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Open AccessEditorial

Recent Advances in Forensic Anthropological Methods and Research

by Eugénia Cunha and Ann H. Ross

Biology 2022, 11(6), 908; https://doi.org/10.3390/biology11060908 - 13 Jun 2022

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 3337

Abstract

This Special Issue, “Recent Advances in Forensic Anthropological Methods and Research”, with thirteen articles covers a wide range of highly diverse topics within forensic anthropology [...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Advances in Forensic Anthropological Methods and Research)

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30 pages, 2546 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Adult Skeletal Age-at-Death Estimation through Deep Random Neural Networks: A New Method and Its Computational Analysis

by David Navega, Ernesto Costa and Eugénia Cunha

Biology 2022, 11(4), 532; https://doi.org/10.3390/biology11040532 - 30 Mar 2022

Cited by 20 | Viewed by 5379

Abstract

Age-at-death assessment is a crucial step in the identification process of skeletal human remains. Nonetheless, in adult individuals this task is particularly difficult to achieve with reasonable accuracy due to high variability in the senescence processes. To improve the accuracy of age-at-estimation, in [...] Read more.

Age-at-death assessment is a crucial step in the identification process of skeletal human remains. Nonetheless, in adult individuals this task is particularly difficult to achieve with reasonable accuracy due to high variability in the senescence processes. To improve the accuracy of age-at-estimation, in this work we propose a new method based on a multifactorial macroscopic analysis and deep random neural network models. A sample of 500 identified skeletons was used to establish a reference dataset (age-at-death: 19–101 years old, 250 males and 250 females). A total of 64 skeletal traits are covered in the proposed macroscopic technique. Age-at-death estimation is tackled from a function approximation perspective and a regression approach is used to infer both point and prediction interval estimates. Based on cross-validation and computational experiments, our results demonstrate that age estimation from skeletal remains can be accurately (~6 years mean absolute error) inferred across the entire adult age span and informative estimates and prediction intervals can be obtained for the elderly population. A novel software tool, DRNNAGE, was made available to the community. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Advances in Forensic Anthropological Methods and Research)

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29 pages, 544 KiB

Open AccessArticle

How Do Drugs Affect the Skeleton? Implications for Forensic Anthropology

by Nicholas Márquez-Grant, Elisa Baldini, Victoria Jeynes, Lucie Biehler-Gomez, Layla Aoukhiyad, Nicholas V. Passalacqua, Gaia Giordano, Domenico Di Candia and Cristina Cattaneo

Biology 2022, 11(4), 524; https://doi.org/10.3390/biology11040524 - 29 Mar 2022

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 7073

Abstract

Forensic anthropologists rely on a number of parameters when analyzing human skeletal remains to assist in the identification of the deceased, predominantly age-at-death, sex, stature, ancestry or population affinity, and any unique identifying features. During the examination of human remains, it is important [...] Read more.

Forensic anthropologists rely on a number of parameters when analyzing human skeletal remains to assist in the identification of the deceased, predominantly age-at-death, sex, stature, ancestry or population affinity, and any unique identifying features. During the examination of human remains, it is important to be aware that the skeletal features considered when applying anthropological methods may be influenced and modified by a number of factors, and particular to this article, prescription drugs (including medical and non-medical use) and other commonly used drugs. In view of this, this paper aims to review the medical, clinical and pharmacological literature to enable an assessment of those drug groups that as side effects have the potential to have an adverse effect on the skeleton, and explore whether or not they can influence the estimation of age-at-death, sex and other indicators of the biological profile. Moreover, it may be that the observation of certain alterations or inconsistencies in the skeleton may relate to the use of drugs or medication, and this in turn may help narrow down the list of missing persons to which a set of human remains could belong. The information gathered from the clinical and medical literature has been extracted with a forensic anthropological perspective and provides an awareness on how several drugs, such as opioids, cocaine, corticosteroids, non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, alcohol, tobacco and others have notable effects on bone. Through different mechanisms, drugs can alter bone mineral density, causing osteopenia, osteoporosis, increase the risk of fractures, osteonecrosis, and oral changes. Not much has been written on the influence of drugs on the skeleton from the forensic anthropological practitioner perspective; and this review, in spite of its limitations and the requirement of further research, aims to investigate the current knowledge of the possible effects of both prescription and recreational drugs on bones, contributing to providing a better awareness in forensic anthropological practice and assisting in the identification process of the deceased. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Advances in Forensic Anthropological Methods and Research)

