First Time in the European Rally Championship: What’s Next for Residents’ Perceptions of Urban Sustainability?

Abstract

Sport events generate economic, social, and environmental impacts that shape residents’ perceptions and levels of support. In the context of sustainable urban development, understanding how residents evaluate these impacts provides valuable knowledge about community responses to tourism and event-led growth. Drawing on the Triple Bottom Line (TBL), Social Exchange Theory (SET), and Social Representations Theory (SRT), this study examines residents’ evaluations of the Rally Sierra Morena (RSM), a large-scale international motorsport event recently incorporated into the European Rally Championship (ERC). Data were collected shortly before the event using a self-administered questionnaire (n = 1529). An exploratory factor analysis (EFA) identified a multidimensional structure of perception, and a non-hierarchical k-means cluster analysis identified three clusters: Skeptics, who perceived stronger negative than positive impacts in economic and environmental dimensions; Pragmatists, who emphasized positive economic benefits while acknowledging environmental costs; and Enthusiasts, who consistently rated positive impacts higher across all dimensions and expressed the strongest support for the event. By integrating perceptual and sustainability-based approaches, this study connects residents’ evaluations of a motorsport event with broader discussions on urban resilience and sustainable community development.

1. Introduction

Urban environments have increasingly become laboratories for the organization and management of cultural and sporting events, which serve as drivers of economic regeneration, social resilience, and place identity [1,2]. Beyond their symbolic and touristic value, these events reshape the governance and use of urban public spaces, since they intersect with spatial planning and urban policy frameworks that reflect contemporary models of citizenship [3,4]. They also serve as instruments of city branding and global positioning while also generating environmental and infrastructural challenges that require integrated planning approaches [5,6]. From a sustainability perspective, recent studies underscore the need to align event strategies with the Triple Bottom Line principles and international urban standards, integrating economic, social, and environmental dimensions [7,8].

Sport tourism has become an expanding field that requires integrated economic, social, and environmental perspectives to capture the breadth of its impacts [9,10]. Recent scholarship highlights the importance of combining objective and subjective metrics using comparative methodologies that account for diverse contexts and temporal dynamics [11,12,13]. At the same time, the sustainability of sport events depends on how they are planned and governed, requiring coordination among public, private, and community stakeholders [14,15]. For host communities, residents’ perceptions play a decisive role, influenced not only by sociodemographic variables, but also by attachment to place, community identity, and personal values [16]. These perceptions affect satisfaction, social legitimacy, and ultimately the long-term viability of events. In this sense, sport events increasingly transform the governance and material configuration of urban and peri-urban areas, influencing how public spaces are designed, regulated, and experienced by residents and visitors [17,18,19]. These processes require a governance model that fosters coordination among institutions, private actors, and local communities to ensure that event-led urban transformations are consistent with sustainable planning goals and regional cohesion [20,21,22]. Thus, the Rally Sierra Morena can be understood as a temporary urban and regional intervention that mobilizes infrastructure, governance, and spatial planning processes across Córdoba, its surrounding municipalities and the rural areas of Sierra Morena.

The academic literature has consistently documented both the benefits and challenges of sport events. Economic studies emphasize return on investment, spending patterns, and multiplier effects [23], while also warning against overestimation [24]. Social research stresses cohesion, pride, and quality of life, but also highlights potential disruptions [12,13]. Environmental concerns, ranging from climate change to local ecological impacts, have gained increasing attention, together with calls for more sustainable management [11,25]. Despite these contributions, the literature underlines the need for more robust designs, longitudinal analyses, and participatory approaches that account for residents’ heterogeneity [13,26]. In particular, while motorsport has been acknowledged as a distinct field of car tourism [27], the empirical study of rallies remains limited.

Existing research on rally events has largely focused on the World Rally Championship (WRC), with cases from Australia [14,25,26,28,29], Kenya [30], Italy [16], Croatia [31], and Portugal [32]. While these studies confirm rallies’ potential to deliver significant economic, social, and cultural outcomes, they concentrate almost exclusively on WRC-level events. Continental competitions such as the European Rally Championship (ERC) remain underexplored [33,34], leaving a gap in understanding how residents perceive and evaluate events of this scale. The Rally Sierra Morena (RSM), held annually in Córdoba, Spain, is an ideal case to address this gap. In 2025, the RSM was incorporated into the ERC for the first time since 1990, transforming its international profile and amplifying its economic and touristic relevance in the region of Andalusia (South Spain).

This study aims to analyze residents’ perceptions of the impacts of the Rally Sierra Morena, segment the population into clusters based on these perceptions, and assess how these groups differ in their levels of support for the event. The research draws on the Triple Bottom Line (TBL), Social Exchange Theory (SET), and Social Representations Theory (SRT) to provide a multidimensional understanding of residents’ evaluations. In doing so, it contributes to the literature on sport tourism by extending impact perception research to a continental rally event, while also offering practical insights for policy and planning in rural and semi-urban territories seeking to leverage motorsport for sustainable development. Accordingly, the central research question guiding this article is as follows:

Research Question: How do residents perceive the economic, social, and environmental impacts of the Rally Sierra Morena, and how do these perceptions shape distinct clusters of support for the event?

2. Literature Review

Sporting events constitute complex urban processes that simultaneously influence the economy, social cohesion, territorial identity, and the sustainability of cities [1]. Beyond their recreational dimension, events have become strategic instruments of urban positioning and symbolic projection, contributing to the visibility and competitiveness of cities within the global urban system [1,5]. Moreover, sporting events and their associated infrastructures represent structural elements of the urban system, closely linked to population distribution, territorial planning, and the dynamics of local communities [6]. This interrelations situate sporting events within the governance and spatial planning frameworks that define contemporary urban systems, highlighting their relevance to debates on sustainable city management and policy coordination [3,6].

Several studies have shown that events can serve as drivers of urban regeneration and social resilience, fostering economic revitalization and community cohesion in post-crisis or transforming urban contexts [2]. From a sustainability perspective, the recent literature emphasizes the need to integrate economic, social, and environmental impacts into event planning and management, in line with the principles of the Triple Bottom Line and international standards for sustainable cities [7]. In particular, research on major sporting competitions has highlighted the environmental challenges associated with transportation, energy consumption, and carbon footprint, underscoring the need for mitigation strategies consistent with urban sustainability goals [8]. Beyond impact assessment, this perspective also emphasizes the need for multilevel governance and cross-sectorial coordination between urban and regional stakeholders to ensure coherence between event-led development and spatial policy objectives [7,8].

