Urban Science

Informal settlements accommodate more than one billion people worldwide, yet their intricate urban forms are frequently perceived as chaotic, which impedes the formulation of sustainable upgrading strategies. The main objective of this research is to bridge a major methodological gap by developing analytical tools that can systematically decode the inherent spatial logic of such environments. This paper develops and applies an integrated four-part morphological framework designed to provide a deep, form-based reading of informal urbanism. The framework’s indicators were systematically derived from an extensive review of the literature and subsequently validated through the Fuzzy Delphi Method (FDM) with a panel of 15 experts, ensuring analytical robustness. The validated framework was then applied to the Saadi neighborhood, a representative informal settlement in Shiraz, Iran, using a multi-scalar, mixed-methods approach that integrated GIS, remote sensing, and in-depth field surveys. The analysis produced a comprehensive analytical atlas, culminating in a detailed morphological profile. The findings identify Saadi’s urban form not as disordered, but as a ‘consolidating, low-rise, fine-grained fabric shaped by topography,’ revealing a clear, self-organized spatial logic. The study concludes that the proposed framework is a robust and replicable tool for moving beyond pejorative descriptions of informality. By providing an evidence-based method to read the physical language of these settlements, the approach offers a crucial foundation for developing more context-sensitive and sustainable urban upgrading strategies. Full article

Climate change exerts wide-ranging impacts on urban tourism, influencing visitor well-being, experiences, and the timing and location of activities. Anticipating future variation in climatic conditions in urban destinations is essential for developing climate-resilient strategies and targeted adaptation measures. This study employs high-resolution (1 km) land surface simulations to assess tourism’s climate potential in Szeged, Hungary. Two tourism climate indices were computed at the urban scale for multiple future periods using bias-corrected datasets under different emission scenarios. The analysis examines whether the model can capture urban-induced alterations in the indices and how these impacts emerge in their spatiotemporal patterns. It also evaluates projected changes in tourism potential, arising from the combined influence of regional climate change and urban climate processes, across scenarios and periods. Results show that the climate-modifying effects of urban surfaces are reflected in both urban–rural and intra-urban variations, with outcomes strongly dependent on the index, season, and scenario. Projections indicate a decline in conditions between May and September, alongside stable or improved potential during other months. The findings underscore the challenges and opportunities posed by climate change and urban modifications, emphasizing the potential to extend the tourism season and the need to improve pedestrian comfort during critical periods. Full article

Hurricane Maria’s devastating impact on Puerto Rico in 2017 exposed critical vulnerabilities in the island’s centralized infrastructure, particularly its energy grid and housing stock. This case study evaluates Earthship architecture as a sustainable solution for post-disaster resilience and energy independence through systematic analysis of existing projects and documented implementation challenges. Earthships are self-sufficient structures characterized by passive solar design, on-site renewable energy generation, rainwater harvesting, contained sewage treatment, and integrated food production using natural and recycled materials. Through analysis of the Earthship PR at Tainasoy Apiario in Aguada and comparative examination of global implementation challenges, this study examines both the potential benefits and significant barriers to Earthship adoption in Puerto Rico. While Earthship principles align theoretically with post-disaster resilience needs, documented problems, including moisture management failures in humid climates, regulatory barriers, and financing challenges, present substantial implementation obstacles that require careful consideration for Caribbean applications. Full article

Urban heat islands (UHIs) intensify thermal stress in cities, particularly in arid and semi-arid regions undergoing rapid urban expansion. The main objectives of this study are to quantify and compare UHI intensity in six major Saudi Arabian cities (Dammam, Makkah, Madinah, Jeddah, Riyadh, and Abha) representing diverse climatic zones and to examine how UHI patterns vary between urban, suburban, and rural zones over a 30-year period. Understanding the magnitude and spatial variability of UHIs across different climatic settings is crucial for developing effective urban planning and climate adaptation strategies in Saudi Arabia’s rapidly expanding cities. Except for Abha, these cities are the five most populous cities in the Kingdom. Each city was categorized into urban (>1500 people km⁻²), suburban (300–1500 people km⁻²), and rural (<300 people km⁻²) zones using high-resolution population density data. Two independent temperature datasets (ERA5-land and CHIRTS-ERA5) were analyzed for the years 1994, 2004, 2014, and 2024. Both datasets revealed consistent spatial patterns and a general warming trend across all zones and cities over the 30-year period. The UHI effect was most pronounced for minimum temperatures, with urban zones warmer than rural zones by 0.85 °C (ERA5-land) and 1.10 °C (CHIRTS-ERA5), likely due to greater heat retention and slower cooling rates in built-up areas. Mean temperature differences were smaller but still indicated positive UHI. Conversely, both datasets exhibited a reversed UHI pattern for maximum temperatures, with rural zones warmer than urban zones by 1.73 °C (ERA5-land) and 1.52 °C (CHIRTS-ERA5). This reversed pattern is attributed to the surrounding desert landscapes with minimal vegetation, indicated by low normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI), while urban areas have increasingly benefited from greening and landscaping initiatives. City-level analysis showed the strongest reversed UHI in maximum temperatures in Abha, while Jeddah exhibited the weakest. These findings highlight the need for localized urban planning strategies, particularly the expansion of vegetation cover and sustainable land use, to mitigate extreme thermal conditions in Saudi Arabia. Full article