19 pages, 3321 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Age-at-Death Estimation of Fetuses and Infants in Forensic Anthropology: A New “Coupling” Method to Detect Biases Due to Altered Growth Trajectories

by Mélissa Niel, Kathia Chaumoître and Pascal Adalian

Biology 2022, 11(2), 200; https://doi.org/10.3390/biology11020200 - 27 Jan 2022

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 4803

Abstract

The coupling between maturation and growth in the age estimation of young individuals with altered growth processes was analyzed in this study, whereby the age was determined using a geometric morphometrics method. A medical sample comprising 223 fetuses and infants was used to [...] Read more.

The coupling between maturation and growth in the age estimation of young individuals with altered growth processes was analyzed in this study, whereby the age was determined using a geometric morphometrics method. A medical sample comprising 223 fetuses and infants was used to establish the method. The pars basilaris shapes, quantified by elliptic Fourier analysis, were grouped into consensus stages to characterize the maturation process along increasing age groups. Each pars basilaris maturation stage was “coupled” to biometry by defining an associated femur length range. The method was tested on a validation sample of 42 normal individuals and a pathological sample of 114 individuals whose pathologies were medically assessed. Couplings were present in 90.48% of the normal sample and 77.19% of the pathological sample. The method was able to detect “uncoupling” (i.e., possibly altered growth) in more than 22.8% of samples, even if there was no visible traces of pathology on bones in most cases. In conclusion, experts should be warned that living conditions may cause alterations in the development of young individuals in terms of uncoupling, and that the age-at-death estimation based on long bone biometry could be biased. In a forensic context, when age has been estimated in cases where uncoupling is present, experts should be careful to take potential inaccuracies into account when forming their conclusions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Advances in Forensic Anthropological Methods and Research)

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12 pages, 166725 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Identifying Blunt Force Traumatic Injury on Thermally Altered Remains: A Pilot Study Using Sus scrofa

by Kamryn Keys and Ann H. Ross

Biology 2022, 11(1), 87; https://doi.org/10.3390/biology11010087 - 6 Jan 2022

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 3711

Abstract

In forensic scenarios involving homicide, human remains are often exposed to fire as a means of disposal and/or obscuring identity. Burning human remains can result in the concealment of traumatic injury, the creation of artifacts resembling injury, or the destruction of preexisting trauma. [...] Read more.

In forensic scenarios involving homicide, human remains are often exposed to fire as a means of disposal and/or obscuring identity. Burning human remains can result in the concealment of traumatic injury, the creation of artifacts resembling injury, or the destruction of preexisting trauma. Since fire exposure can greatly influence trauma preservation, methods to differentiate trauma signatures from burning artifacts are necessary to conduct forensic analyses. Specifically, in the field of forensic anthropology, criteria to distinguish trauma from fire signatures on bone is inconsistent and sparse. This study aims to supplement current forensic anthropological literature by identifying criteria found to be the most diagnostic of fire damage or blunt force trauma. Using the skulls of 11 adult pigs (Sus scrofa), blunt force trauma was manually produced using a crowbar and flat-faced hammer. Three specimens received no impacts and were utilized as controls. All skulls were relocated to an outdoor, open-air fire where they were burned until a calcined state was achieved across all samples. Results from this experiment found that blunt force trauma signatures remained after burning and were identifiable in all samples where reassociation of fragments was possible. This study concludes that distinct patterns attributed to thermal fractures and blunt force fractures are identifiable, allowing for diagnostic criteria to be narrowed down for future analyses. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Advances in Forensic Anthropological Methods and Research)