Furthermore, residents’ perceptions represent an essential factor for understanding the legitimacy and sustainability of events and urban planning and design, as they reflect both instrumental evaluations of costs and benefits, and emotional and identity-based bonds with the urban environment [35,36]. Empirical evidence shows that city image, event prestige, and place attachment directly influence the level of public support [35]. Understanding these perceptions is therefore essential to analyze how international sporting events are embedded within the urban dynamics of sustainability, identity, and local governance. This approach frames residents both as evaluators of event impact and as active agents within the urban governance system, whose perceptions and participation shape the sustainability of event-led urban transformation [5].

2.1. Residents’ Perceptions as a Lever for Event Success

The views of local residents have become a cornerstone for securing community support in hosting sporting events. This is particularly evident in mega-events, where economic, social, and environmental disruptions often emerge [37,38,39]. A lack of public endorsement can have decisive consequences: between 2013 and 2018, several cities withdrew their Olympic bids following referenda or intense public pressure [40,41]. Ensuring the sustainability of such events requires a deep understanding of residents’ perceptions, as these shape both the short- and long-term management of impacts [42,43]. Insights into local attitudes allow for organizers to adjust strategies that enhance perceived benefits while mitigating negative externalities.

Community support is equally critical for smaller, recurring events, which depend on positive resident perceptions for continuity and legitimacy [43]. In this regard, research has consistently shown that citizen endorsement is a determinant of event viability [39,44]. Resident attitudes thus occupy a central role in event tourism scholarship. While much of the literature examines events in general, without distinguishing between sport and other cultural forms, sport events exhibit distinctive features that shape community perceptions [45]. This gap underscores the importance of studies specifically addressing residents’ perceptions of sport events to fully capture their economic, social, and environmental impacts.

The academic debate has evolved around the dual evaluation of positive and negative outcomes, although terminology varies. Researchers have referred to this process as reactions [46], social effects [42,43,47], or attitudes [48]. The most common framing, however, is perceptions [13,44]. Some authors also highlight the temporal dimension of measurement. [49], for example, conceptualize impacts as short-term resident perceptions of social, economic, cultural, and environmental consequences, depending on when data are collected.

The recent literature has seen a consolidation of reviews and meta-analyses examining residents’ perceptions of sport event impacts. Ref. [12] focused on mega-events such as the Olympic Games and the FIFA World Cup, showing that their social consequences are multifaceted, affecting community cohesion, inclusion, and sustainability. They called for longitudinal approaches capable of capturing these long-term dynamics, as well as greater integration of social and economic dimensions and consideration of emerging risks such as disaster preparedness. Ref. [13] broadened the scope to include both mega- and smaller-scale events. Their review concluded that resident perceptions are shaped by local economic, social, and environmental contexts, directly influencing event support. They recommended longitudinal studies, mixed-method approaches, and the standardization of measurement scales to enhance comparability across cases. Ref. [9] examined sport events from a tourism development perspective. They found that residents’ attitudes depend on the perceived distribution of economic, social, and cultural benefits, as well as on the legacy left by the event. Negative impacts, such as congestion and environmental costs, remain a concern. Their agenda stressed the importance of evaluating long-term contributions to residents’ quality of life, social and environmental sustainability, and the developmental role of small- and medium-sized events.

Most recently, Ref. [50] conducted a meta-analysis across international and regional contexts, both in developed and developing countries. Their results showed that economic impacts exert the strongest influence on resident support, followed by social impacts, with environmental factors playing a smaller but still significant role. They also highlighted variation depending on country development level, event type, and temporal stage (pre-, during, and post-event). Their proposed agenda called for deeper exploration of how contextual factors condition perceptions, and for the integration of psychological variables, such as emotions and attitudes towards the sporting event.

2.2. Triple Bottom Line, Social Exchange Theory and Social Representations Theory

The Triple Bottom Line (TBL), introduced by [51,52], extends traditional measures of success beyond financial outcomes to include economic, social, and environmental dimensions. In sport and tourism event research, this framework has been refined by distinguishing between positive and negative impacts [53], producing six categories: positive and negative economic, social, and environmental perceptions [45,54]. Economic impacts encompass both benefits, such as increased tourist spending, tax revenues, business opportunities, and urban regeneration [16,55,56], and costs, including price inflation or a potential decline in destination appeal if poorly managed [57]. Social impacts refer to changes in community relationships, values, behaviors, and overall well-being [58], with positive outcomes including civic pride, social cohesion, and community capital [59,60,61,62,63], and negative effects such as congestion, safety concerns, or social tension [21,64]. Environmental impacts involve both harm, noise, waste, and pressure on ecosystems [45], and potential benefits, such as strengthened conservation practices or enhanced appreciation of natural heritage [57]. The TBL has thus become a standard framework for examining residents’ perceptions of sport event impacts and is often combined with other theories to understand how these perceptions translate into community support [13,46,65].

The Social Exchange Theory (SET), first developed by [66,67] and expanded by [68], conceptualizes social interactions as exchanges in which individuals seek to maximize benefits and minimize costs. In tourism research, [69,70] and [71] applied SET to explain resident support for events: communities are more likely to endorse events if perceived benefits outweigh costs, and less supportive when negative impacts predominate [54,72,73]. Empirical studies have validated a three-dimensional structure consisting of positive impacts, negative impacts, and event support [49,65,74]. SET (or its principles) has been widely applied in analyses of the Olympic Games [57,75], Formula 1 [46,76,77], and, more recently, rally events [25,78]. These studies reveal that while residents often acknowledge economic or social benefits, they also identify costs such as noise, dust, or restricted mobility, underscoring SET’s value in explaining how residents weigh costs and benefits in forming supportive or critical attitudes.

