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Agronomy
Special Issues
Next-Generation Pesticide Application Technologies: Precision, Safety and Environmental Sustainability
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Next-Generation Pesticide Application Technologies: Precision, Safety and Environmental Sustainability

A special issue of Agronomy (ISSN 2073-4395). This special issue belongs to the section "Precision and Digital Agriculture".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: 31 October 2026 | Viewed by 7105

Special Issue Editors

Dr. Eric Mozzanini

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Department of Agricultural, Forest and Food Sciences (DiSAFA)—University of Turin (UNITO), 10095 Grugliasco, TO, Italy
Interests: precision agriculture, agricultural technology; spraying application; plant protection products; plant protection product; sprayer; spraying operation; spray system
Dr. Mohammod Ali

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Department of Agricultural and Biological Engineering, University of Florida, Tropical Research and Education Center (TREC), Homestead, FL 33031, USA
Interests: precision agriculture; digital farming; artificial intelligence in agriculture; agricultural machinery; smart irrigation; variable rate application; post-harvest technologies
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals
Dr. Hongyoung Jeon

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Application Technology Research Unit, USDA ARS, 1680 Madison Avenue, Wooster, OH 44691, USA
Interests: machine vision applications; variable rate applications; pesticide applications; instrument and sensors; agricultural robots/automations
Dr. Marco Grella

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Department of Agricultural, Forest and Food Sciences (DiSAFA)—University of Turin (UNITO), 10095 Grugliasco, TO, Italy
Interests: agricultural plant protection; crop protection; horticultural crop protection; agricultural technology; spray application technology; precision agriculture; variable rate application; spray drift measurements; spray drift mitigation technology; spray deposition and coverage measurements; droplet size spectra measurements; spray quality evaluation; point source reduction; farm managements of waste liquids containing PPP residues; water quality; soil and water conservation; training on best management practices for crop protection
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Pesticide application plays a critical role in controlling plant pests and ensuring high yields and quality products. However, improper pesticide use leads to significant challenges, including pesticide resistance, environmental contamination, and concerns over pesticide residues. As global research efforts advance, innovative pesticide application technologies are emerging to enhance efficiency, minimize negative impacts, and promote sustainable practices in agriculture and forestry. This Special Issue will focus on environmentally friendly intelligent pesticide application technologies and computer simulations that improve target identification, optimize deposition, and mitigate unintended exposure. Technologies shaping the future of sustainable pesticide use include precision spraying, variable-rate application, electrostatic spraying, inline mixing, and advanced droplet control. Furthermore, this issue will address broader pesticide application techniques such as dusting, fumigation, pest baiting, seed treatment, and pesticide injection methods. In addition to technological advancements, the environmental and human health aspects of pesticide applications will be examined.

Dr. Eric Mozzanini
Dr. Mohammod Ali
Dr. Hongyoung Jeon
Dr. Marco Grella
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 250 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for assessment.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Agronomy is an international peer-reviewed open access semimonthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2600 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • agricultural engineering
  • smart agriculture
  • precision agriculture
  • spray applications
  • plant protection products
  • variable-rate application
  • computer simulation
  • artificial intelligence
  • alternatives to spray technologies
  • human health
  • operator exposure
  • non-target organisms
  • bystander exposure

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Published Papers (6 papers)

