Parasitologia doi: 10.3390/parasitologia6050051

Authors: Abdelhanine Ayad El-Hacene Balla Keltoum Ichalal Meriem Amrane-Abider Massissilia Ayad Anissa Mozaoui Nadir Boudjlal Dergal

This study evaluated the acaricidal efficacy of extracts from Salvia officinalis (SO), Marrubium vulgare (MV), Ruta graveolens (RG), and Opuntia ficus-indica (OFI) against Varroa destructor, together with their acute toxicity to Apis mellifera. The extracts were characterized for their phenolic content and antioxidant activity. Honey bee toxicity was assessed at 0.5, 1, and 2 mg/mL using three application methods, while acaricidal activity was determined by the drip method. Survival data were analyzed using Kaplan–Meier, the log-rank test, and Abbott’s correction. The extracts differed markedly in their phenolic composition, with RG showing the highest total phenolic content, whereas all extracts exhibited strong antioxidant activity. Toxicity assays revealed significant differences among plant species. SO was the most toxic to honey bees, particularly following drip application, whereas MV and OFI caused minimal mortality. RG showed moderate toxicity that varied with the application method. In contrast, all extracts achieved complete mortality of V. destructor within 4 h, with corrected efficacy exceeding 89%. MV and OFI exhibited the lowest LC50 values, indicating the greatest acaricidal potency. Overall, MV and OFI emerged as the most promising candidates, combining high efficacy against V. destructor with low toxicity to honey bees. However, further validation under field conditions is required.

Parasitologia doi: 10.3390/parasitologia6050050

Authors: Fabrizio Bruschi

Leishmaniases belong to a group of diseases considered to be neglected by the World Organization of Health (WHO) since these diseases disproportionately affect marginalized communities with limited healthcare access [...]

Parasitologia doi: 10.3390/parasitologia6040049

Authors: Guillermo Gil-Alarcón Jose L. Bravo-Ramos Pablo Arenas Omar Ovando-Márquez Marlene Solís-Cortés Héctor M. Zazueta-Islas Gerardo G. Ballados-González Ingeborg Becker Yokomi N. Lozano-Sardaneta Sokani Sánchez-Montes

Species of the genus Hepatozoon are among the most widespread haemogregarine parasites infecting reptiles; however, information regarding their occurrence in native snakes from Mexico remains scarce. This study investigated the molecular occurrence of Hepatozoon spp. in free-ranging Mexican black-tailed rattlesnakes (Crotalus molossus nigrescens) rescued within the Reserva Ecológica del Pedregal de San Ángel (REPSA), an urban protected area in central Mexico. Opportunistically sampled squirrels were also included to explore the occurrence of these parasites in sympatric mammals. Blood samples from 26 rattlesnakes, six Mexican gray squirrels (Sciurus aureogaster), and three rock squirrels (Otospermophilus variegatus) were screened by PCR targeting a partial fragment of the 18S rRNA gene. Hepatozoon spp. DNA was detected in six rattlesnakes (23.1%) and two Mexican gray squirrels (33.3%), whereas all rock squirrels tested negative. Phylogenetic analyses suggested the presence of two distinct Hepatozoon lineages: one showing phylogenetic affinity with Hepatozoon cf. ophiosauri, detected in all positive rattlesnakes and one squirrel, and another closely related to Hepatozoon griseisciuri, identified in a second squirrel. These findings represent the first molecular detection of Hepatozoon in C. molossus nigrescens, the first record of infection in S. aureogaster, and the first report of a H. griseisciuri-like lineage in Mexico. Although parasite identification was based exclusively on partial 18S rRNA gene sequences, this study expands current knowledge of Hepatozoon diversity in Mexican wildlife and provides important baseline information for future studies integrating molecular, morphological, and ecological approaches to better understand parasite diversity and transmission in protected urban ecosystems.

Parasitologia doi: 10.3390/parasitologia6040048

Authors: Julia Fernandes Barbosa dos Santos Beatriz Martins de Souza Fernandes Cláudia Masini d’Avila Vítor Ennes-Vidal

Endosymbiosis is a necessary process in eukaryotic evolution, yet the steps leading to full integration remain poorly understood. Trypanosomatids provide a comparative framework to study this transition through two independent systems representing distinct levels of integration. Strigomonadinae comprises a subfamily derived from a single ancestral acquisition, which maintains a single cytosolic bacterium closely synchronized with the host cell cycle. In contrast, Novymonas esmeraldas harbors multiple bacteria within symbiontophorous vacuoles, presenting a more limited coordination of division. The generation of aposymbiotic strains enables direct functional assessment of endosymbiont contributions to host biology. Comparative analyses reveal strong metabolic interdependence, with the endosymbiont supplying essential amino acids, heme, vitamins, and purines, while relying on the host for key metabolic resources including non-essential amino acids, cofactors, energy metabolism, and lipid biosynthesis. Beyond metabolism, the endosymbiont impacts protein homeostasis and cellular regulation, modulating proteolytic pathways such as GP63, cysteine peptidases, and the ubiquitin–proteasome system, as well as host networks involving kinetoplast-associated proteins (KAPs). Host-encoded endosymbiont-targeted proteins (ETPs) further mediate endosymbiont positioning, organization, and coordinated maintenance and division. Here, we critically synthesize current knowledge on mEHTs using a comparative framework based on interconnected dimensions of host–endosymbiont integration.

Parasitologia doi: 10.3390/parasitologia6040047

Authors: Olga A. Loginova Albina V. Luneva Nanette H. N. Sumaya Sergei E. Spiridonov

Trichostrongylid nematodes are globally distributed gastrointestinal parasites of major veterinary and, in some cases, zoonotic importance. Accurate identification often requires an integrative approach because morphology alone may be compromised by specimen damage, cryptic diversity, and dimorphic species complexes. In the Philippines previous work has been largely limited to coproscopy, with no published DNA-based studies on adult trichostrongylids or scanning electron microscopy (SEM) documentation. Here, we provide an integrative characterization of Haemonchus contortus and Trichostrongylus axei recovered from a single goat in Mindanao, Philippines, in 2023. Identification was based on light microscopy, SEM, morphometry, and sequence data from the cox1 and ITS regions. Phylogenetic analyses and a haplotype network for H. contortus placed the Philippine material within a widely distributed lineage complex with weak geographic structuring. Because the study is based on parasites from a single host, the findings should be interpreted as a taxonomic and faunistic record rather than evidence for broader epidemiological or population-level patterns. This study provides the first molecular record of trichostrongylid nematodes from the Philippines and the first SEM-based documentation of H. contortus in the country. Broader sampling is needed to assess parasite diversity, distribution, genetic variation, and potential veterinary and public health relevance nationwide.