The Social Representations Theory (SRT), rooted in Durkheim’s concept of collective representations and developed by [79,80], emphasizes the shared beliefs, values, and meanings through which communities interpret social phenomena. Representations are produced through everyday communication and cultural transmission, shaping perceptions, attitudes, and behaviors [80,81]. In contrast to SET’s rational cost–benefit orientation, SRT highlights the socio-cultural and historical context of perceptions [82]. These perspectives are not mutually exclusive, but in fact are complementary [76,83]. In the context of tourism and events, SRT explains how sociodemographic factors, place attachment, direct experience, and media exposure generate heterogeneous resident perceptions [54]. Faulkner and Tideswell’s model [84] integrates both SET and SRT, distinguishing between extrinsic factors (e.g., destination lifecycle, tourist type) and intrinsic factors (e.g., age, gender, education, income, event involvement, territorial attachment). While SRT has been less frequently applied in motorsport, studies such as [76] on Formula 1 and [27] on rallies highlight its potential to capture the symbolic and cultural dimensions of these events.

2.3. The Triple Bottom Line Perspective in Rally Events

International rallies are consistently linked to positive economic outcomes, although the magnitude varies across contexts. In the Rally de Ourense (Spain), every euro of public investment generated a tenfold return in local spending [23]. Similarly, the WRC Kenya 2021 boosted hotel occupancy and stimulated sectors such as transport and catering [30], while the Rally de Portugal reinforced the economy of Porto by attracting both national and international visitors, filling accommodations during the low season and stimulating hospitality [32]. Evidence from the WRC Australia shows that businesses located close to the route, along with transport and media sectors, benefited most, and even firms with financial losses valued the promotional exposure [27,29]. The Hail International Rally in Saudi Arabia also stimulated commercial investment and improved urban infrastructure [85], whereas the ERC Azores (Portugal) contributed to regional development through tourism and gastronomy [33]. Despite these benefits, some studies warn of methodological risks in overestimating impacts when using imprecise multipliers, as highlighted by [24].

Beyond economic returns, rallies influence social dynamics in host communities. In Kenya, the 2021 WRC was associated with enhanced cohesion and local pride [30]. Community engagement was also central to the Porto Street Stage of the Rally de Portugal, marked by hospitality towards visitors and enthusiasm for motorsport [32]. Similar outcomes were reported in the ERC Azores [33] and the WRC Sardinia [16], where residents generally supported the rally while also voicing concerns about traffic disruption and environmental risks. In rural contexts such as Kyogle (Australia), the rally strengthened community networks, but also created divisions due to dust, noise, and restricted access [25]. Broader Australian studies confirm that centralized decision-making and limited participatory processes reduced legitimacy and heightened opposition [14,29]. By contrast, in Croatia, the 2021 WRC was linked to entertainment opportunities and a sense of cohesion, despite the absence of spectators during the pandemic [31]. Collectively, these findings underscore how rallies can reinforce identity and pride while simultaneously producing tensions when inclusiveness and community participation are insufficiently addressed.

Perceptions of environmental impacts vary widely and are strongly conditioned by management strategies. In Saudi Arabia and Australia, residents highlighted problems such as dust, noise, waste, and resource degradation [25,85]. Similar concerns emerged in other Australian cases, where proximity to the route shaped residents’ evaluations of both benefits and drawbacks [26]. By contrast, the WRC Kenya 2021 incorporated an ambitious reforestation program with 19 million trees planted [30], and the Rally de Portugal implemented comprehensive mitigation measures, including FIA environmental certification, promotion of public transport, and forest clean-up initiatives [32]. Nonetheless, scholars stress that the environmental sustainability of motorsport remains a challenge: [31] recommend advancing towards hybrid or electric technologies to reduce ecological footprints. Broader governance practices also affect perceptions: while the Rally de Portugal involves multi-actor planning over two years, the Porto Street Stage requires rapid urban adaptations [32]. In contrast, the WRC Australia demonstrated how centralized decisions and special legislation reduced local engagement and heightened conflict [14]. Participatory methodologies are therefore recommended to balance divergent interests and mitigate environmental concerns [29].

2.4. Impact Perceptions, Resident Segmentation, and Sociodemographic Profiles

The sociodemographic characteristics of residents shape how event impacts are perceived and, consequently, the degree of support they are willing to provide. Factors such as gender and age condition opportunities for participation, the inclusiveness of experiences, and the legitimacy attributed to sport events within their communities [84,86]. These events do not take place in neutral contexts: they are embedded in sociocultural, political, and economic frameworks that can either foster inclusion or reinforce exclusion [87,88]. When barriers, both physical, symbolic, and institutional, limit participation, they reduce the visibility of certain groups and weaken their identification with the event [89,90].

Gender has received particular attention in the literature on sport events. In motorsports, persistent gaps in representation, participation, and visibility of women remain evident [90,91]. These inequalities are historically rooted and perpetuated through discourses of biological determinism, gender stereotypes, and media practices that sexualize or downplay women’s achievements [91,92]. The lack of female role models contributes to a cycle of invisibility, discouraging participation among girls and adolescents, who often connect to motorsport only through paternal figures [92,93]. The dominance of hegemonic masculinity further reinforces exclusion, portraying motorsport as a heroic, risk-centered activity while also creating subcultural identities in which young men use speed and performance as forms of self-expression [27,94]. Although some studies have attempted to attribute gender disparities to physiological differences in strength or reaction speed [95], much of the literature emphasizes structural, cultural, and symbolic barriers as the primary drivers of inequality [91,92]. These findings support critical perspectives advocating for inclusive event design, from strategic planning to operational delivery.

Age is another key dimension influencing perceptions of event impacts. An ageing population brings specific expectations for leisure and well-being, alongside a strong desire for social integration [96,97]. Older generations may experience barriers linked to accessibility, social visibility, or symbolic recognition, which in turn shape their evaluation of events. The absence of targeted strategies to reduce loneliness, improve accessibility, or enhance the social presence of older adults can negatively affect how these groups perceive the event and, by extension, its broader community legitimacy [97]. Conversely, initiatives that actively engage older residents not only strengthen inclusivity, but also contribute to community cohesion and intergenerational support for the event.

Cluster analysis has been used to segment residents’ perceptions of motorsport events, offering several perspectives into how different groups balance positive and negative impacts. Four studies stand out in the literature, each contextualized in a distinct event format and location.