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22 pages, 3079 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Effects of Cranial Orientation on Forensic Frontal Sinus Identification as Assessed by Outline Analyses

by Lauren N. Butaric, Allison Richman and Heather M. Garvin

Biology 2022, 11(1), 62; https://doi.org/10.3390/biology11010062 - 2 Jan 2022

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 3054

Abstract

The utility of frontal sinuses for personal identification is widely recognized, but potential factors affecting its reliability remain uncertain. Deviations in cranial position between antemortem and postmortem radiographs may affect sinus appearance. This study investigates how slight deviations in orientations affect sinus size [...] Read more.

The utility of frontal sinuses for personal identification is widely recognized, but potential factors affecting its reliability remain uncertain. Deviations in cranial position between antemortem and postmortem radiographs may affect sinus appearance. This study investigates how slight deviations in orientations affect sinus size and outline shape and potentially impact identification. Frontal sinus models were created from CT scans of 21 individuals and digitally oriented to represent three clinically relevant radiographic views. From each standard view, model orientations were deviated at 5° intervals in horizontal, vertical, and diagonal (e.g., left-up) directions (27 orientations per individual). For each orientation, sinus dimensions were obtained, and outline shape was assessed by elliptical Fourier analyses and principal component (PC) analyses. Wilcoxon sign rank tests indicated that sinus breadth remained relatively stable (p > 0.05), while sinus height was significantly affected with vertical deviations (p < 0.006). Mann–Whitney U tests on Euclidean distances from the PC scores indicated consistently lower intra- versus inter-individual distances (p < 0.05). Two of the three orientations maintained perfect (100%) outline identification matches, while the third had a 98% match rate. Smaller and/or discontinuous sinuses were most problematic, and although match rates are high, practitioners should be aware of possible alterations in sinus variables when conducting frontal sinus identifications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Advances in Forensic Anthropological Methods and Research)

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19 pages, 954 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Forensic Tools for Species Identification of Skeletal Remains: Metrics, Statistics, and OsteoID

by Heather M. Garvin, Rachel Dunn, Sabrina B. Sholts, M. Schuyler Litten, Merna Mohamed, Nathan Kuttickat and Noah Skantz

Biology 2022, 11(1), 25; https://doi.org/10.3390/biology11010025 - 25 Dec 2021

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 6426

Abstract

Although nonhuman remains constitute a significant portion of forensic anthropological casework, the potential use of bone metrics to assess the human origin and to classify species of skeletal remains has not been thoroughly investigated. This study aimed to assess the utility of quantitative [...] Read more.

Although nonhuman remains constitute a significant portion of forensic anthropological casework, the potential use of bone metrics to assess the human origin and to classify species of skeletal remains has not been thoroughly investigated. This study aimed to assess the utility of quantitative methods in distinguishing human from nonhuman remains and present additional resources for species identification. Over 50,000 measurements were compiled from humans and 27 nonhuman (mostly North American) species. Decision trees developed from the long bone data can differentiate human from nonhuman remains with over 90% accuracy (>98% accuracy for the human sample), even if all long bones are pooled. Stepwise discriminant function results were slightly lower (>87.4% overall accuracy). The quantitative models can be used to support visual identifications or preliminarily assess forensic significance at scenes. For species classification, bone-specific discriminant functions returned accuracies between 77.7% and 89.1%, but classification results varied highly across species. From the study data, we developed a web tool, OsteoID, for users who can input measurements and be shown photographs of potential bones/species to aid in visual identification. OsteoID also includes supplementary images (e.g., 3D scans), creating an additional resource for forensic anthropologists and others involved in skeletal species identification and comparative osteology. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Advances in Forensic Anthropological Methods and Research)

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9 pages, 275 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Providing a Forensic Expert Opinion on the “Degree of Force”: Evidentiary Considerations

by Hans H. de Boer, Charles E. H. Berger and Soren Blau

Biology 2021, 10(12), 1336; https://doi.org/10.3390/biology10121336 - 16 Dec 2021

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 3767

Abstract

Forensic pathologists and anthropologists are often asked in court for an opinion about the degree of force required to cause a specific injury. This paper examines and discusses the concept of ‘degree of force’ and why it is considered a pertinent issue in [...] Read more.