Parasitologia doi: 10.3390/parasitologia6040046

Authors: Shahira Abdelaziz Ali Ahmed Amira Mokhtar Annalisa Quattrocchi Panagiotis Karanis Samer Eid Mohamed Gad

Corticosteroid-induced immunosuppression creates a permissive environment for opportunistic intestinal parasitic infections (OIPIs), especially in endemic regions where latent or subclinical parasitic carriage is common. Yet, the interplay between corticosteroid exposure, parasitic ecology, and clinical outcomes remains insufficiently characterized. This study aimed to investigate the epidemiological and clinical characteristics of OIPIs in corticosteroid-treated patients by integrating findings from an original Egyptian case series with a systematic review of published global cases. A dual analytical approach was undertaken, combining newly characterized Egyptian corticosteroid-treated cases (ECS; n = 53) with a systematic review of global corticosteroid-associated parasitic cases (LRCS; 94 cases, 1975–2024). Clinical profiles, corticosteroid regimens, comorbidities, parasitic spectra, and outcomes were analyzed to elucidate risk patterns and pathophysiological mechanisms. Six opportunistic intestinal parasite genera were detected among ECS. The most notable species were Giardia duodenalis, Cyclospora cayetanensis, and Cryptosporidium spp., while seven were identified globally, with Strongyloides stercoralis and Cryptosporidium spp. predominating in LRCS. Remarkably, 70% of ECS patients exhibited polyparasitism, harbouring up to five different concurrent species, including both opportunistic and non-opportunistic parasites. Over half of the Egyptian patients were asymptomatic, while nearly one-third displayed extraintestinal manifestations, predominantly respiratory, which may reflect altered clinical presentation under corticosteroid-induced immune modulation. Prolonged corticosteroid therapy (≥1 month) was significantly associated with higher complication rates (p = 0.002) in ECS, and tissue invasion, organ dysfunction, hospitalization, and mortality in LRCS. The compiled LRCS mortality and hospitalization data (34 fatalities, 87 hospitalisations) reflect rare quantitative insight into global OIPI lethality under steroid exposure. This study provides the first integrated clinical and epidemiological synthesis linking corticosteroid exposure to complex parasitic dynamics across endemic and non-endemic settings. It advances the hypothesis that corticosteroids act less as mere infection triggers and more as amplifiers of pre-existing parasitic ecosystems, reshaping host–parasite interactions and facilitating subclinical dissemination. The findings underscore the importance of routine parasitic screening, risk stratification, and longitudinal monitoring before and during corticosteroid therapy, particularly in endemic regions, to ensure long-term patient care and prevent and manage OIPIs.

Parasitologia doi: 10.3390/parasitologia6040045

Authors: Kyriacos A. Hasapis Catherine O’Dowd Phanis Chad Schou Iris Charalambidou Stefanie Kazamia Eleftherios Hadjisterkotis Nicolaos Kassinis Panagiotis Karanis

(1) Background: Giardia duodenalis is a common protozoan parasite infecting various mammalian hosts, yet data on its prevalence in Cypriot ruminants, including the endemic and protected mouflon (Ovis gmelini ophion), remain absent. This study aimed to evaluate the prevalence and molecular characteristics of Giardia species (sp.) in domestic and wild ruminants in Cyprus to assess potential risks to wildlife. (2) Methods: We analysed 146 faecal samples—comprising 32 domestic sheep, 10 domestic and 34 free-ranging goats, and 70 wild mouflons—using nested polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and multi-locus sequence typing of the ssrRNA, tpi, bg, and gdh genes. (3) Results: Giardia was detected in only 1 of the 42 domestic ruminant samples (1/32 sheep; 3.1%), which was characterized as G. duodenalis assemblage E. No Giardia DNA was detected in the the domestic goats (0/10), wild mouflons (0/70) or the free-ranging goats (0/34) co-inhabiting the forest environment. (4) Conclusions: This study provides the first molecular report of Giardia sp. in domestic sheep in the Republic of Cyprus. While the parasite is present in domestic ruminants, the findings suggest a low positivity rate and no immediate evidence of transmission to the endangered mouflon. Further research with a larger sample size is recommended to confirm these observations and guide future conservation strategies.

Parasitologia doi: 10.3390/parasitologia6040044

Authors: Vinicius Bastos Salles Segantine Carolina Magri Ferraz Juliany Veloso Leal Jacson Antonio Gil Fagundes Filippe Elias de Freitas Soares Jackson Victor de Araújo Helio Langoni Fabio Ribeiro Braga

Nematophagous fungi are important biological control agents that naturally reduce nematode populations through specialized predatory mechanisms. This study evaluated the viability and predatory capacity of the nematophagous fungus Duddingtonia flagrans (AC001) after fourteen years of refrigerated storage in sodium alginate pellets. Fungal viability was assessed by reactivating the pellets on Corn Meal Agar and Potato Dextrose Agar, with subsequent monitoring of mycelial growth and morphological confirmation by light microscopy. The predatory capacity was determined by means of in vitro assays using Panagrellus redivivus as a model organism. Plates previously colonized by the fungus received approximately 400 nematodes and were compared with fungus-free controls. Predatory activity was evaluated daily for five days by counting live nematodes in random microscopic fields. Final recovery of viable nematodes was performed using a modified Baermann technique. The data were analyzed using Student’s t-test (p < 0.05). Isolate AC001 exhibited successful reactivation, preserved morphological characteristics, and sustained high predatory activity, resulting in reductions in nematode populations ranging from 91% on the first day to 95% on subsequent days, with a final reduction of 67% in nematode recovery. These findings demonstrate that sodium alginate encapsulation combined with refrigeration enables the exceptionally long-term preservation of functional and predatory attributes of nematophagous fungi, supporting its applicability in biological control strategies.

Parasitologia doi: 10.3390/parasitologia6040043

Authors: Karina Flores-Martínez Sibilina Cedillo-Rosales Ramiro Ávalos-Ramírez Juan José Zárate-Ramos Rogelio Carrera-Treviño Jesús Francisco Chávez-Sánchez Gerardo Méndez-Zamora Ana María Cevallos Guiehdani Villalobos Ignacio Amezcua-Osorio Isidro Emmanuel González-Luna Armando Trejo-Chávez Fernando Martinez-Hernandez

Wild animals play an important role in the epidemiological cycle of Trypanosoma cruzi transmission. The order Chiroptera is ecologically significant as a reservoir host for parasite variants, including TcI, TcII, TcIV, and TcBat. This study aimed to detect T. cruzi in multiple organs of Desmodus rotundus from two regions of San Luis Potosí, Mexico. A total of 63 D. rotundus samples were obtained, of which 22.2% (14/63) tested positive for T. cruzi infection. The highest infection rate was observed in the Media region, with 47.3% (9/19) of samples being infected, whereas in the Huasteca region 11.3% (5/44) of samples were infected. Infection prevalence did not differ significantly by sex or age. Of the five organs tested, only the intestine and the kidney were positive. Phylogenetic and genetic distance analyses revealed sequence identity values >98% with TcI/Tbat trypanosomes. These findings add to the growing body of evidence that bats, particularly hematophagous species such as D. rotundus, play a significant role in maintaining T. cruzi in sylvatic environments and potentially facilitating transmission at the wildlife–domestic interface. Continuous surveillance integrating bat populations, vectors, humans, and domestic animals is essential for understanding and mitigating the risk of Chagas disease in regions where sylvatic and domestic transmission cycles overlap.

Parasitologia doi: 10.3390/parasitologia6040042

Authors: Gabriela Muñoz Javier Espinoza Natalia V. Leiva María Teresa González

Digenean of the superfamily Echinostomatoidea exhibit complex life cycles that involve up to three host species. Several echinostomatoid species have been reported in snails of the family Littorinidae. In the zebra snail Echinolittorina peruviana from central Chile, two cercarial species resembling Echinostomatoidea were recognized based in their morphological characteristics. Molecular characterization was carried out to identify the species. Key aspects of their infection dynamics were quantified and compared between the two cercarial morphologies, with particular emphasis on transmission to secondary intermediate hosts. We evaluated: (i) swimming activity, (ii) the success of cercarial settlement in a mussel host across different body sizes, and (iii) host selection among three potential secondary intermediate hosts (a mussel, a snail, and a crab). Molecular analyses, based on the 28S gene, indicated that the examined cercariae corresponded to two distinct species from the superfamily Echinostomatoidea. However, species-level identification could not be confirmed, and they were therefore designated as species 1 and species 2. Species 1 exhibited a significantly faster decline in swimming activity compared to species 2, whose active period was approximately twice as long. Mussels were successfully infested in all trials, with no significant differences among shell-size groups. In host preference experiments, all host types were selected. However, only the cercaria species 2 showed a significant preference for the crab, suggesting that this may be an alternative secondary intermediate host. Despite their similar body size, the two cercarial species displayed distinct infection dynamics and host-use strategies, indicating divergent biological traits and transmission pathways within a limited time window.