Ref. [46] examined the Australian Formula 1 Grand Prix across two waves of data collection separated by three years. They identified five clusters: Very Negative, Negative, Unconcerned, Positive, and Very Positive. Over time, the proportion of residents in the Very Negative (7.77% to 2.34%) and Negative groups (14.08% to 7.31%) declined, as did those in the Positive (26.70% to 19.88%) and Very Positive (11.17% to 9.65%) segments. By contrast, the Indifferent group grew markedly (40.29% to 60.82%), indicating a trend toward neutrality and reduced polarization in community attitudes.

Ref. [98] analyzed the Formula 1 European Grand Prix in Valencia, Spain, held between 2008 and 2012, identifying three clusters. The Unfavourable group (42.1%) consisted largely of women and long-term residents with little interest in Formula 1, who rated all dimensions negatively and opposed the event. The Moderately Unfavourable cluster (33.9%) had a more balanced gender composition and slightly greater interest in the sport, recognizing some benefits, but rarely scoring above the midpoint. By contrast, the Moderately Favourable group (24%) included a higher proportion of men, showed greater attendance at the event, and emphasized cultural and sporting benefits, particularly the prestige associated with hosting an international competition.

Ref. [99] studied the 2018 Formula E Grand Prix in Santiago de Chile and distinguished two groups. The Favourable segment (36.7%) was composed mainly of men aged 25 to 54, with higher education, stable employment, and higher income levels. They assigned high scores to positive impacts, especially institutional strengthening and cultural visibility, while downplaying negative aspects. The Realists (63.3%), although similar in age and gender, had lower income and less interest in Formula E. They reported weaker evaluations of positive impacts linked to urban or sporting development and emphasized negative socio-economic consequences more strongly.

Finally, Ref. [16] conducted the only segmentation study to date on rally events, focusing on the 2013 World Rally Championship in Olbia, Sardinia. Four clusters were identified. The Supporters (32.9%), mostly middle-aged women employed in the public sector or retired, strongly endorsed the event, valuing economic and sociocultural benefits. The Neutrals (27.9%), largely young women with higher education, expressed balanced views and limited interest in tourism development. The Enthusiasts but Culturally and Environmentally Concerned (19.9%), again dominated by young and graduated women, acknowledged economic benefits, but expressed concern about cultural and environmental risks. Finally, the Critics (19.2%), mainly young women, held strongly negative views and highlighted safety risks and environmental threats associated with the rally.

Altogether, these findings suggest that residents’ perceptions should be understood within the broader dynamics of urban governance and spatial planning that accompany event-led development [3,4,17,18,19,20,21,22].

3. Materials and Methods

3.1. The Rally Sierra Morena as a Case Study

Car tourism is defined as travel motivated by the production, exhibition, or use of automobiles, as well as participation in motorsport events [100]. Unlike drive tourism, where the car is primarily a means of transport [101], in car tourism the automobile itself constitutes the core attraction. This category intersects with industrial tourism (visits to factories), cultural tourism (museums and collections), and event tourism (motor shows and competitions), yet it is distinct in positioning motorsport as a product in its own right [58]. Within this framework, rallies are classified as intangible, simple products that can take the form of both areas and routes [102]. The Rally Sierra Morena (RSM), held annually in Córdoba (Spain), exemplifies this form of tourism. Organized by the Automóvil Club de Córdoba, it is a recurring tarmac rally that in 2025 celebrated its 42nd edition. The event has joined the European Rally Championship (ERC) for the first time since its previous appearance in 1990, positioning it as the only rally in the region of Andalusia (South Spain) included in an international top-tier calendar.

3.2. Measurement Instrument

A structured, closed-ended questionnaire was designed to enable self-administration. Items were developed with reference to prior studies on tourism, event impacts, and motorsport events [16,25,31,32,33]. The instrument underwent three refinement phases. First, items were reviewed by a tourism researcher. Second, they were assessed by academic experts in tourism and professionals in sports event organization. Third, a pilot with 42 participants was conducted. These steps aimed to identify comprehension issues, reduce completion time, and improve alignment with research objectives, thereby enhancing data quality [103,104]. The initial item pool was designed to capture four broad thematic domains reflecting the Triple Bottom Line framework: (1) economic impacts, (2) social and cultural impacts, (3) environmental impacts, and (4) overall event support. Items were refined based on expert feedback and pilot testing to ensure conceptual clarity and measurement reliability.

The final questionnaire (Appendix A) comprised two sections. The first contained 6 categorical questions, regarding sociodemographic characteristics. The second section contained Likert-scale questions organized into three blocks. The first measured perceptions of impacts using the Triple Bottom Line (economic, social, environmental; positive and negative). Responses were recorded on a 7-point Likert scale (1 = strongly disagree, 4 = neutral, 7 = strongly agree). A 7-point scale was selected to allow for a neutral midpoint and to capture attitudinal nuances with greater sensitivity than shorter scales [104].

3.3. Data Collection and Sampling

Fieldwork was conducted between 1 and 28 February 2025, prior to the event. Data were collected in Córdoba city and in the municipalities hosting the stages of the Rally Sierra Morena (RSM). To ensure broad territorial coverage, postal codes from Córdoba and the participating municipalities were distributed among a team of 40 collaborators, allowing for a geographically balanced sample.

The survey was self-administered in digital format using Google Forms, a strategy intended to reduce interviewer bias while ensuring convenience and anonymity for respondents [105]. A non-probability convenience sampling approach was employed, a method commonly applied in similar studies where participants are selected based on availability at a given time and place [106]. Efforts were made to approximate proportional representation across age groups and areas of residence.

The study population comprised residents of the municipalities directly affected by the event, totaling 355,603 inhabitants according to the Instituto Nacional de Estadística [107]: 322,811 in Córdoba, 16,946 in Pozoblanco, 9049 in Montoro, 3064 in Villaviciosa de Córdoba, 2085 in Obejo, 1014 in Villanueva del Rey, and 634 in Villaharta. Given the non-probabilistic nature of the sampling, a statistically valid sampling error cannot be estimated. However, for reference, with 1529 valid responses, the margin of error would be ±2.49% at a 95% confidence level and ±3.28% at a 99% confidence level.