Forensic pathologists and anthropologists are often asked in court for an opinion about the degree of force required to cause a specific injury. This paper examines and discusses the concept of ‘degree of force’ and why it is considered a pertinent issue in legal proceedings. This discussion identifies the implicit assumptions that often underpin questions about the ‘degree of force’. The current knowledge base for opinions on the degree of force is then provided by means of a literature review. A critical appraisal of this literature shows that much of the results from experimental research is of limited value in routine casework. An alternative approach to addressing the issue is provided through a discussion of the application of Bayes’ theorem, also called the likelihood ratio framework. It is argued that the use of this framework makes it possible for an expert to provide relevant and specific evidence, whilst maintaining the boundaries of their field of expertise. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Advances in Forensic Anthropological Methods and Research)

14 pages, 657 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Blood–Bone–Tooth Model for Age Prediction in Forensic Contexts

by Helena Correia Dias, Licínio Manco, Francisco Corte Real and Eugénia Cunha

Biology 2021, 10(12), 1312; https://doi.org/10.3390/biology10121312 - 10 Dec 2021

Cited by 16 | Viewed by 4329

Abstract

The development of age prediction models (APMs) focusing on DNA methylation (DNAm) levels has revolutionized the forensic age estimation field. Meanwhile, the predictive ability of multi-tissue models with similar high accuracy needs to be explored. This study aimed to build multi-tissue APMs combining [...] Read more.

The development of age prediction models (APMs) focusing on DNA methylation (DNAm) levels has revolutionized the forensic age estimation field. Meanwhile, the predictive ability of multi-tissue models with similar high accuracy needs to be explored. This study aimed to build multi-tissue APMs combining blood, bones and tooth samples, herein named blood–bone–tooth-APM (BBT-APM), using two different methodologies. A total of 185 and 168 bisulfite-converted DNA samples previously addressed by Sanger sequencing and SNaPshot methodologies, respectively, were considered for this study. The relationship between DNAm and age was assessed using simple and multiple linear regression models. Through the Sanger sequencing methodology, we built a BBT-APM with seven CpGs in genes ELOVL2, EDARADD, PDE4C, FHL2 and C1orf132, allowing us to obtain a Mean Absolute Deviation (MAD) between chronological and predicted ages of 6.06 years, explaining 87.8% of the variation in age. Using the SNaPshot assay, we developed a BBT-APM with three CpGs at ELOVL2, KLF14 and C1orf132 genes with a MAD of 6.49 years, explaining 84.7% of the variation in age. Our results showed the usefulness of DNAm age in forensic contexts and brought new insights into the development of multi-tissue APMs applied to blood, bone and teeth. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Advances in Forensic Anthropological Methods and Research)

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15 pages, 1199 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Exploring the Functionality of Mesh-to-Mesh Value Comparison in Pair-Matching and Its Application to Fragmentary Remains

by Zoe McWhirter, Mara A. Karell, Ali Er, Mustafa Bozdag, Oguzhan Ekizoglu and Elena F. Kranioti

Biology 2021, 10(12), 1303; https://doi.org/10.3390/biology10121303 - 9 Dec 2021

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 2991

Abstract

Many cases encountered by forensic anthropologists involve commingled remains or isolated elements. Common methods for analysing these contexts are characterised by limitations such as high degrees of subjectivity, high cost of application, or low proven accuracy. This study sought to test mesh-to-mesh value [...] Read more.