Parasitologia doi: 10.3390/parasitologia6040041

Authors: Jitender P. Dubey Aditya Gupta Peter Sebastian Wes Baumgartner

Sarcocystis felis, originally named for sarcocysts in the bobcat (Lynx rufus), has been reported in domestic cats (Felis catus) and several other wild felids in the Americas. However, ultrastructural confirmation of the sarcocyst wall, an important criterion for taxonomy of Sarcocystis species, is lacking in many reports. Here, we report ultrastructural confirmation of S. felis in the limb musculature of the Florida panther (Puma concolor coryi) in Florida. Sarcocysts in the Florida panther were thin-walled and had a “type 9c” cyst wall. Molecularly, 100% identity of the ITS1 region from the panther isolates with other felid isolates supported the ultrastructural findings.

Parasitologia doi: 10.3390/parasitologia6040040

Authors: Jamal Tarrabain Keshini Abeyewardene Gregory D. Hawley Andrea K. Boggild

Clonorchiasis is a parasitic infection caused by the trematode Clonorchis sinensis, which is endemic to East Asia but increasingly observed in non-endemic regions due to global migration. Chronic infection can lead to recurrent pyogenic cholangitis (RPC) and other hepatobiliary complications including cholangiocarcinoma. We herein review clonorchiasis and opisthorchiasis as potential contributory drivers of RPC in migrants from Southeast Asia through framing with a case of a Filipino woman residing in Canada who presented with a two-year history of intermittent right upper quadrant pain, liver enzyme derangement, and imaging features consistent with RPC. Despite negative stool ova and parasite (O&P) testing, empirical treatment with praziquantel (1800 mg three times daily for two days) led to clinical and biochemical improvement. Hepatobiliary trematodiasis, including clonorchiasis and opisthorchiasis, can be challenging to diagnose, and clonorchiasis and opisthorchiasis cannot be distinguished on clinical or radiographic grounds alone. Clonorchiasis can be challenging to diagnose in non-endemic areas due to low parasitologic test sensitivity and non-specific clinical features. Imaging findings and epidemiologic context are critical for raising clinical suspicion and guiding management. Healthcare providers in non-endemic regions should include clonorchiasis and opisthorchiasis in the differential diagnosis of unexplained cholestasis, particularly in migrants from areas endemic for clonorchiasis and opisthorchiasis. Negative stool tests do not exclude infection, and early empirical treatment may prevent irreversible hepatobiliary damage and reduce long-term malignancy risk.

Parasitologia doi: 10.3390/parasitologia6040039

Authors: Barbara Moroni Matteo Riccardo Di Nicola Alberico Franzin Maria Vittoria Riina Pier Luigi Acutis Elena Bozzetta Elena Biasibetti

Psychodid flies are non-parasitic insects commonly found in humid domestic environments, where larvae develop in organic matter within drains. Human pseudomyiasis caused by these flies is a rare and often neglected condition, typically involving urogenital or intestinal tracts. Most cases are reported in Southeast Asia and the Middle East, while occurrences in Europe and Africa remain uncommon. This study reports the first documented pediatric cutaneous pseudomyiasis case associated with a psychodid larva in Italy. A 4-year-old girl presented with a small (0.5 cm) subcutaneous swelling on the right arm, showing dark discoloration and a protruding structure. No pruritus or systemic symptoms were observed. A partially removed larval specimen was analyzed using morphological and molecular approaches. Morphological analysis confirmed that the specimen was a dipteran larva; however, its degraded condition precluded reliable determination of the larval instar. Molecular characterization targeting the mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase subunit I (COI) gene assigned the specimen to the genus Psychoda (family Psychodidae). These findings are consistent with an incidental recovery of a psychodid larva and support an interpretation of pseudomyiasis rather than true myiasis. This case highlights the role of interdisciplinary collaboration between pediatricians and entomologists and a One Health approach in diagnosing unusual parasitological conditions.

Parasitologia doi: 10.3390/parasitologia6040038

Authors: Amritha Johny

Lepeophtheirus salmonis (Krøyer, 1837) represents a major biological challenge in Atlantic salmon aquaculture. Despite extensive research on salmon lice biology, host interaction, and immunomodulation, the mechanisms underlying early host recognition and attachment remain poorly understood. Microscopic examination of the infective stage revealed a previously undescribed spike-like structure in the anterior rostral region of the copepodids. The structure appeared flexible, moved synchronously with body movements, and was present prior to exposure to host tissues or detectable host contact. Behavioral observations further revealed that copepodids actively probe salmon skin explants and fins with their anterior appendages before initial attachment, often followed by prolonged immobility. Scanning electron microscopy suggested that the structure may exist in both protruded and retracted forms and revealed a crevice- or pore-like feature at its proximal end. It is hypothesized that this structure may contribute to early host interrogation through localized sensing and the initial attachment process. These findings highlight a component of early host–parasite interactions and may contribute to future strategies to disrupt host recognition mechanisms in salmon lice.

Parasitologia doi: 10.3390/parasitologia6040037

Authors: Juan Pablo Ramirez-Hinojosa Nora Denice Cuevas-Obispo Luis Antonio Cortes-Islas Lirio Nathali Valverde-Ramos Priscila Mishelle Bartolo-Gomez Nancy Rivas Yessenia Montes-Vergara Mirza Romero-Valdovinos Guiehdani Villalobos Ricardo Alejandre-Aguilar Pablo Maravilla Fernando Martinez-Hernandez

In Mexico, since June 2025, human cases of myiasis caused by Cochliomyia hominivorax (the screwworm) have been identified, prompting health authorities to issue a surveillance alert for potential infections by this fly. Here we report the identification and interdisciplinary management of a case of nasal myiasis caused by Lucilia sericata. In September 2025, a 40-year-old Hispanic man was admitted to the emergency room due to an altered mental status; after a 17-day hospital stay, nasal larvae were detected. The larvae were submitted for morphological identification by microscopy and molecular identification by polymerase chain reaction, using ITS-2 and 16S loci as nuclear and mitochondrial markers, respectively; the amplicons were purified and sequenced, and a Bayesian phylogenetic analysis was performed. Morphological analysis showed that they were L. sericata larvae at different developmental stages (1st to 3rd instars). Molecular analysis confirmed the morphological result, as phylogenetic inferences showed a clear grouping of the sequences within the L. sericata cluster. While remaining vigilant for possible human cases of myiasis caused by C. hominivorax, here, we confirmed by morphological and molecular analysis the identification of an unexpected case of nasal myiasis caused by L. sericata, demonstrating the importance of care in all aspects of thorough epidemiological surveillance and the interdisciplinary management to address these alerts and any related cases.