3.4. Data Analysis

An exploratory factor analysis (EFA) was performed on the 30 items measuring Triple Bottom Line (TBL) perceptions (Appendix A). EFA is used to identify the latent structure of measurement instruments [108,109] and has recently been applied to studies of residents’ perceptions of rally events [31]. Sample adequacy was assessed following [110] (1994) rule of at least 10 valid cases per item and [111] guideline of 300 cases minimum. Suitability for factor analysis was confirmed by the Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO) index (≥0.70) [104,112] and Bartlett’s test of sphericity (p < 0.05) [113]. Factors were retained if eigenvalues exceeded 1 [114], item loadings were above 0.40 [115], and the total variance explained (TVE) exceeded 50% [116].

Resident segmentation was then carried out using a non-hierarchical k-means cluster analysis [117]. This method, widely applied in sport tourism studies [16,118], minimizes within-group variance [119] and was implemented with Euclidean distance as the similarity metric [120]. The number of clusters was fixed at three (K = 3) based on: (1) theoretical considerations of differentiated resident profiles [16]; (2) the stability of cluster centroids across multiple iterations, ensuring robustness against random initialization [121]; and (3) interpretability in terms of sociodemographic and attitudinal characteristics [102,110]. The number of clusters obtained through the k-means algorithm using Euclidean distance was consistent with the preliminary checks of cluster validity and stability.

The sociodemographic composition of each cluster was then analyzed and interpretive labels assigned, facilitating a nuanced understanding of residents’ perceptions of rally events and their implications for event planning [122]. Finally, inter-group differences were tested. A one-way ANOVA [123] was used to assess whether cluster means differed significantly (p < 0.05) [124]. In addition, residents’ support for the event was examined using the Kruskal–Wallis H test [125], appropriate for non-normal data. Where significant differences were identified, post hoc pairwise comparisons were conducted with the Mann–Whitney U test [126] to determine which groups diverged. This combination of tests enabled robust statistical comparisons across clusters while maintaining analytical validity.

4. Results

The final sample consisted of 1529 fully completed and valid questionnaires. Overall, the sociodemographic and event-related experience variables showed balanced distributions, ensuring their suitability for the planned statistical analyses (

Table 1. Sample.

Variable	Categories	n	%
Gender	Male	719	47.02%
	Female	810	52.98%
Age	Up to 45 years old	1010	66.06%
	Over 45 years old	519	33.94%
University degree	Yes	607	39.70%
	No	922	60.30%
Monthly income level	More than EUR 2000 net per month	420	27.47%
	Up to EUR 2000 net per month	1109	72.53%
Occupation directly related to motorsport	Yes	101	6.61%
	No or not employed	1428	93.39%
Place of residence	Urban area	1103	72.14%
	Rural area	426	27.86%

). Gender was almost evenly split, and the distributions across age, education, income level, and place of residence were also well balanced. In contrast, less even distributions were observed in occupations directly linked to the motorsport sector.

Table 2. Descriptive statistics.

Items	Mean	SD 1	Median	IQR 2	KS 3	Items	Mean	SD 1	Median	IQR 2	KS 3
PEC1	5.54	1.505	6	2	<0.001	NEC1	4.51	1.658	5	2	<0.001
PEC2	5.64	1.436	6	2	<0.001	NEC2	4.34	1.624	4	2	<0.001
PEC3	5.47	1.479	6	3	<0.001	NEC3	4.16	1.569	4	2	<0.001
PEC4	5.17	1.569	5	3	<0.001	NEC4	4.4	1.664	4	2	<0.001
PEC5	5.3	1.478	5	3	<0.001	NEC5	4.41	1.674	4	3	<0.001
α = 0.916						α = 0.764
PSO1	5.39	1.498	6	3	<0.001	NSO1	4.11	1.774	4	2	<0.001
PSO2	5.11	1.581	5	2.5	<0.001	NSO2	4.51	1.68	5	2	<0.001
PSO3	5.01	1.589	5	2	<0.001	NSO3	4.65	1.677	5	2	<0.001
PSO4	4.94	1.549	5	2	<0.001	NSO4	3.35	1.837	3	3	<0.001
PSO5	5.21	1.602	5	3	<0.001	NSO5	3.57	1.926	4	3	<0.001
α = 0.901						α = 0.813
PEN1	4.42	1.698	4	3	<0.001	NEN1	4.63	1.674	5	2	<0.001
PEN2	4.49	1.692	4	3	<0.001	NEN2	4.12	1.766	4	2	<0.001
PEN3	4.49	1.661	4	2	<0.001	NEN3	4.55	1.713	5	2	<0.001
PEN4	4.35	1.686	4	3	<0.001	NEN4	4.46	1.798	5	3	<0.001
PEN5	4.53	1.62	4	2	<0.001	NEN5	4.06	1.831	4	2	<0.001
α = 0.901						α = 0.899
ω = 0.803

Notes: ¹ = Standard deviation; ² = Interquartile range; ³ = Kolmogorov–Smirnov.

presents the descriptive statistics of the 30 items used to measure perceptions within the Triple Bottom Line (TBL) framework, together with the normality and reliability results of the scale. The analysis shows that all items yielded p-values below 0.05 in the Kolmogorov–Smirnov test, indicating that responses do not follow a normal distribution [127,128]. Regarding internal consistency, McDonald’s Omega reached 0.803, while Cronbach’s alpha by blocks ranged from 0.764 for negative economic impact perception to 0.916 for positive economic impact perception. These values fall within the thresholds commonly accepted in the literature [110,129]. Interquartile ranges were between 2 and 3, reflecting moderate variability in responses. Medians clustered around 6 points, revealing a predominantly favourable evaluation, except for negative impacts, where they approached the midpoint of the scale.

In the economic dimension, residents emphasized the Rally Sierra Morena’s positive contribution to the city, particularly through attracting tourists (mean = 5.54), stimulating economic development (mean = 5.47), and fostering overall growth (mean = 5.64). In the social dimension, the highest scores were associated with the creation of new leisure opportunities (mean = 5.39) and the reinforcement of local pride (mean = 5.21). By contrast, negative social impacts received the lowest ratings, especially the perception that the event generates insecurity in the streets (mean = 3.35) or encourages inappropriate driving styles (mean = 3.57). These were the only items with means below the midpoint of the scale and also exhibited the highest standard deviations, reflecting a diversity of opinions among respondents. Last, in the environmental dimension, the highest scores corresponded to negative impacts, particularly increased noise and acoustic pollution (mean = 4.63) and the generation of waste in undesired areas (mean = 4.55). However, none of these perceptions exceeded 5 points, suggesting moderate or reserved evaluations. At the lower end, items related to general damage to the event area (mean = 4.06) and harm to local wildlife and habitats (mean = 4.12) received the lowest ratings. Both items exhibited high standard deviations (1.831 and 1.766, respectively), a trend also observed across other item blocks, indicating heterogeneous perceptions within the sample.