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Research

Jump to: Review

16 pages, 1111 KB  
Article
Trunk Microinjection of Plant Protection Products to Protect Apple Trees (Malus domestica) from Apple Rosy Aphid (Dysaphis plantaginea)
by Florence Verpont, Harmony Carmagnat and Adeline Renier
Agronomy 2026, 16(7), 741; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16070741 - 31 Mar 2026
Viewed by 365
Abstract
Conventional axial sprayers are poorly suited to orchards located in sensitive contexts (near water bodies, frequented by bystanders) or to large-volume trees. The result is often poor distribution within the canopy leading to more or less effective disease or insect control, off-target drift [...] Read more.
Conventional axial sprayers are poorly suited to orchards located in sensitive contexts (near water bodies, frequented by bystanders) or to large-volume trees. The result is often poor distribution within the canopy leading to more or less effective disease or insect control, off-target drift leading to environmental pollution and economic inefficiency. Trunk microinjection of plant protection products (PPPs) as a target-precise delivery system could greatly reduce the drift and improve the PPPs application. This study investigated the efficacy of five PPPs (flonicamid, spirotetramat, azadirachtin, lambda-cyhalothrin and deltamethrin) microinjected into the trunk of apple trees in 2022, 2023 and 2024 for managing Apple Rosy Aphid (Dysaphis plantaginea). Observations focused on aphid colonization and residue dynamics in buds, leaves and fruits. Under the conditions of the experiments, azadirachtin microinjection significantly reduced autumn infestation from 87 to 100% and spring infestation from 88 to 97%. The results obtained with flonicamid showed greater variability: from 50 to 80% fall infestation reduction and from 26 to 89% spring infestation reduction depending on the strategy and year. Spirotetramat and the two pyrethroids tested did not provide satisfactory control of populations. Residue levels varied by injected compound and the analyzed tissues. This study demonstrated that trunk microinjection could be an effective delivery method for existing PPPs, depending on the active ingredient, for controlling rosy apple aphids in orchards. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Next-Generation Pesticide Application Technologies: Precision, Safety and Environmental Sustainability)
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21 pages, 3792 KB  
Article
Dynamics of Droplet Spectra and Physicochemical Properties Under Different Adjuvants and Spraying Pressures
by Sérgio Basílio, Marconi Ribeiro Furtado Júnior, Cleyton Batista de Alvarenga, Edney Leandro de Vitória, Beatriz Costalonga Vargas, Salvatore Privitera, Sebastian Lupica, Antonio Trusso Sfrazzetto, Emanuele Cerruto and Giuseppe Manetto
Agronomy 2026, 16(6), 672; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16060672 - 23 Mar 2026
Viewed by 352
Abstract
Droplet size is a key factor in minimizing spray drift. Different types of adjuvants and sprayer operating pressures can affect the droplet size distribution in various ways. This study aimed to evaluate the effects of commercial adjuvants, namely, acids and surfactant (AS), silicone [...] Read more.
Droplet size is a key factor in minimizing spray drift. Different types of adjuvants and sprayer operating pressures can affect the droplet size distribution in various ways. This study aimed to evaluate the effects of commercial adjuvants, namely, acids and surfactant (AS), silicone surfactant (SS), organosilicone surfactant (OS), mineral oil (MO and MO2), and copolymer (CP) adjuvants, on the droplet spectra and physicochemical properties of aqueous solutions. Hydrogen potential (pH), volumetric mass (VM), electrical conductivity (EC), surface tension (ST), contact angle (CA), and droplet spectra were measured. The droplet spectrum variables, including volumetric diameters (Dv0.1, Dv0.5, and Dv0.9), the Relative Span Factor (RSF), and percentages of the total volume of droplets with a diameter smaller than 100 µm (V100) and larger than 500 µm (V500), were determined using a laser diffraction particle analyzer (Malvern Spraytec). Spraying tests were carried out using the AXI 11003 flat fan nozzle at pressures of (0.1, 0.2, 0.3, 0.4, and 0.5) MPa. The increase in pressure increased the V100 and the RSF, with greater sensitivity observed for SS. Adjuvants such as AS, MO2 and OS showed a more balanced trend, with a smaller increase in fine droplets and a greater reduction in coarse droplets. The principal component analysis (PCA) revealed that the droplet spectrum variables were the ones that best explained the variation among the solutions. A negative correlation was identified between EC and other physicochemical properties, such as pH, ST, and CA. Therefore, these properties alone did not determine the atomization pattern. The study demonstrates that optimizing spray quality and minimizing drift require a combined consideration of adjuvant physicochemical properties and their interaction with operational pressure. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Next-Generation Pesticide Application Technologies: Precision, Safety and Environmental Sustainability)
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13 pages, 2770 KB  
Article
Air and Spray Pattern Characterization of Multi-Fan Autonomous Unmanned Ground Vehicle Sprayer Adapted for Modern Orchard Systems
by Dattatray G. Bhalekar, Kingsley Umani, Srikanth Gorthi, Gwen-Alyn Hoheisel and Lav R. Khot
Agronomy 2026, 16(3), 344; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16030344 - 30 Jan 2026
Viewed by 481
Abstract
A newly commercialized single-row multi-fan autonomous unmanned ground vehicle (UGV) sprayer, for use in trellised tree fruit crops, was tested to better understand air and spray patterns prior to wide-scale adoption in the modern apple orchard systems typical to Washington State. This sprayer [...] Read more.