Parasitologia doi: 10.3390/parasitologia6040036

Authors: Adriana Arevalo-Jamaica Yussely Tatiana Cobos-Leon Jhindy Tatiana Pérez-Lozada Beatriz Elena De arco-Rodriguez Dioselina Peláez-Carvajal Claudia Marcela Castro-Osorio Luisa Fernanda Vasquez Chavez Mayra Alejandra Vargas-Rojas Vivian Vanesa Rubio Sonia Lorena Valencia-Claros Carlos Esteban Franco-Muñoz Amith Arelis Aldana Lyons Anderson Ramírez Ayala Gloria Mercedes Puerto-Castro

Acute diarrheal disease (ADD) caused by parasites and Tuberculosis (TB) remain major public health concerns in vulnerable indigenous communities with limited access to sanitation, safe water, and healthcare, and where humans, animals and the environment interact closely. Using a One Health framework, this study investigated TB and Intestinal parasites in human, animal and environmental samples from 15 Wayuu indigenous communities in Manaure, La Guajira. A total of 190 samples, including human sputum and feces, animal milk and feces, soil and drinking water, were analyzed according to sample type, preservation suitability, and availability using parasitological concentration techniques, qPCR for helminth detection, metatranscriptomic sequencing, Xpert ® MTB/RIF assay, and mycobacterial culture. Mycobacterium tuberculosis was detected in 8.3% of human sputum samples, with no evidence of rifampicin resistance, whereas Mycobacterium bovis was not detected in animal milk. Human fecal samples analyzed by microscopy showed Blastocystis sp. and the Entamoeba histolytica/Entamoeba dispar complex (38.8% each), followed by Giardia (19.4%), Hymenolepis nana and Trichuris trichiura (5.1% each) and Hymenolepis diminuta (1%). Commensal parasites were also identified, with Entamoeba coli (46.9%) being the most frequent species, indicating inadequate sanitary conditions and poor hygiene practices. Co-infections were common in humans (60.2%). In animal fecal samples, strongylids (66.7%), amoebas (16.7%) and Giardia (8.3%) were observed. Giardia sp. was detected in 2.38% of soil samples by microscopy, supporting environmental circulation, whereas no parasites were detected in water sediments. Multiplex qPCR detected Trichuris trichiura DNA in human feces and Trichuris spp. DNA in soil and sheep fecal samples. Metatranscriptomic analysis of 22 human fecal samples revealed a high diversity and frequency of parasitic protozoa (90.9%), with Blastocystis spp. being the most frequent (81.8%). Additionally, reads of free-living amoebae, including Acanthamoeba spp. (10%) and Naegleria spp. (5%) were detected in community drinking water sources. These findings suggest active transmission of TB and parasitic-associated ADD in Wayuu communities and highlight the need for integrated surveillance and culturally appropriate interventions focused on sanitation, hygiene, veterinary services and community health education to improve the living and health conditions of these vulnerable populations.

Parasitologia doi: 10.3390/parasitologia6040035

Authors: Naceur Bentria Sofiane Derrar Mohamed Amine Ayad Mohamed Said Saim Hebib Aggad Ivan Stimac Jutta Pikalo Hans-Peter Fuehrer

Vector-borne pathogens (VBPs) can affect equine health, welfare, and productivity, with potential implications for animal management and trade. However, data on their occurrence in North Africa remain limited. The present study aimed to estimate the molecular occurrence of selected equine VBPs in clinically healthy horses from Algeria. Specifically, a cross-sectional molecular survey was conducted between May and November 2024 on 241 clinically healthy horses selected using convenience sampling from three ecologically distinct regions of Algeria (Tiaret, Laghouat, and Tlemcen). Demographic and management data were collected at sampling, and blood samples were spotted onto filter paper for DNA preservation. Genomic DNA was extracted using a modified Chelex/InstaGene Matrix protocol, followed by conventional and nested PCR assays targeting piroplasms, Anaplasmataceae, filarioid helminths, Rickettsia spp., Trypanosomatidae, haemotropic Mycoplasma spp., and Bartonella spp. Positive amplicons were subjected to sequence and phylogenetic analysis. Theileria equi (T. equi) DNA was detected in 4.98% (12/241) of examined horses, and one animal (0.41%; 1/241) tested positive for Theileria capreoli (T. capreoli). T. equi genotypes A and B were identified via molecular characterisation, but no amplification was obtained for Anaplasmataceae, Babesia caballi, Rickettsia spp., haemotropic Mycoplasma spp., Bartonella spp., Trypanosomatidae, or filarioid helminths. These findings should be interpreted cautiously, given the convenience sampling design, the clinically healthy status of the sampled animals, and the known limitations of PCR-based detection in low-parasitaemia infections. Nevertheless, this study provides preliminary molecular data on equine VBPs in Algeria and supports the need for broader epidemiological investigations using complementary molecular and serological approaches.

Parasitologia doi: 10.3390/parasitologia6040034

Authors: Rongchang Yang

Parasite identification remains one of the most important areas of parasitological research [...]

Parasitologia doi: 10.3390/parasitologia6030033

Authors: Débora Castro Toledo De Souza Lara De Nadai Rodrigues Bezerra Dyesse Pollyane Ferreira Adriane Toledo Batista da Silva Amanda do Carmo Alves Ana Carolina Silva Carolina Magri Ferraz Jackson Victor de Araújo Fabio Ribeiro Braga Filippe Elias de Freitas Soares

Monieziosis presents a considerable challenge to livestock farming, mainly due to the parasite’s resistance to common anthelmintics, prompting the need for alternative control strategies. This study examined the in vitro effect of two enzymatic sources (plant and fungal) on the structural integrity of Moniezia expansa eggs, aiming to find new environmental management solutions. The plant enzyme papain was tested at various concentrations and time points, while the fungal enzyme was produced through solid-state fermentation using Duddingtonia flagrans (AC001), resulting in an active crude enzymatic extract (ACEE). Papain at 10% w/v showed nonlinear degradation (R2 = 0.998), achieving 95% egg reduction after 48 h. The fungal extract ACEE (71.2 U mL−1) caused a 60% reduction after 72 h. Morphological studies indicated significant eggshell damage following both treatments. A compatibility assay showed an antagonistic interaction, with enzyme activity decreasing by 83.83% within 48 h, likely due to cross-proteolysis. Although each agent is effective individually, combining them is not feasible. This is the first study documenting the activity of ACEE and papain against M. expansa eggs, and it recommends using them separately or sequentially for effective parasite control.

Parasitologia doi: 10.3390/parasitologia6030032

Authors: Yazmin Alcala-Canto Salvador Neri Orantes Carlos A. Vega y Murguía Juan Felipe de Jesús Torres-Acosta Roger Iván Rodríguez-Vivas Dora Romero Salas Pedro Mendoza-de Gives

Zoonotic gastrointestinal parasites such as Toxocara canis and Ancylostoma caninum are a public health concern, particularly in tropical and urban environments. This study evaluated Mexican veterinarians’ perceptions, knowledge, and deworming practices regarding these parasites and their zoonotic risks. A nationwide online survey obtained 717 fully completed responses from veterinarians across all Mexican states, exceeding the required sample size. Inclusion criteria required participants to be active small-animal practitioners with no missing data on core deworming questions; veterinarians working exclusively in pharmacies, feed stores, boarding facilities, dog daycares, or grooming services were excluded. Overall ESCCAP guideline compliance was 34.2%. Compliance was highest in northern states (41.8%) and lowest in southern states (23.5%). Deworming practices in lactating dogs showed uniformly low adherence, and no state reached moderate compliance for puppies aged 1–3 weeks. Compliance with the recommended puppy deworming frequency was notably higher. Compliance with the recommended adult deworming frequency was very low (9.8%), while coprological monitoring was recommended by 43.4% of respondents. Professional formation was the strongest predictor of overall guideline adherence across nearly all criteria. The 16–20-year experience group showed the highest overall compliance. Sex was not a significant predictor of overall ESCCAP compliance; the only significant sex difference was observed for coprological monitoring, where female veterinarians showed higher compliance rates. These findings suggest that academic training, years of experience, and geographic region are independently associated with guideline adherence, underscoring the value of standardized national protocols and continuing education to strengthen zoonotic risk awareness among veterinarians in Mexico.