Monitoring nitrate levels in water is critical to protect public health and ensure compliance with regulatory standards. This study provides a comprehensive evaluation of four analytical techniques—test strips, ion-selective electrodes (ISE), colorimetric methods, and titration—to assess nitrate levels in a variety of water sources, including standard solutions, rainwater, bottled water, and groundwater from both shallow and deep wells located in semi-urban regions of Saudi Arabia. Each method was assessed for sensitivity, accuracy, detection limits, reproducibility, and operational practicality. Test strips offer rapid, low-cost screening but consistently underestimate nitrate concentrations, particularly at low levels. The ISE demonstrated broad applicability and reliable performance across a wide concentration range when properly calibrated, making it suitable for both field and laboratory applications. Colorimetric methods provide excellent sensitivity for trace-level detection, whereas titration delivers the highest accuracy for high-nitrate samples despite its time-intensive nature. By calibrating and validating the methods against certified standards, we quantitatively demonstrated their reliability through statistical measures such as precision and accuracy rates. Moreover, the application of Geographic Information System (GIS) techniques in spatial analysis has revealed significant differences in the distribution of nitrates. Notably, shallow wells located in the northern regions surpass the 50 mg/L limit set by the World Health Organization (WHO), thereby indicating the presence of localized contamination hotspots. This study is among the first to systematically compare nitrate detection methods across a wide range of water types in a semi-urban area of Saudi Arabia. Building on a detailed analysis of each method, we underline the crucial need for the strategic selection of nitrate analysis techniques. This selection should be tailored to specific operational contexts, accuracy requirements, and concentration ranges to guide stakeholders towards more informed decision-making. These findings provide actionable guidance for public health officials and water managers to prioritize monitoring, safeguard drinking-water sources, and mitigate nitrate-related health risks in semi-urban communities. Full article

The transition to sustainable urban mobility requires innovative solutions optimising electric vehicle (EV) ecosystems while integrating seamlessly with smart urban grids. This paper proposes a decentralised framework leveraging adaptive algorithms, vehicle-to-grid (V2G) technology, and renewable energy prioritisation to enhance urban sustainability without requiring new infrastructure. By integrating federated learning (FL) for privacy-preserving coordination, multi-objective optimisation for load balancing, and predictive models for renewable energy integration, our approach addresses energy demand, grid stability, and environmental impact in urban areas. Validated through simulations on an IEEE 39-bus urban feeder and real-world urban mobility case studies, the framework achieves a 40% reduction in carbon emissions, improves grid reliability by 20%, and enhances renewable utilisation by 25% compared to an uncoordinated charging baseline. These outcomes support urban planning by informing smart grid design, reducing urban heat island effects, and promoting equitable mobility access. This work provides actionable strategies for policymakers, urban planners, and energy providers to advance more sustainable, electrified urban ecosystems. Full article

Areas with well-developed networks of equestrian routes attract riders, contributing to tourism development and boosting the economy. As the most critical elements of equestrian routes are road, railway, and watercourse crossings, the construction of bridges and underpasses that meet equestrian needs is crucial. Due to the lack of clear, standardised guidance for the design of equestrian bridges and underpasses, a systematic literature review was conducted to identify and select manuals deal with equestrian bridge and/or underpass design. The selection criterion required that the manual be currently valid, written in English, and published online with open access, ensuring easy accessibility for engineers and policymakers. This paper summarises, compares, and comments on the design parameters of equestrian bridges and underpasses listed in the analysed manuals, which must be considered to achieve optimal solutions for both horse and rider. It also provides an overview of general recommendations and best practices for specific design parameters. In the absence of a manual offering comprehensive, standardised guidelines for the design of equestrian bridges and underpasses, this paper may assist policymakers, developers, and designers in creating a trail network suitable for equestrians. Full article