Scale refinement was carried out progressively through successive runs of the EFA in SPSS v28.0, ensuring that the results met the methodological criteria established for this study (

Table 3. Exploratory factor analysis and cluster analysis.

Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA)									Cluster ANOVA
Factor	Items	Loads	Eig. 1	EV 2	α	ω	AVE	CR	M. Sq. 3	DoF 4	M. Sq. 3	DoF 4	F	p 5
ECO+	PEC2	0.857	4.01	15.43%	0.916	0.910	0.655	0.905	432.419	2	0.435	1526	995.037	0.000
	PEC3	0.848
	PEC1	0807
	PEC4	0.777
	PEC5	0.754
ENV+	PEN3	0.864	3.71	14.29%	0.901	0.903	0.679	0.913	46.87	2	0.940	1526	49.868	0.000
	PEN2	0.847
	PEN4	0.847
	PEN1	0.782
	PEN5	0.776
ENV−	NEN4	0.840	3.7	14.22%	0.899	0.901	0.652	0.903	10.121	2	0.988	1526	10.244	0.000
	NEN3	0.837
	NEN2	0.805
	NEN1	0.777
	NEN5	0.768
SOC+	PSO2	0.833	3.32	12.76%	0.901	0.901	0.566	0.866	367.535	2	0.520	1526	707.325	0.000
	PSO4	0.794
	PSO3	0.793
	PSO1	0.692
	PSO5	0.629
ECO−	NEC4	0.789	2.01	7.74%	0.749	0.755	0.588	0.810	13.084	2	0.984	1526	13.295	0.000
	NEC5	0.774
	NEC2	0.736
SOC−	NSO4	0.796	2.0	7.69%	0.745	0.765	0.524	0.766	42.725	2	0.945	1526	45.197	0.000
	NSO5	0.730
	NSO1	0.637

Notes: ¹ = Eigenvalues, ² = Explained variance, ³ = Mean square, ⁴ = Degree of freedom; ⁵ = p-value.

). The initial model, consisting of 30 items, explained 67.92% of the total variance, exceeding the 50% threshold commonly recommended in the literature [116]. After an iterative process of removing items with cross-loadings or weak consistency, a final solution was obtained with 26 items explaining 72.12% of the total variance.

In the first run, items NSO3 (mobility difficulties due to road closures) and NSO2 (inconvenience from crowding) loaded together with the negative environmental dimension (0.516 and 0.474, respectively), while also showing loadings above 0.40 on the negative social dimension (0.425 and 0.460). Following [115] criteria, they were removed for loading significantly on more than one factor. As a result, the total variance explained (TVE) increased to 69.57%. In the second run, with 28 items, item NEC1 (perception that businesses increase prices during the event) displayed diffuse loadings between the negative economic (0.393) and negative social (0.455) dimensions. Since it did not meet the one-dimensionality requirement, it was eliminated, raising the TVE to 71.01%. Finally, in the third run, the AVE of the negative economic perception factor remained below the 0.50 threshold, and item NEC3 (perception that the event requires excessive financial investment) was identified as the lowest-loading indicator within its dimension. Its removal resulted in a final 26-item model, with a TVE of 72.12% [117].

Population groups were differentiated according to their evaluations of the Triple Bottom Line (TBL) dimensions.

Table 4. Clusters found and their sociodemographic profile.

Factors		Skeptics		Pragmatics		Enthusiasts
		36.63%		26.23%		37.14%
		Mean	SD 1	Mean	SD 1	Mean	SD 1
Perception of positive economic impact		4.18	0.960	5.80	0.922	6.39	0.648
Perception of positive social impact		4.47	1.021	4.24	1.017	6.41	0.589
Perception of positive environmental impact		4.13	1.194	3.93	1.343	5.14	1.395
Perception of negative economic impact		4.47	1.067	4.70	1.182	4.07	1.619
Perception of negative social impact		4.32	1.094	4.06	1.263	3.74	1.592
Perception of negative environmental impact		4.66	1.111	4.57	1.371	3.93	1.753
Sociodemographic profile		n	%	n	%	n	%
Gender	Male	231	41.25%	182	45.39%	306	53.87%
	Female	329	58.75%	219	54.61%	262	46.13%
Age	Up to 45 years old	396	70.71%	226	56.36%	388	68.31%
	More than 45 years old	164	29.29%	175	43.64%	180	31.69%
University degree	Yes	233	41.61%	171	42.64%	203	35.74%
	No	327	58.39%	230	57.36%	365	64.26%
Occupation directly related	Yes	28	5.00%	20	4.99%	53	9.33%
	Any other situation	532	95.00%	381	95.01%	515	90.67%
Monthly income level	More than EUR 2000 net per month	163	29.11%	113	28.18%	144	25.35%
	Up to EUR 2000 net per month	397	70.89%	288	71.82%	424	74.65%
Place of residence	Urban area	403	71.96%	301	75.06%	399	70.25%
	Rural area	157	28.04%	100	24.94%	169	29.75%

Note: ¹ = Standard deviation.

presents the average scores assigned by each cluster to each dimension, along with their main sociodemographic characteristics. At the item level, variables were aggregated into constructs using the arithmetic mean of the cases belonging to each cluster. For clarity of interpretation, the dimensions are presented first in their positive form (economic, social, and environmental), followed by their negative counterparts in the same order.

The first cluster, labeled “Skeptics”, is characterized by perceiving stronger negative than positive impacts in the economic and environmental dimensions, while acknowledging greater positive than negative impacts in the social dimension. Average scores fall within a narrow range (4.13 to 4.66), reflecting a moderate profile in their evaluations. This group includes a higher proportion of women (58.75%) and a large share of individuals aged up to 45 years (70.71%). It also concentrates a notable proportion of residents with higher income levels.