Parasitologia doi: 10.3390/parasitologia6030031

Authors: Wellington Francisco Rodrigues Camila Botelho Miguel Laise Mazurek Renata Botelho Miguel Maria Eduarda Martins Mariane Andrade Moreira Aristóteles Góes-Neto Marcos Augusto dos Santos Christophe Morisseau Thiago Aparecido da Silva Maria Cristina Roque-Barreira Javier Emilio Lazo-Chica

Chagas disease, caused by Trypanosoma cruzi (T. cruzi), includes clinically relevant intestinal inflammation; however, the mechanisms associated with tissue injury remain incompletely understood. ArtinM is an immunomodulatory lectin with known effects on innate and adaptive immunity, although its intestinal role during acute T. cruzi infection remains unclear. This study investigated whether ArtinM modulates the intestinal inflammatory response during acute experimental T. cruzi infection. In vivo, BALB/c mice were allocated to Saline control, T. cruzi + Saline, and T. cruzi + ArtinM groups. Intestinal inflammatory infiltrate and tissue concentrations of TNF-α, IFN-γ, IL-12p40, and IL-10 were quantified. Acute infection markedly increased TNF-α, IFN-γ, IL-12p40, and inflammatory infiltrate, whereas ArtinM significantly attenuated these responses. TNF-α, IFN-γ, and IL-12p40 remained associated with group after adjustment for infiltrate, whereas IL-10 reached statistical significance only in the adjusted model and was therefore interpreted cautiously. In parallel, an exploratory analysis of a public murine intestinal scRNA-seq dataset (GSE319934; GSM9529706 and GSM9529707), derived from a chronic infection setting, was performed to provide pathway-level context for inflammatory mediators assessed in vivo. This transcriptomic analysis indicated that related inflammatory, innate immune, chemotactic, and adhesion-associated genes were detectable in intestinal single-cell data from T. cruzi infection. However, because this dataset was not temporally matched to the acute model, it was not interpreted as a phase-matched comparator, mechanistic validation, or temporal extension of the experimental findings. Together, the results support that ArtinM treatment is associated with attenuation of acute intestinal inflammatory outcomes in experimental T. cruzi infection. Because local intestinal parasite burden was not measured, these findings should be interpreted as evidence of inflammatory modulation rather than as direct evidence of local antiparasitic activity. The public scRNA-seq analysis provides only exploratory contextual information for related inflammatory pathways.

Parasitologia doi: 10.3390/parasitologia6030030

Authors: Osiel González Dávila

Human scabies, caused by Sarcoptes scabiei var. hominis, is a neglected tropical disease with a significant public health burden worldwide. This retrospective study analyzed the spatiotemporal epidemiology of scabies in Mexico from 2004 to 2024 using national surveillance data. A total of 1,500,348 cases were reported. Children were disproportionately affected, with the highest crude incidence rates in the 0–4 age group. Females had higher incidence than males across all age groups, except in the 0–4 and ≥65 years age groups. Temporal trends were assessed using joinpoint regression on age-standardized incidence rates. Joinpoint regression identified two joinpoints in 2012 and 2017 for both sexes. Among males, the age-standardized incidence rate decreased from 2004 to 2012 (APC = −5.75%), increased from 2012 to 2017 (APC = 19.00%), and decreased from 2017 to 2024 (APC = −20.86%), with an AAPC of −6.02% (p < 0.001). Among females, a similar pattern was observed (APC = −5.94%, 18.23%, and −20.83%, respectively), with an AAPC of −6.24% (p < 0.001). Both sexes showed a significant net decrease in scabies incidence over the study period, despite a transient increase between 2012 and 2017. Spatial analyses revealed statistically significant spatial clustering, with persistent hot spots in the southeast, the Yucatán Peninsula, the Gulf of Mexico coast, and the Pacific Coast. These findings highlight the persistent burden of scabies in Mexico and the need for targeted public health interventions in high-incidence regions and among vulnerable populations.

Parasitologia doi: 10.3390/parasitologia6030029

Authors: Jacklyn Comas Verónica Prieto Aleyda Pavón Rafael Toledo José Guillermo Esteban Carla Muñoz-Antoli

Background: The lack of set up in vulnerable population settings increases inhabitant’s exposure to fecal–oral pathogens. Objectives: A cross-sectional study was conducted in two Nicaraguan Caribbean islands to determine the prevalence and associated risk factors for intestinal parasitism. Methods: A total of 228 stool samples were analyzed by modified concentration technique. A structured questionnaire was used to gather variables. Univariate and multivariable logistic regression analysis to determine potential risk factors was employed. Findings: In both islands, overall prevalence of parasitism reached 88.2%. Most parasitism with protist species appeared in El Bluff compared to Rama Cay (p < 0.0001). Trichuris trichiura was the dominant helminth species in El Bluff (79.8%) while Ascaris lumbricoides was in Rama Cay (64.7%). Those who live in Rama Cay had approximately a 78.8% lower chance (odds) (0.212; 95% CI: 0.069–0.541; p = 0.002) of experiencing parasitism than those in El Bluff. The use of latrines remained as the only significant predictor for parasitism (p = 0.013). Main Conclusion: It seems that Rama Cay currently has an improvement in the sanitary facilities that could limit protist parasitism. However, using latrines was assessed as a risk factor for being infected. In addition to the existence of latrines, their proper maintenance and cleaning is necessary to prevent parasitism.

Parasitologia doi: 10.3390/parasitologia6030028

Authors: Magda Melissa Flórez Dariannis Larios-Illidge Wilson David Martínez Karel Rojas Yajaira Uribe Daniel Ricardo Delgado Eliasid Aguilar Osvaldo Yáñez Francy Elaine Torres

Leishmaniasis causes skin ulcers to complex visceral involvement, and available treatment options for humans are highly toxic and have prolonged application schemes. So far, there are no licensed vaccines for humans, so it is necessary to develop a strategy that can prevent the development of the disease. A cellular immune response of a CD4+ Th1 profile is essential to eliminate intracellular Leishmania amastigotes; therefore, the identification of sequences that bind to HLA class II pockets could induce a protective immune response. This study aimed to identify CD4+ T epitopes from immunogenic Leishmania proteins. First, three prediction tools were used to compare 15-mer sequences throughout the complete protein sequence against 25 HLA-DR alleles using NH, SMT, CPA, CPB, and CPC proteins. Six peptides were identified as strong HLA-DR binders using the three bioinformatic prediction tools. After alignment, molecular docking analysis, and molecular dynamics, the stability and affinity of the peptide–DR4 complex were confirmed for three sequences. This bioinformatics strategy allowed a sequential screening from 1857 to three promising candidates, namely, SMT133-148, CPA39-54, and CPA301-316, which increases the probability of being natural Leishmania spp. CD4+ T cell epitopes in humans.

Parasitologia doi: 10.3390/parasitologia6030027

Authors: Kelly Mayanny Inacio Silva Gessyk Monteiro Marques Ana Maria de Castro Silvio Carneiro Cunha Filho Sandro Estevan Moron Raphael Gomes Ferreira Cláudia Denise Mendanha Mangueira Fabricio Souza Campos Gil Rodrigues dos Santos Erica Eugênio Lourenço Gontijo Sara Falcão de Sousa Jaqueline Cibene Moreira Borges Samara Tatielle Monteiro Gomes João Bartholomeu Neto Fabio Pegoraro Walmirton Bezerra D’Alessandro Janne Marques Silveira Marcos Gontijo da Silva

Objective: This study aimed to evaluate the association between T. gondii genotypes (types I, II, III) and cases of spontaneous abortion in humans. Methods: A systematic review and meta-analysis were conducted following PRISMA guidelines. Databases (PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science, EMBASE, and ScienceDirect) were searched for studies published in the last 10 years. Observational studies evaluating T. gondii genotypes in abortion cases were included. Results: Eight cross-sectional studies were included. A pooled positivity proportion for T. gondii of approximately 20% was observed among abortion cases, with substantial heterogeneity (I2 > 90%). Genotype distribution varied across studies, with types I and III being the most frequently reported. Conclusions: Available evidence suggests a possible association between T. gondii infection and spontaneous abortion; however, the role of specific genotypes remains uncertain due to limited and heterogeneous data. More multicenter studies are needed to robustly address the issue.

