meat for Analysis Using Potentiometric Chemical Sensors

by Ana Filipa R. Cerqueira, Catarina Moreirinha, Mariana Raposo, Maria Teresa S. R. Gomes, Sara T. Costa, Maria João Botelho and Alisa Rudnitskaya

Biosensors 2024, 14(10), 487; https://doi.org/10.3390/bios14100487 - 8 Oct 2024

Viewed by 1199

Abstract

A simple and reliable methodology for the detection of paralytic shellfish toxins (PSTs) in bivalve tissues using potentiometric chemical sensors was developed. Five methods of PST extraction from mussel and oyster tissues were evaluated, including the AOAC-recommended method, which served as the reference. [...] Read more.

A simple and reliable methodology for the detection of paralytic shellfish toxins (PSTs) in bivalve tissues using potentiometric chemical sensors was developed. Five methods of PST extraction from mussel and oyster tissues were evaluated, including the AOAC-recommended method, which served as the reference. The main objective was to minimize the matrix effect of the extracts on the sensors’ responses and ensure efficient toxin recovery. Extraction procedures using acetic acid with heating and water yielded the highest responses from the potentiometric chemical sensors to PSTs. The highest recovery of PSTs from bivalve tissues was achieved with extraction using acetic acid and heating. Further extract purification, which is indispensable for liquid chromatography with fluorometric detection (LC-FLD) analysis, was found to be unnecessary for analysis with chemical sensors. While water extraction can also be used as a rapid and simple PST extraction method, the lower recoveries should be considered when interpreting the results. Further research is needed to identify the compounds remaining in the extracts that cause a decrease in sensor responses and to develop procedures for their elimination. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Feature Paper in Biosensor and Bioelectronic Devices 2024)

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