A newly commercialized single-row multi-fan autonomous unmanned ground vehicle (UGV) sprayer, for use in trellised tree fruit crops, was tested to better understand air and spray patterns prior to wide-scale adoption in the modern apple orchard systems typical to Washington State. This sprayer was equipped with five brown and yellow Albuz ATR80 nozzles per fan (QM-420, Croplands Quantum). The fans were installed in a Q8 configuration, with eight fans (four on each side) staggered near the front and back as a stack to increase vertical span. Air velocity and spray delivery patterns of the commercialized sprayer unit were assessed in laboratory using a customized smart spray analytical system. Previous field trails of this sprayer unit revealed a hardware issue with electric proportional valve controls in fan-nozzle assembly, resulting in uneven spray deposition across V-trellised canopy. Post issue resolution, the sprayer characterization data showed an average Symmetry of 91%, and 84% for air velocity and spray volume delivery on either side. An average Uniformity of 57% and 48%, respectively was recorded for pertinent sprayer attributes across the spray height. Overall, after optimization, the UGV sprayer is suitable for efficient agrochemical application in modern orchard systems. Further evaluation of labor savings, biological efficacy gains from autonomous operation, and a full economic analysis would better inform grower adoption. Commercial viability of this UGV sprayer could also be improved by added features such as variable-rate application enabled by real-time crop sensing or task-map integration. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Next-Generation Pesticide Application Technologies: Precision, Safety and Environmental Sustainability)
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17 pages, 5031 KB  
Article
Effects of Formulation on Spray Nozzle Performance for Applications from Unmanned Aerial Spraying Systems (UASSs)
by Qi Liu, Ding Ma, Haiyan Zhang, Lei Liang, Long Zhang, Yuxiang Wang and Yubin Lan
Agronomy 2026, 16(1), 76; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16010076 - 26 Dec 2025
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 403
Abstract
The atomization performance of the nozzle is a critical factor influencing the pesticide application efficiency and drift behavior of agricultural unmanned aerial spraying systems (UASSs). However, the underlying atomization mechanisms of such nozzles have not yet been fully elucidated. In this study, a [...] Read more.
The atomization performance of the nozzle is a critical factor influencing the pesticide application efficiency and drift behavior of agricultural unmanned aerial spraying systems (UASSs). However, the underlying atomization mechanisms of such nozzles have not yet been fully elucidated. In this study, a Particle Image Velocimetry (PIV) system was employed to evaluate the liquid sheet breakup mode, breakup length, droplet size distribution, and velocity distribution of a fan-shaped nozzle used in UASSs. Experiments were conducted under a series of spray pressures (ranging from 0.10 to 0.50 MPa, with an increment of 0.05 MPa) using sodium dodecylbenzenesulfonate (SDS) surfactant solutions at four concentrations (0%, 0.2%, 0.5%, and 1.0%). The results demonstrated that both the SDS surfactant and spray pressure significantly influenced the liquid sheet breakup process and atomization behavior. High concentrations of surfactant solution had a pronounced effect on the surface tension of the spraying liquid, delaying the onset of liquid sheet breakup, enlarging the overall droplet size distribution, and reducing the droplet velocity components along the X-axis and Y-axis. Conversely, higher spray pressures facilitated liquid sheet breakup, decreased the overall droplet size, and increased the droplet velocity distribution. This study provides fundamental experimental data for quantifying the effects of solution surface tension and spray pressure on the atomization performance of fan-shaped nozzles. These data provide systematic support for the evaluation of nozzle atomization performance. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Next-Generation Pesticide Application Technologies: Precision, Safety and Environmental Sustainability)
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20 pages, 1875 KB  
Article
Optimization and Evaluation of Electrostatic Spraying Systems and Their Effects on Pesticide Deposition and Coverage Inside Dense Canopy Plants
by Matthew Herkins, Lingying Zhao, Heping Zhu, Hongyoung Jeon and Jose Castilho-Theodoro
Agronomy 2025, 15(6), 1401; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15061401 - 6 Jun 2025
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2651
Abstract
Electrostatic spraying systems can improve the pesticide application efficiency by enhancing droplet deposition and coverage within crop canopies. This study evaluated the droplet size spectra and charge-to-mass ratio (CMR) of five electrostatically charged hollow-cone nozzles and one flat-fan nozzle paired with an electrode. [...] Read more.
Electrostatic spraying systems can improve the pesticide application efficiency by enhancing droplet deposition and coverage within crop canopies. This study evaluated the droplet size spectra and charge-to-mass ratio (CMR) of five electrostatically charged hollow-cone nozzles and one flat-fan nozzle paired with an electrode. Each nozzle was mounted on a moving boom in a wind tunnel and operated with the electrode and voltage that produced the highest CMR. Their effects on the spray coverage and deposition inside boxwood shrubs at wind speeds of 0 and 2.24 m s−1 were assessed. The nozzles operated with the optimized electrode had average improvements in the canopy deposition and canopy coverage of 1.33 µg cm−2 and 4.4% at a wind speed of 0 m s−1 and 0.26 µg cm−2 and 0.9% at a wind speed of 2.24 m s−1. The airborne drift measurements at various heights above the wind tunnel floor showed an average 0.50 µg cm−2 reduction in the drift at 0.1 m, variable results at 0.35 m, and minimal changes at heights of 0.7 m and above at a downwind distance of 2 m. These findings highlighted the potential of optimized electrostatic spraying systems to enhance pesticide deposition inside the crop canopy under various wind speeds while reducing the spray drift potential. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Next-Generation Pesticide Application Technologies: Precision, Safety and Environmental Sustainability)
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Review