Parasitologia doi: 10.3390/parasitologia6030026

Authors: Eleni V. Patsoula Anastasia Bimpa Nikolaos Tegos Anastasia Panagopoulou Ilias Karaiskos Argyro Triantafyllou Eleni Papadogeorgaki

Malaria in a Greek citizen with prior malaria history residing and working in Cameroon returning in his home country is a medical emergency warranting prompt and accurate diagnosis and effective treatment. We describe a mixed malaria case of a febrile patient, a professional returning to Greece from a malaria-endemic country whose initial diagnosis was a false-negative malaria rapid diagnostic test. Subsequent alternative rapid diagnostic test, malaria thin-film blood examination and molecular diagnosis revealed mixed malaria infection from Plasmodium ovale and Plasmodium malariae. The patient was successfully treated and achieved complete clinical recovery. The case described here highlights important points regarding prompt and accurate malaria diagnosis in returning travelers in non-endemic countries, emphasizing the importance of revealing cryptic mixed malaria cases and providing molecular approaches to malaria diagnosis in combination with the gold-standard microscopy.

Parasitologia doi: 10.3390/parasitologia6030025

Authors: Milagros Girart Catalina Canosa Carolina Goizueta Manuel Osvaldo Espinosa María Victoria Periago Carolina López Ferloni

Dengue represents a growing challenge for public health in Argentina, where entomological surveillance is essential to Aedes aegypti control interventions. However, low community participation in surveillance activities constitutes a major obstacle to these interventions. In this mixed-methods (quantitative–qualitative) study, we analyzed the reasons for reluctance to undergo household inspections in Tartagal and Puerto Iguazú between March and December 2021. A total of 9065 responses were recorded, among which the most frequent reason was the perception that inspection was unnecessary (64.2%). Four additional categories of reluctance were identified: impossibility or restriction of access to the housing unit, lack of interest in the visit, safety concerns, and other causes. Analysis using the Shannon diversity index showed homogeneity of responses in Tartagal (H′ = 0.77) and greater diversity in Puerto Iguazú (H′ = 1.59). Although most respondents reported knowing what dengue is and where the vector mosquito breeds, lack of interest in identifying breeding sites predominated in Tartagal, whereas greater willingness to collaborate was observed in Puerto Iguazú. The findings suggest that risk perception, overlap of activities, institutional recognition, and safety concerns influence community participation. Understanding these factors is key to adjusting surveillance strategies and increasing the effectiveness of vector control programs.

Parasitologia doi: 10.3390/parasitologia6030024

Authors: Manuel Lacueva-Arnedo Teresa Espinosa-Buitrago Lena Huck Juan F. González J. Carlos Menéndez Alexandra Ibáñez-Escribano Cristina Fonseca-Berzal

Chagas disease and trichomoniasis are two neglected parasitic infections (NPIs) in need for new therapies that address both the toxicity and limited bioavailability impacting on the effectiveness of benznidazole (BZ) and nifurtimox, the only drugs available for treating the infection caused by Trypanosoma cruzi, as well as the resistance that Trichomonas vaginalis has developed to 5-nitroimidazoles. Herein, we report the outcomes of the primary screening of a series of eighteen quinoxaline-1,4-di-N-oxides (QdNOs) carried out against both protozoan parasites. Computational approaches revealed that these derivatives have adequate oral bioavailability and do not pose toxicity risks associated with their chemical structures. Meanwhile, biological studies disclosed that compounds 4b and 4m exhibit considerable activity against T. cruzi at the highest concentration tested, showing 4m a trypanocidal profile (IC50 = 23.66 µM) similar to that of BZ (IC50 = 21.66 µM), and a selectivity index (SI) > 5.32. Regarding the activity on T. vaginalis, derivative 4n stands out with an IC50 value of 9.85 µM, showing no cytotoxicity towards mammalian cells. However, their potency decreases when tested over resistant parasites. Alterations in either the hydrogenosomal membrane potential or the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) were also explored. The findings suggest that the trichomonacidal activity of compound 4n is not mediated by a direct disruption of hydrogenosomal bioenergetics or a pro-oxidant effect. Altogether, these preliminary results support that the QdNO scaffold could be introduced as a proper template for developing novel trypanocidal and trichomonacidal agents.

Parasitologia doi: 10.3390/parasitologia6030023

Authors: Keorapetse Kgolane Moikangoe Tsireledzo Goodwill Makwarela Nimmi Seoraj-Pillai Tshifhiwa Constance Nangammbi

Tick-borne diseases pose a significant threat to global cattle production, with species displacement between ticks compounding this issue. This narrative review synthesises the literature to examine the drivers behind the expansion of the invasive Rhipicephalus microplus and its displacement of the native Rhipicephalus decoloratus in Southern Africa. We analysed the biological, ecological, environmental, and anthropogenic factors by reviewing existing scientific studies and reports. Our findings indicate that R. microplus possesses a competitive advantage due to its shorter life cycle, higher reproductive output, and greater acaricide resistance. Furthermore, anthropogenic activities such as communal grazing practices, unregulated livestock movement, and land-use changes facilitate the spread of this parasite. Climate change and vegetation shifts also create more favourable habitats for this invasive species. The conclusion is that the displacement of R. decoloratus by R. microplus intensifies the burden of tick-borne diseases, leading to substantial economic losses. Effective mitigation requires an integrated tick management approach that combines chemical, biological, and ecological strategies, supported by improved surveillance and farmer education.

Parasitologia doi: 10.3390/parasitologia6020022

Authors: Aoxun Wu Anyuan Xu Linya Huang Shu Fang Chunyan Xu Chenlin Huang Xiaowen Pan Meiyu Li Zifeng Zhong Yinjuan Wu Xuerong Li

Cholangiocarcinoma (CCA) is an aggressive malignancy with a poor prognosis that is strongly associated with chronic Clonorchis sinensis (C. sinensis, Cs) infection; however, its underlying molecular mechanisms remain elusive. Recent studies suggest that C. sinensis-derived extracellular vesicles (CsEVs) play a crucial role in host–parasite interactions and in shaping the tumor microenvironment during infection. Acting as key delivery vehicles, these CsEVs can transfer specific functional molecules, such as microRNAs (miRNAs), to host cholangiocytes, thereby modulating cellular behaviors—a process that may represent a significant pathway in parasite-induced carcinogenesis. Despite this, the specific miRNAs shuttled by CsEVs and their concrete functions and mechanisms in driving CCA proliferation and metastasis remain largely unexplored. To this end, we investigated Csi-miR-125a, a miRNA abundantly expressed in CsEVs, aiming to systematically elucidate its dual regulatory functions in CCA progression. Our findings offer novel mechanistic insights into host–parasite crosstalk, further the understanding of CCA pathogenesis, and point to potential therapeutic avenues. Using gain-and loss-of-function approaches in RBE and HuCCT1 cell lines, we demonstrated that Csi-miR-125a promotes cell proliferation by accelerating cell-cycle progression and suppressing apoptosis through direct targeting of BAK1. Concurrently, Csi-miR-125a enhances the migratory and invasive capacities of CCA cells via activation of the ERK signaling pathway. In a BALB/c nude mouse lung metastasis model, CsEVs depleted of Csi-miR-125a significantly inhibited pulmonary metastasis. Collectively, This study found that Csi-miR-125a derived from C. sinensis can regulate apoptosis and cell cycle progression by targeting BAK1, thereby promoting the proliferation of cholangiocarcinoma cells; meanwhile, it enhances cell migration and invasion by activating the ERK signaling pathway. These results suggest that Csi-miR-125a participates in and promotes the malignant progression of CCA. However, given its high homology with human endogenous miR-125a, its function may partially overlap with host endogenous miRNAs, rather than representing a completely independent carcinogenic effect. These findings provide mechanistic insights into host–parasite interactions during C. sinensis infection and lay a theoretical foundation for subsequent targeted intervention studies.