Sport events generate economic, social, and environmental impacts that shape residents’ perceptions and levels of support. In the context of sustainable urban development, understanding how residents evaluate these impacts provides valuable knowledge about community responses to tourism and event-led growth. Drawing on the Triple Bottom Line (TBL), Social Exchange Theory (SET), and Social Representations Theory (SRT), this study examines residents’ evaluations of the Rally Sierra Morena (RSM), a large-scale international motorsport event recently incorporated into the European Rally Championship (ERC). Data were collected shortly before the event using a self-administered questionnaire (n = 1529). An exploratory factor analysis (EFA) identified a multidimensional structure of perception, and a non-hierarchical k-means cluster analysis identified three clusters: Skeptics, who perceived stronger negative than positive impacts in economic and environmental dimensions; Pragmatists, who emphasized positive economic benefits while acknowledging environmental costs; and Enthusiasts, who consistently rated positive impacts higher across all dimensions and expressed the strongest support for the event. By integrating perceptual and sustainability-based approaches, this study connects residents’ evaluations of a motorsport event with broader discussions on urban resilience and sustainable community development. Full article

Balconies are widely recognized for enhancing urban livability, making them attractive elements to incorporate in building renovation projects. However, their impact on energy performance remains insufficiently studied, particularly in temperate climates, like the Mediterranean, where both heating and cooling demands must be considered. This article evaluates the energy impacts of integrating open balconies into housing retrofits on the space conditioning demand of dwellings through spatialized analysis at the urban block scale. Focusing on Barcelona’s Eixample district, a parametric Urban Building Energy Modeling (UBEM) was employed to assess how balcony design interacts with urban morphology (orientation, obstructions), building features (window-to-wall ratio, WWR), and balcony length. Results reveal a seasonal trade-off at the block scale: balconies increase heating demand (0.1–1.6 kWh/m²·yr) by reducing winter solar gain but decrease cooling demand (0.1–3.8 kWh/m²·yr) through summer shading. Net effects vary by unit position, with south-facing and moderately glazed dwellings benefiting the most. Deeper balconies (1.5–2 m) amplify both effects, while optimal depth depends on the window-to-wall ratio. Under future climates, retrofits combining insulation and balconies mitigate rising cooling demands more effectively than insulation alone, reducing block-level demand by up to 16%. Although balconies alone show modest energy savings at the block scale, they enhance localized thermal resilience. The study highlights the need for integrated retrofit strategies that balance thermal insulation with solar protection to address both current and future energy challenges while enhancing occupant well-being. Full article

The growth of e-commerce has imposed new challenges on urban supply chains, especially in the middle mile, which still lacks structured, sustainable and scalable logistics solutions. This study investigates the feasibility of using the Bus Rapid Transit (BRT) system, widely present in cities of emerging economies, as an urban logistics platform for the transport of light and traceable goods. This research adopts a qualitative approach, with analysis of international experiences and development of a methodological framework based on three main components: technical, economic and governance. The results reveal that the use of idle operating windows, load compatibility and institutional articulation are key factors for the implementation of the system. The proposal represents a logistical innovation aligned with the new paradigms of urban resilience and the multifunctionality of public infrastructure. This study suggests that BRT could serve as a potential logistics platform for the middle mile, under specific operational and governance conditions. Full article

Understanding how environmental design and institutional trust shape perceived security in nightlife settings is essential for enhancing customer experiences and business sustainability. This study examines how surveillance, access control, territoriality, maintenance, and trust in police influence customers’ perceptions of security in nightlife establishments in Colombia, and how these perceptions affect satisfaction and revisit intentions. A survey was conducted involving 400 customers in nightlife venues in Guadalajara de Buga, using Likert scales to evaluate the constructs. Data were analyzed using partial least squares structural equation modeling; Results indicate that maintenance (β = 0.304), surveillance (β = 0.264), trust in police (β = 0.203), and territoriality (β = 0.184) significantly influence perceived security, while access control does not. Perceived security strongly impacts satisfaction (β = 0.662) and revisit intention (β = 0.641). The model explains 47% of the variance in perceived security, 43% in satisfaction, and 41% in revisit intention. These findings highlight the value of integrating environmental design and institutional trust within service marketing and crime prevention, showing that investments in design and maintenance can yield commercial benefits. The study offers guidance for owners seeking to improve customer satisfaction and loyalty through targeted strategies. Full article