Many cases encountered by forensic anthropologists involve commingled remains or isolated elements. Common methods for analysing these contexts are characterised by limitations such as high degrees of subjectivity, high cost of application, or low proven accuracy. This study sought to test mesh-to-mesh value comparison (MCV), a relatively new method for pair-matching skeletal elements, to validate the claims that the technique is unaffected by age, sex and pathology. The sample consisted of 160 three-dimensional clavicle models created from computed tomography (CT) scans of a contemporary Turkish population. Additionally, this research explored the application of MVC to match fragmented elements to their intact counterparts by creating a sample of 480 simulated fragments, consisting of three different types based on the region of the bone they originate from. For comparing whole clavicles, this resulted in a sensitivity value of 87.6% and specificity of 90.9% using ROC analysis comparing clavicles. For the fragment comparisons, each type was compared to the entire clavicles of the opposite side. The results included a range of sensitivity values from 81.3% to 87.6%. Overall results are promising and the MVC technique seems to be a useful technique for matching paired elements that can be accurately applied to a Modern Turkish sample. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Advances in Forensic Anthropological Methods and Research)

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17 pages, 316 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Forensic Anthropology as a Discipline

by Nicholas V. Passalacqua, Marin A. Pilloud and Derek Congram

Biology 2021, 10(8), 691; https://doi.org/10.3390/biology10080691 - 21 Jul 2021

Cited by 24 | Viewed by 7315

Abstract

This paper explores the current state of forensic anthropology in the United States as a distinct discipline. Forensic anthropology has become increasingly specialized and the need for strengthened professionalization is becoming paramount. This includes a need for clearly defined qualifications, training, standards of [...] Read more.

This paper explores the current state of forensic anthropology in the United States as a distinct discipline. Forensic anthropology has become increasingly specialized and the need for strengthened professionalization is becoming paramount. This includes a need for clearly defined qualifications, training, standards of practice, certification processes, and ethical guidelines. Within this discussion, the concept of expertise is explored in relation to professionalization and practice, as both bioarchaeology and forensic anthropology have different areas of specialist knowledge, and therefore unique expertise. As working outside one’s area of expertise is an ethical violation, it is important for professional organizations to outline requisite qualifications, develop standards and best practice guidelines, and enforce robust preventive ethical codes in order to serve both their professional members and relevant stakeholders. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Advances in Forensic Anthropological Methods and Research)

12 pages, 2131 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Ancestry Studies in Forensic Anthropology: Back on the Frontier of Racism

by Ann H. Ross and Shanna E. Williams

Biology 2021, 10(7), 602; https://doi.org/10.3390/biology10070602 - 29 Jun 2021

Cited by 39 | Viewed by 19437

Abstract

One of the parameters forensic anthropologists have traditionally estimated is ancestry, which is used in the United States as a proxy for social race. Its use is controversial because the biological race concept was debunked by scientists decades ago. However, many forensic anthropologists [...] Read more.

One of the parameters forensic anthropologists have traditionally estimated is ancestry, which is used in the United States as a proxy for social race. Its use is controversial because the biological race concept was debunked by scientists decades ago. However, many forensic anthropologists contend, in part, that because social race categories used by law enforcement can be predicted by cranial variation, ancestry remains a necessary parameter for estimation. Here, we use content analysis of the Journal of Forensic Sciences for the period 2009–2019 to demonstrate the use of various nomenclature and resultant confusion in ancestry estimation studies, and as a mechanism to discuss how forensic anthropologists have eschewed a human variation approach to studying human morphological differences in favor of a simplistic and debunked typological one. Further, we employ modern geometric morphometric and spatial analysis methods on craniofacial coordinate anatomical landmarks from several Latin American samples to test the validity of applying the antiquated tri-continental approach to ancestry (i.e., African, Asian, European). Our results indicate groups are not patterned by the ancestry trifecta. These findings illustrate the benefit and necessity of embracing studies that employ population structure models to better understand human variation and the historical factors that have influenced it. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Advances in Forensic Anthropological Methods and Research)

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16 pages, 1523 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Bone Diagenesis in Short Timescales: Insights from an Exploratory Proteomic Analysis

by Noemi Procopio, Caley A. Mein, Sefora Starace, Andrea Bonicelli and Anna Williams

Biology 2021, 10(6), 460; https://doi.org/10.3390/biology10060460 - 23 May 2021

Cited by 22 | Viewed by 4086

Abstract

The evaluation of bone diagenetic phenomena in archaeological timescales has a long history; however, little is known about the origins of the microbes driving bone diagenesis, nor about the extent of bone diagenesis in short timeframes—such as in forensic contexts. Previously, the analysis [...] Read more.