Parasitologia doi: 10.3390/parasitologia6020021

Authors: Luis A. Ortíz Carbajal Jose L. Bravo Ramos Sergio Ibáñez-Bernal Dora Romero Salas

Urban coastal wetlands constitute important ecological interfaces where human activities, wildlife, and arthropod vectors interact, potentially increasing the risk of pathogen transmission. In the city of Veracruz, Mexico, several interdunal lagoons have been incorporated into urban areas and are intensively used for recreational activities; however, information on their mosquito fauna remains limited. This study aimed to characterize mosquito species composition, abundance, and diversity in three urban recreational interdunal lagoons in Veracruz. Adult mosquitoes were collected weekly during the rainy season (June–September) 2023 using CDC light traps. Specimens were identified based on morphological characters using standard taxonomic keys, including genitalia dissections for male specimens when necessary. Species richness, sampling completeness, and community structure were evaluated using non-parametric richness estimators, diversity indices, species accumulation curves, and similarity analyses. A total of 1465 adult mosquitoes belonging to 11 species and five genera were collected. Mosquito assemblages were characterized by low species richness and a marked dominance of Culex panocossa and Culex quinquefasciatus across all lagoons. Diversity indices were low, and species composition showed a high degree of similarity among sites. Notably, Uranotaenia apicalis was recorded for the first time in the state of Veracruz, expanding its known geographical distribution. These findings indicate that urban interdunal lagoons support simplified mosquito communities dominated by disturbance-tolerant species, highlighting their potential epidemiological relevance and the need for targeted vector surveillance in urban coastal environments.

Parasitologia doi: 10.3390/parasitologia6020020

Authors: Chris T. McAllister John A. Hnida Eric M. Leis

During August 2025, a single adult yellow-bellied watersnake, Nerodia erythrogaster transversa was found dead on the road in Montgomery County, Arkansas, USA, salvaged, and its feces examined for coccidian parasites. Fecal material from the rectum was placed in a vial of 2.5% potassium dichromate and examined by light microscopy. Partially sporulated oocysts were initially found and allowed to completely sporulate. The snake was found to be passing a new species of Eimeria. Oocysts of Eimeria speairsi sp. n. were ovoidal to spheroidal with a slightly rough bi-layered wall, measured (L × W) 28.0 × 18.2 µm, and had a length/width (L/W) ratio of 1.5; a micropyle, oocyst residuum, and polar granule was absent. Sporocysts are ellipsoidal and measured 13.7 × 8.6 µm, L/W ratio of 1.6; a flattened Stieda body was present but sub-Stieda and para-Stieda bodies were absent. The sporocyst residuum was composed of various-sized granules in a compact rounded or irregular mass, sometimes dispersed between the sporozoites. A 412 bp sequence of the SSU rRNA gene produced for E. speairsi sp. n. showed a relatively low level of similarity. The species description is based primarily on oocyst morphology and partial SSU rRNA sequence data from the single host snake. In addition, an updated summary of the coccidians of North American watersnakes is provided.

Parasitologia doi: 10.3390/parasitologia6020019

Authors: Sabina Sabeva Boryana Parashkevova-Simeonova Rayna Gardeva-Garvanova Nedelina Kostadinova

Cutaneous larva migrans (CLM) is a zoonotic parasitic infection traditionally associated with tropical and subtropical regions. In recent years, autochthonous cases have been reported in various European countries, suggesting a possible change in the epidemiological profile of the disease. We present a case of a patient with no history of international travel who developed a typical serpiginous, migrating skin lesion after local exposure. The diagnosis was made clinically, and treatment with albendazole resulted in rapid clinical improvement. To our knowledge, this is the first published probable autochthonous case of CLM in Bulgaria. The case highlights the role of climate change in expanding the geographical scope of the parasitosis and the need for increased clinical vigilance at the primary care level.

Parasitologia doi: 10.3390/parasitologia6020018

Authors: Binta N’Daraw Niang Ousmane Sy Cheikh Baba Ould Ahmed Salem Mohamed Haidy Massa Lemat Nakatt Mohamed Ouldabdallahi Moukah Stéphane Ranque Doudou Sow Ali Ould Mohamed Salem Boukhary

Schistosomiasis is a major neglected tropical disease in sub-Saharan Africa. This study compared the epidemiology of urinary schistosomiasis among children living in two distinct ecosystems in Mauritania: the Senegal River Basin (Trarza region) and the arid oasis areas (Adrar and Tagant regions). A cross-sectional study was conducted between February 2023 and February 2024 involving 856 children across 14 sites. Urine samples were collected from school-aged children and subjected to macroscopic and microscopic examinations. A questionnaire was administered to each child to determine sociodemographic factors. Environmental and geographical factors were documented in the localities. The prevalence rate of urinary schistosomiasis among children in the Senegal River Valley was 32.4%. In the oases zone, prevalences were 6.43% and 3.35% in Tagant and Adrar, respectively. Macroscopic hematuria was 29.1%, 6.04%, and 4.18% in Trarza, Adrar, and Tagant, respectively. The intensities of infection were 48.9, 6.43, and 40 eggs/10 mL in the Trarza, Adrar, and Tagant regions, respectively. Based on sex, prevalence was higher among boys in the Trarza and Tagant regions, while in Adrar, it was higher among girls. Prevalence among children using polluted water sources with dense vegetation in the department of Tékane, in the Trarza region, was significantly higher (35.7%) than among those using cleaner water sources (21%). Urinary schistosomiasis remains highly prevalent among children living along the Senegal River, while considerably lower transmission was observed in oasis settings. These findings highlight the strong influence of environmental and water-related factors on transmission dynamics and underscore the need for targeted, context-specific control strategies.

Parasitologia doi: 10.3390/parasitologia6020017

Authors: Ana Flávia Eugênio Lourenço Maciel Ana Maria de Castro Marcos Gontijo da Silva Heloisa Ribeiro Storchilo Isolina Maria Xavier Rodrigues Silvio Carneiro Cunha Filho Sandro Estevan Moron Raphael Gomes Ferreira Helierson Gomes Noé Mitterhofer Eiterer Ponce de Leon da Costa Fabricio Souza Campos Gil Rodrigues dos Santos Raimundo Wagner de Souza Aguiar Alice Ruthe Mazutti Julliana Dias Pinheiro Frederico Eugênio Erica Eugênio Lourenço Gontijo Sara Falcão de Sousa Jaqueline Cibene Moreira Borges Samara Tatielle Monteiro Gomes Mariza Martins Avelino

Objective: To evaluate the diagnostic performance of an in-house-developed IgG Western blot (WB) for congenital toxoplasmosis and its complementary role with other serological markers. Methodology: For this purpose, the study utilized 42 mother–child pairs, evaluating the WB in comparison with a Composite Reference Standard (CRS). Cohen’s Kappa coefficient measured agreement, while McNemar’s test compared WB with Combined Serology (neonatal IgG titers higher than the mother’s (IgG↑), IgM, IgA). Results: The WB demonstrated a sensitivity of 75.0% and a specificity of 100.0%. Kappa indicated substantial agreement with the CRS (κ = 0.67; 95% CI: 0.44–0.89). McNemar’s test found no statistically significant difference between WB and Combined Serology (p = 0.7516). Crucially, WB detected 4 unique cases missed by Combined Serology, and Combined Serology detected 6 cases missed by WB. This complementarity increased the overall diagnostic rate from 82.14% to 96.43%. Conclusions: IgG-WB is a crucial complementary diagnostic tool, especially for asymptomatic newborns. Its integration significantly improves diagnostic certainty, allowing for more timely treatment for congenital toxoplasmosis.