Infrastructure asset management faces major challenges in maintaining ageing assets while adapting to technological changes and budget constraints. This paper addresses the lack of a clear definition for “operations and maintenance (O&M) capability” in the context of infrastructure asset management. The authors conducted a systematic literature review extracting 13 capability definitions across multiple domains, followed by semi-structured interviews with 11 senior industry experts from diverse infrastructure sectors, analysing data through List–Group–Label methodology. The research resulted in a comprehensive yet practical definition of O&M capability and identified its key components through an expert-refined framework that balances comprehensiveness and simplicity. This definition provides practitioners and researchers with a common understanding that enables better adaptation of infrastructure to rapid technological change, better utilisation of data and a stronger focus on citizen needs. The framework enables cities and infrastructure operators to systematically assess, develop, and communicate their O&M capabilities, supporting standardised approaches to capability planning and performance measurement across smart city infrastructure projects. The framework creates a foundation for future research and practical applications in O&M and stimulates further development of approaches to build capabilities for smart city infrastructure. Full article

The Moroccan Ryad, a cherished architectural treasure in North Africa, symbolizes cultural richness and architectural legacy. This paper advocates an inventive strategy to preserve and rejuvenate the Ryad as an energy-efficient model, intertwining modern sustainability principles. Employing a multidisciplinary approach, this study delves into the fusion of traditional Ryad design with contemporary sustainability, tackling energy efficiency, resource conservation, and cultural heritage challenges. Examining historical construction methods, material choices, and spatial arrangements alongside sustainable building practices, this paper showcases case studies of newly constructed sustainable Ryads. These examples spotlight strategies like passive solar design, renewable energy incorporation, water conservation, and local material use, augmenting energy performance while fostering cultural continuity through eco-friendly materials and traditional craftsmanship. This research also explores the social and economic impacts of this sustainable Ryad model, including its potential to boost tourism, generate employment, and engage communities. Additionally, it addresses the role of public policy in supporting sustainable practices for preserving Moroccan cultural heritage. By amalgamating culture, sustainability, and energy efficiency, this paper envisions a new role for the Moroccan Ryad, positioning it not only as a guardian of heritage but also as a symbol of environmentally responsible architecture—a model applicable to culturally rich regions globally. Full article

Urban green space (UGS) is a fundamental element of urban systems for enhancing the quality of urban life. UGS plays a pivotal role in promoting urban ecological sustainability if important criteria are integrated into urban planning programs. This paper explores the impacts of the ecological criteria on urban sustainability through UGS planning and examines these criteria within the context of the Adelaide Metropolitan Area as a case study. To address the study’s goals, a content analysis was conducted to identify the most critical criteria affecting urban ecological sustainability through UGS planning. Subsequently, based on the identified criteria, a household survey was conducted to evaluate the status of the case study concerning the ecological sustainability factors. In this stage, 100 responses were collected through a questionnaire survey. Then, based on the household survey results, a solution was provided to the challenging criteria by a local experts’ interview. For promoting urban ecological sustainability, ten criteria were identified as the most important and effective criteria based on the previous studies. Household survey data was analysed using one-sample T-test, multiple linear regression, and geographically weighted regression (GWR) model. The results indicated that the criteria of reviving ecological networks, water resources, and the protection of UGS with the score below standard average (which is 3), require practical guidelines and policies to enhance the sustainability of Adelaide Metropolitan Area. The regression analysis demonstrated that ecological landscape and design had the strongest positive effect on sustainability (adjusted R² = 0.685), while the geographically weighted regression highlighted biodiversity and vegetation as particularly influential in Plympton (local R² = 0.866) and Unley (local R² = 0.488). Expert interviews recommended strategies such as wastewater recycling, long-term conservation planning, and restoring ecological connectivity. This study provides a practical framework to guide urban planners and policymakers in enhancing ecological sustainability through UGS planning. Full article

Ecosystem services play a crucial role in sustaining human life, providing numerous benefits that are indispensable for our well-being. However, these vital functions are increasingly compromised by land use changes that have been instigated by human activities. This study aims to evaluate the spatiotemporal variability of ecosystem service value (ESV) within the urban agglomeration located on the northern slope of the Tianshan Mountains over a historical period stretching from 1990 to 2020, utilizing land use data to conduct a thorough analysis. Subsequently, the Future Land Use Simulation (FLUS) model was employed to forecast ESV in 2030 under three developmental pathways: Ecological Protection Scenario (EPS), Cultivated Land Protection Scenario (CLPS), and Natural Development Scenario (NDS). The evaluation incorporated six primary land classes: cultivated land, forest land, grassland, water bodies, construction land, and unused land. The FLUS model was validated with strong accuracy (overall accuracy = 0.97, Kappa = 0.94). ESV was estimated using the value coefficient method based on equivalent factors, adjusted with a local economic coefficient for crop production. All values are expressed in constant 2020 CNY without further price normalization. Our results show that between 1990 and 2020, cultivated land expanded by 27.18% (17,721 to 22,538 km²) and construction land increased by 75.91% (1926 to 3388 km²), while grassland decreased from 63,502 to 59,027 km² and unused land declined from 106,292 to 104,690 km². Minor changes occurred in forest land and water bodies. Total ESV decreased from 679.06 × 10⁸ CNY in 1990 to 657.67 × 10⁸ CNY in 2020, a decline of 3.15%. Regulating, supporting, and cultural services all decreased, while provisioning services increased. Spatially, vegetated areas functioned as ESV hot spots, whereas construction-degraded areas were identified as cold spots. Scenario projections for 2030 show that under the CLPS and NDS, ESV would further decline by 11.49 × 10⁸ CNY (−1.75%) and 10.18 × 10⁸ CNY (−1.55%), respectively. In contrast, the EPS is projected to increase ESV by 4.53 × 10⁸ CNY (+0.69%), reaching 662.20 × 10⁸ CNY. Full article