The evaluation of bone diagenetic phenomena in archaeological timescales has a long history; however, little is known about the origins of the microbes driving bone diagenesis, nor about the extent of bone diagenesis in short timeframes—such as in forensic contexts. Previously, the analysis of non-collagenous proteins (NCPs) through bottom-up proteomics revealed the presence of potential biomarkers useful in estimating the post-mortem interval (PMI). However, there is still a great need for enhancing the understanding of the diagenetic processes taking place in forensic timeframes, and to clarify whether proteomic analyses can help to develop better models for estimating PMI reliably. To address these knowledge gaps, we designed an experiment based on whole rat carcasses, defleshed long rat bones, and excised but still-fleshed rat limbs, which were either buried in soil or exposed on a clean plastic surface, left to decompose for 28 weeks, and retrieved at different time intervals. This study aimed to assess differences in bone protein relative abundances for the various deposition modalities and intervals. We further evaluated the effects that extrinsic factors, autolysis, and gut and soil bacteria had on bone diagenesis via bottom-up proteomics. Results showed six proteins whose abundance was significantly different between samples subjected to either microbial decomposition (gut or soil bacteria) or to environmental factors. In particular, muscle- and calcium-binding proteins were found to be more prone to degradation by bacterial attack, whereas plasma and bone marrow proteins were more susceptible to exposure to extrinsic agents. Our results suggest that both gut and soil bacteria play key roles in bone diagenesis and protein decay in relatively short timescales, and that bone proteomics is a proficient resource with which to identify microbially-driven versus extrinsically-driven diagenesis. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Advances in Forensic Anthropological Methods and Research)

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Review

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26 pages, 2751 KiB

Open AccessReview

Forensic Facial Comparison: Current Status, Limitations, and Future Directions

by Nicholas Bacci, Joshua G. Davimes, Maryna Steyn and Nanette Briers

Biology 2021, 10(12), 1269; https://doi.org/10.3390/biology10121269 - 3 Dec 2021

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 7351

Abstract

Global escalation of crime has necessitated the use of digital imagery to aid the identification of perpetrators. Forensic facial comparison (FFC) is increasingly employed, often relying on poor-quality images. In the absence of standardized criteria, especially in terms of video recordings, verification of [...] Read more.

Global escalation of crime has necessitated the use of digital imagery to aid the identification of perpetrators. Forensic facial comparison (FFC) is increasingly employed, often relying on poor-quality images. In the absence of standardized criteria, especially in terms of video recordings, verification of the methodology is needed. This paper addresses aspects of FFC, discussing relevant terminology, investigating the validity and reliability of the FISWG morphological feature list using a new South African database, and advising on standards for CCTV equipment. Suboptimal conditions, including poor resolution, unfavorable angle of incidence, color, and lighting, affected the accuracy of FFC. Morphological analysis of photographs, standard CCTV, and eye-level CCTV showed improved performance in a strict iteration analysis, but not when using analogue CCTV images. Therefore, both strict and lenient iterations should be conducted, but FFC must be abandoned when a strict iteration performs worse than a lenient one. This threshold ought to be applied to the specific CCTV equipment to determine its utility. Chance-corrected accuracy was the most representative measure of accuracy, as opposed to the commonly used hit rate. While the use of automated systems is increasing, trained human observer-based morphological analysis, using the FISWG feature list and an Analysis, Comparison, Evaluation, and Verification (ACE-V) approach, should be the primary method of facial comparison. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Advances in Forensic Anthropological Methods and Research)

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