The second cluster, labeled “Pragmatists”, is the smallest segment (26.3%). Its distinctive feature lies in the high valuation of positive economic impacts (5.80), combined with the perception of environmental costs (4.57) and the lowest score for positive environmental impacts (3.93). The group is composed mainly of women (54.61%) and includes the highest proportion of residents living in urban areas (75.06%).

The third cluster, labeled “Enthusiasts”, is the largest segment (37.14%). It is the only group reporting scores above 6 out of 7 for both positive economic impacts (6.39) and positive social impacts (6.41). Members of this cluster consistently rate positive impacts higher than negative ones across all dimensions, with the highest scores among clusters on the positive side and the lowest on the negative side. The group is composed mainly of men (53.87%) and individuals aged up to 45 years (68.31%). It is also notable for its high proportion of respondents without a completed university degree (64.26%) and those with a monthly net income below €2000 (74.65%). Finally, although numerically small, professionals directly linked to the motor sector (9.33%) are concentrated in this segment.

The analysis of event support provides a final layer to the segmentation of residents.

Table 5. Differences in supporting the event.

Items	Skeptics (1)		Pragmatics (2)		Enthusiast (3)		KW 1	MW1–2 2	MW1–3 2	MW2–3 2
	Mean	Median	Mean	Median	Mean	Median	p 3	p 3	p 3	p 3
SUP1	4.17	4.00	4.63	5.00	5.96	7.00	0.000	0.000	0.000	0.000
SUP2	4.56	5.00	5.21	5.00	6.33	7.00	0.000	0.000	0.000	0.000
SUP3	4.18	4.00	4.54	5.00	5.96	7.00	0.000	0.001	0.000	0.000
SUP4	4.06	4.00	4.45	5.00	6.10	7.00	0.000	0.001	0.000	0.000
SUP5	3.67	4.00	3.63	4.00	5.34	6.00	0.000	0.657	0.000	0.000
SUP6	4.23	4.00	4.86	5.00	6.23	7.00	0.000	0.000	0.000	0.000
SUP7	3.97	4.00	4.22	4.00	5.75	7.00	0.000	0.020	0.000	0.000
α	0.947
ω	0.947

Notes: ¹ = Kruskal–Wallis H test; ² = Mann–Whitney U test; ³ = p-value.

shows clear distinctions between clusters. Skeptics remain close to the neutral point of the scale, Pragmatists express moderate support (median values around 4 to 5), and Enthusiasts display the highest levels, with most median scores reaching the maximum of 7. The only item falling below 4 concerns proactive behaviors, which are uncommon among Skeptics and Pragmatists. This is most evident in the intention to attend the event even when travel is required (SUP5), the sole indicator without statistically significant differences across clusters.

Support also manifests through word-of-mouth and recommendation. Respondents across all three groups reported a willingness to speak positively about the RSM, both reactively (when asked, SUP2) and proactively (without being asked, SUP3) (Table 5). However, the Skeptics showed a more restrained pattern: their recommendation is conditional rather than spontaneous. Specifically, while they reported a willingness to recommend the event if asked (SUP6, median = 4.23), their intention to recommend it unprompted was lower (SUP7, median = 3.97).

5. Discussion

The three resident clusters identified in this study reflect differentiated patterns of exchange, meaning-making, and multidimensional evaluation. From the perspective of the Triple Bottom Line [51,52], Skeptics emphasized negative impacts in the economic and environmental domains, while acknowledging modest social benefits, aligning with [70]’s Social Exchange Theory (SET), which suggests that support is contingent on a perceived balance of benefits and costs. Pragmatists, in turn, demonstrated selective endorsement, prioritizing economic returns, but expressing caution over environmental trade-offs. This pragmatic stance resonates with the logic of rational calculation embedded in SET, as residents weigh tangible benefits against risks. Finally, Enthusiasts offered overwhelmingly positive evaluations, particularly in economic and social dimensions, while minimizing environmental concerns. Such optimistic perceptions illustrate the role of Social Representations Theory [79,80], where the rally becomes symbolically associated with pride, progress, and identity, overshadowing potential negative narratives. Collectively, these clusters reveal how residents articulate complex and sometimes contradictory evaluations across the TBL framework, mediated by both exchange logics and shared representations. Beyond these attitudinal patterns, the findings also demonstrate how residents’ evaluations are embedded in the wider processes of urban and spatial development, since they situate sport events within the dynamics of sustainable city management highlighted in Urban Science scholarship [1,2,7].

The sociodemographic configuration of clusters mirrors trends identified in prior research. The prevalence of women in the Skeptics segment aligns with findings by [98] and [16], where women were overrepresented among critical or neutral groups. Conversely, men’s predominance in the Enthusiasts cluster parallels the gendered enthusiasm for motorsport reported by [91,92], linked to broader patterns of hegemonic masculinity in motor culture [27,94]. Age also plays a role: younger residents concentrated in Enthusiasts, consistent with [96], who note that younger cohorts are more receptive to leisure innovations, while older groups exhibit caution or detachment. Income levels further differentiate perceptions: higher-income residents clustered among Skeptics, echoing [54] observation that economic security reduces reliance on event-driven benefits, whereas lower-income residents in Enthusiasts highlight the rally’s contribution to local opportunities. These results underline the need to account for demographic heterogeneity when evaluating support for sport events. They also reinforce the importance of integrating socio-demographic and spatial equity considerations into event planning, consistent with sustainable urban policy approaches [6,7].

When examined against previous rally case studies, residents’ evaluations of the Rally Sierra Morena reveal both parallels and contrasts. Economically, the strong endorsement of tourism and growth resembles findings from Ourense [23], Kenya [30], and Portugal [32], where rallies were credited with stimulating hospitality and local development. Socially, the rally reinforced pride and leisure opportunities, echoing outcomes in Kenya [30] and Sardinia [16], though, as in Australia [25], divisions also emerged around security and driving behaviors. Environmental evaluations followed a more moderate pattern: concerns over noise and waste did not exceed the scale midpoint, in contrast with the heightened environmental criticisms in Australia [25,28] or Saudi Arabia [85]. This suggests that while residents perceive environmental costs, these do not dominate the narrative, possibly due to recent mitigation efforts such as FIA certification in Portugal [32]. These perceptions illustrate how local environmental management practices interact with residents’ evaluations, reinforcing the view that sustainable event governance is a form of applied urban policy [8].