This study evaluates the innovation capacity of Egypt’s governorates to identify their potential for developing smart cities as innovation hubs. Smart cities represent essential instruments for tackling complicated urban issues like environmental degradation, regional economic disparities, and rapid urbanization. In the framework of Egypt Vision 2030, the establishment of fourteen fourth-generation smart cities is seen as an essential initiative to promote balanced, innovation-driven regional development. However, the absence of a thorough assessment of regional innovation capabilities during the planning phase poses significant concerns regarding the viability of attaining these objectives. A quantitative approach is employed to address this research gap, utilizing a composite Regional Innovation Capacity Index (RICI) as well as conducting cluster analysis and spatial autocorrelation analysis to assess the 27 governorates’ innovation capacities. The findings show significant gaps in innovation capacity among regions, with notable variances in knowledge creation, knowledge utilization, and supportive infrastructure. The findings demonstrate that new smart cities have been developed in some governorates with limited innovation capacity, while high-capacity governorates remain underutilized. These disparities underscore the need for specific policy actions to strengthen innovation ecosystems in lagging regions. The study offers actionable insights on how to match regional innovation capacities with Egypt’s smart city development policy. Full article

This study examines how Windhoek’s urban form, shaped by apartheid-era planning, continues to influence neighbourhood travel behaviour, socio-economic disparity, and residential perceptions. It addresses three key questions: (1) How do socio-economic characteristics, neighbourhood perceptions, and travel patterns differ between compact and sprawled areas? (2) Which socio-economic, perceptual, and spatial factors are associated with the likelihood of neighbourhood-based shopping in compact versus sprawled urban forms? (3) What are the determinants of entertainment and recreational travel behaviour within neighbourhoods across the two urban forms? Using survey data from 1000 residents, the analysis employs chi-square tests, Mann–Whitney U tests, binary logistic regression, and multivariate regression models. Findings reveal that compact areas, characterised by higher incomes, stronger place attachment, and greater infrastructural diversity, support more frequent neighbourhood travel. By contrast, sprawled peripheries, despite higher population densities, remain marked by socio-economic marginalisation, limited amenity access, and negative perceptions that constrain neighbourhood mobility. Across both forms, long-term residence and belonging strongly predict neighbourhood travel, while concerns over traffic safety and crime consistently suppress participation. The results show that spatial proximity alone does not ensure accessibility; emotional, perceptual, and structural barriers mediate neighbourhood mobility. The study highlights the need for integrated planning that addresses both physical infrastructure and lived experience to advance equitable and sustainable mobility in post-colonial contexts. Full article

With an aging population and the widespread adoption of smart technologies, elderly residents’ perceived safety in smart apartments has become a critical determinant of their quality of life and their acceptance of technology. However, much of the current research remains confined to either technical or psychological dimensions, with insufficient attention to the systematic interactions among multiple factors as experienced by elderly populations. This study aims to systematically evaluate and optimize the living environments of older adults, with the goal of enhancing their overall quality of life and subjective well-being. This study employs the DANP–mV model to empirically analyze the safety perception of older adults in smart apartments, integrating case-based investigation and evaluation to propose targeted optimization strategies and improvement pathways. Unlike traditional approaches that treat criteria as independent, this hybrid model reveals the interdependencies among factors and establishes a more realistic prioritization of improvement actions. The study found that, compared with merely reinforcing physical security measures, factors such as enhanced remote security support, a stronger sense of control and coping confidence, and higher satisfaction with the protective system exert a more fundamental influence on the overall safety perception. These results demonstrate that adopting a systems-thinking approach shifts the focus of decision-making from superficial safety risks to underlying causal drivers, thereby mitigating resource allocation imbalances and enhancing the effectiveness and sustainability of safety improvement measures. Full article