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34 pages, 8520 KB  
Review
Image and Point Cloud-Based Neural Network Models and Applications in Agricultural Nursery Plant Protection Tasks
by Jie Xu, Hui Liu and Yue Shen
Agronomy 2025, 15(9), 2147; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15092147 - 8 Sep 2025
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1689
Abstract
Nurseries represent a fundamental component of modern agricultural systems, specializing in the cultivation and management of diverse seedlings. Scientific cultivation methods significantly enhance seedling survival rates, while intelligent agricultural robots improve operational efficiency through autonomous plant protection. Central to these robotic systems, the [...] Read more.
Nurseries represent a fundamental component of modern agricultural systems, specializing in the cultivation and management of diverse seedlings. Scientific cultivation methods significantly enhance seedling survival rates, while intelligent agricultural robots improve operational efficiency through autonomous plant protection. Central to these robotic systems, the perception system utilizes advanced neural networks to process environmental data from both images and point clouds, enabling precise feature extraction. This review systematically explores prevalent image-based models for classification, segmentation, and object detection tasks, alongside point cloud processing techniques employing multi-view, voxel-based, and original data approaches. The discussion extends to practical applications across six critical plant protection areas. Image-based neural network models can fully utilize the color information of objects, making them more suitable for tasks such as leaf disease detection and pest detection. In contrast, point cloud-based neural network models can take full advantage of the spatial information of objects, thus being more applicable to tasks like target information detection. By identifying current challenges and future research priorities, the analysis provides valuable insights for advancing agricultural robotics and precision plant protection technologies. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Next-Generation Pesticide Application Technologies: Precision, Safety and Environmental Sustainability)
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