Each cluster can be situated within the typologies developed in earlier segmentation studies on motorsport events. Skeptics share similarities with the Critics in Sardinia [16] and the Negative segments in Australia [43], both of which highlighted risks and voiced opposition. Pragmatists echo the Moderately Unfavourable cluster in Valencia [98] and the Realists in Santiago [99], characterized by cautious support tempered by environmental or socio-economic concerns. Enthusiasts are most closely aligned with the Supporters of Sardinia [16] and the Favourable group in Santiago [99], yet their scores surpass those reported in comparable studies, underscoring a stronger attachment to the event. This suggests that the internationalization of the Rally Sierra Morena into the ERC context may have amplified community pride and identification, strengthening supportive clusters beyond what has been observed in national or regional events. This outcome also suggests that this integration into the European calendar elevates its symbolic and economic significance and also redefines its role as an instrument of local urban identity and territorial branding [2,5].

6. Conclusions

6.1. Theoretical Conclusions

International sport events with high tourism appeal inevitably interfere with the everyday lives of residents. The findings of this study confirm that these impacts are not perceived in a uniform way, but rather are filtered through the sociodemographic profile of the population. Gender, age, and income influence how residents interpret the balance between benefits and costs, shaping both their support for and resistance to the event. The integration of the Triple Bottom Line framework has proven particularly useful for capturing these dynamics, allowing for economic, social, and environmental dimensions to be assessed simultaneously and offering a multidimensional lens consistent with Social Exchange Theory and Social Representations Theory. In doing so, the study contributes to the field of urban science by demonstrating how sport events operate as socio-spatial systems that reflect broader processes of sustainable urban governance and community well-being.

6.2. Empirical Conclusions

From an empirical perspective, this study demonstrates that the Triple Bottom Line is not only a conceptual tool, but also an effective methodological approach for segmenting the population. Residents of Córdoba were grouped into three distinct clusters with clear differences in their perceptions and levels of support. The Skeptics exhibit moderate evaluations, leaning toward negative perceptions in the economic and environmental dimensions. The Pragmatists are defined by their strong appreciation of economic benefits, tempered by concerns about environmental costs. Finally, the Enthusiasts display overwhelmingly positive evaluations, particularly in the economic and social spheres, and constitute the group with the highest level of support for the rally. These clusters reveal that the population cannot be treated as a homogeneous whole when assessing community reactions to large-scale events. Such differentiation reinforces the value of event segmentation as a tool for inclusive urban planning and participatory policy design.

6.3. Practical Implications and Recommendations

The results of this research provide a series of recommendations for the different stakeholders involved in the governance and management of urban events.

For public administrations, the segmentation results can inform communication and planning strategies that enhance citizen participation and legitimacy. Integrating motorsport events into comprehensive urban development plans would improve coordination between municipal and regional actors, ensuring that large-scale events contribute to inclusive and sustainable urban growth.

For event organizers, the results suggest leveraging the strong links between motorsport, community pride, and local identity to strengthen residents’ support. Addressing concerns related to safety, driving behaviors, and environmental risks through participatory management and transparent communication can reinforce public trust and social acceptance.

For the tourism and hospitality sectors, the event’s internationalization represents an opportunity to align accommodation, mobility, and service offerings with increased visitor flows. Promoting partnerships between the tourism industry and local governments could enhance both the event’s competitiveness and its contribution to regional development.

For environmental governance, the results underscore the need not only to implement, but also to effectively communicate mitigation measures against noise, waste, and resource degradation. Transparent and consistent communication of environmental actions can enhance residents’ awareness and trust, fostering a shared sense of responsibility toward sustainability goals. Integrating environmental management into event planning processes is necessary to preserve long-term sustainability and strengthen the coherence between event management, community engagement, and urban environmental objectives.

6.4. Limitations

Some limitations should be acknowledged. This study focuses on a single rally within the European Rally Championship, which constrains the generalizability of its conclusions. In addition, reliance on self-reported measures introduces the possibility of biases that cannot be entirely eliminated. Moreover, the use of a non-probability convenience sampling approach may limit the external validity of the results, as participation was voluntary. These constraints do not undermine the validity of the findings, but highlight the importance of interpreting them within their context. Nevertheless, by linking event perceptions with urban governance and planning perspectives, this research aligns with ongoing debates in Urban Science on how local participation and environmental management shape the sustainability of contemporary cities.

6.5. Future Research

Future research could enrich this line of inquiry by comparing pre-event expectations with post-event evaluations, thereby capturing the evolution of perceptions over time. Extending the analysis to other rallies within the ERC or the WRC would provide comparative evidence and test the robustness of the clusters identified. Future research could also apply structural equation modeling and multilayer perceptron neural networks to capture complex relationships among impact perceptions, resident profiles, and support levels. Complementarily, a qualitative study based on interviews with event operators, local businesses, and public administrations would provide contextual insights into governance dynamics and stakeholder perspectives. Incorporating spatial and governance variables would further align this research with the analytical frameworks of Urban Science, emphasizing how events shape (and are shaped by) the processes of sustainable urban development, community resilience, and policy coordination. It would also be relevant to analyze the evolution of impact perceptions before and after the Rally Sierra Morena’s integration into the ERC, as well as to conduct longitudinal studies that examine residents’ evaluations at different stages of the event: shortly before, during, and after its celebration. Together, these approaches would enrich the understanding of how rally events interact with community life and contribute to sustainable development. Such extensions would advance sport tourism research and also contribute to the broader understanding of urban sustainability and participatory governance that underpin resilient cities.

6.6. Main Contribution of This Research

This study contributes to the existing literature by providing a bottom-up perspective on urban entertainment events. The transition of a motorsport event from a national to a continental championship offers a unique opportunity to examine how such upgrades reshape residents’ expectations, perceptions and local dynamics—a gap that this research directly addresses. It combines the TBL approach with a segmentation analysis that identifies differentiated resident perceptions across economic, social and environmental dimensions. This perspective enhances our understanding of how motorsport events influence urban sustainability and community well-being.