Parasitologia doi: 10.3390/parasitologia6020016

Authors: Clara Yona Amit Kumar Dey Eva Moshiro Abel Lupala Magreth Macha

Leishmaniases are infections caused by Leishmania parasites and transmitted through the bite of infected female Phlebotomus (Old World) and Lutzomyia (New World) sandflies. The disease disproportionately affects marginalized communities with limited healthcare access. With no approved human vaccines available, leishmaniasis treatment and prevention depend heavily on chemotherapeutics that face growing drug resistance challenges alongside toxicity concerns. The development of safe, effective and affordable vaccines against human leishmaniasis remains a global health priority for disease control and elimination, mostly in resource-limited settings. This review synthesizes progress in leishmaniasis vaccine platforms including live-attenuated parasites, whole-killed parasites, DNA, protein subunit, peptide-based and chimeric/multiepitope vaccines and their homogenous and heterogenous efficacy. Live-attenuated and whole-parasite vaccines have been accounted to elicit robust cellular immunity but pose safety risks, particularly in immunocompromised hosts. While both second- and third-generation vaccines exemplified by LEISH-F1/F3 polyproteins, elicit strong Th1-biased T cell responses in preclinical models, their efficacy in humans remains limited. However, the highlighted collective efforts are pivotal in steering the rational development of future research using various formulations for multiple management of leishmaniasis through cross-protection. Furthermore, emerging strategies including mRNA platforms, nanoparticle delivery, reverse vaccinology, and immunoinformatics offer promising avenues for accelerating vaccine discovery and advancing the development of novel and effective human vaccines.

Parasitologia doi: 10.3390/parasitologia6020015

Authors: Joshua Kamani Mike Shand Mary S. Gambo James Budaye Falmata H. Bwala Henry E. Nnabuife Rebecca A. Yakubu

Canine babesiosis is a vector-borne disease of dogs with a worldwide distribution, presenting varying clinical signs depending on the host, parasite strain and climatic factors. Beyond companionship, dog meat serves as delicacy and is also used for zootherapy in some African communities. In this study, we collated and analyzed molecular biology-based diagnostic data on Babesia species of dogs in Africa in order to elucidate the epidemiological factors of the disease on the continent. Four Babesia species—B. rossi, B. vogeli, B. gibsoni and B. canis—were detected in Africa based on the results from 40 studies that involved the screening of 9435 dog blood samples from 83 study locations. Babesia rossi was the most commonly reported (aggregate detection rate = 7.7%) and was detected in samples from all the African regions except northern Africa. Babesia vogeli was the second most commonly reported (aggregate detection = 4.8%) and was detected in all of the African sub-regions. There were few reports of B. gibsoni (0.6%) in the southern and western African regions, and a single case of B. canis in an untraveled Nigerian dog. So far, there were no reports of Babesia coco, Babesia conradae or Babesia vulpes (Babesia annae, Babesia microti-like) in any of the African countries that have been confirmed by a molecular method. This study presents a synopsis of canine babesiosis in Africa, and provides an overview of common clinical signs, etiologies and risk factors that will serve as a quick guide to veterinarians to achieve timely tentative diagnosis.

Parasitologia doi: 10.3390/parasitologia6020014

Authors: Ahlem Boubakri Hichem Kacem Jordi Miquel

In this study, the ultrastructural characteristics of the mature spermatozoon of the cestode Gerbillitaenia psammomi, a parasite of the fat sand rat (Psammomys obesus) in the south of Tunisia, were examined by means of transmission electron microscopy. The spermatozoon is of Levron et al.’s type VI. This type of sperm cell is mainly characterized by the presence of a single axoneme of the 9 + ‘1’ pattern typical of the trepaxonematan Platyhelminthes, crest-like bodies, a periaxonemal sheath, twisted cortical microtubules, and a spiraled nucleus. The spermatozoon of G. psammomi possesses two crest-like bodies of different length. The results obtained in the present study suggest certain similarities with the remaining analyzed catenotaeniids; namely, Catenotaenia pusilla, Skrjabinotaenia (Meggittina) gerbilli, and Spasskijela lobata. The results are compared and discussed according to several characteristics found in the catenotaeniids and other studied cestodes, particularly those of the order Cyclophyllidea.

Parasitologia doi: 10.3390/parasitologia6020013

Authors: Simon R. Clegg Andrew S. Cooke

A One Health approach to disease has never been more important [...]

Parasitologia doi: 10.3390/parasitologia6020012

Authors: Fabíola Cardillo Jorge Nihei José Mengel

Acute Trypanosoma cruzi infection induces an exuberant immune response; however, the host is unable to clear the parasite, and the infection progresses to a chronic phase. T and B cells play a crucial role in controlling infections. Although the parasite constitutes a myriad of antigenic determinants capable of activating many T and B cell clones, some antigens trigger a large proportion of CD8 T cells, implying TCR cross-reactivity targeting these determinants. Polyclonal activation may result in an inefficient immune response against the parasite, diverting it to less critical antigenic determinants, allowing infection persistence, and increasing the risk of autoimmunity. Cross-reactivity has been demonstrated in CD8 T cells but not in CD4 T cells. Herein, we demonstrate, by cytometry, that CD4+ T cells, carrying the DO11.10 transgenic TCR, which are responsive to OVA, are activated during the T. cruzi acute infection, becoming effector memory T cells that produce cytokines such as IFN-γ, TNF-α, IL-4, and IL-10. In addition, prior oral exposure to OVA altered cytokine production by these transgenic T cells upon infection. We also demonstrate that T. cruzi induces Foxp3 expression in a sizable pool of transgenic T cells.

Parasitologia doi: 10.3390/parasitologia6010011

Authors: Barbara Mangová Michal Chvostáč Markéta Derdáková Yuliya M. Didyk Mária Kazimírová Diana Selyemová Veronika Rusňáková Tarageľová

Free-ranging animals may serve as sentinels for the occurrence of ticks and tick-borne pathogens within a given habitat. Between 2020 and 2022, ticks were collected from domestic animals and vegetation on a family-operated agrotouristic farm in Western Slovakia. A total of 391 ticks were obtained (163 host-feeding and 228 questing). Ixodes ricinus predominated (94.9%), followed by Dermacentor reticulatus (4.9%) and Haemaphysalis concinna (one specimen). All ticks were screened for Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato (s.l.), Borrelia miyamotoi, Anaplasma phagocytophilum, Babesia spp., and Rickettsia spp. by using PCR-based methods and subsequent sequencing. Borrelia burgdorferi s.l. was detected in 15.9% of I. ricinus. Six species were identified, with Borrelia afzelii dominating. Borrelia miyamotoi was detected in 1.62% of questing I. ricinus. Anaplasma phagocytophilum was identified in 20.49% of I. ricinus, mainly in host-feeding specimens. Babesia spp. were detected in I. ricinus (2.7%), represented by Babesia microti, Babesia venatorum, and Babesia capreoli. Rickettsia spp. were detected in 5.39% of I. ricinus and 31.58% of D. reticulatus. They comprised Rickettsia helvetica, Rickettsia monacensis, and Rickettsia raoultii. Co-infections involving two or three pathogens were observed in several ticks. Our results underscore the considerable diversity of tick-borne pathogens in a rural area where humans and domestic animals are in close contact to wildlife.

Parasitologia doi: 10.3390/parasitologia6010010

Authors: Alessia Mariacher Miriana Coltraro Susanna Merlo Carlo Corradini Ana Isabel Miranda Soares Cristiano Cocumelli Francesca Susini Baldassare Fronte Gianluca Fichi

Xenomas are distinctive hypertrophic host-cell lesions caused by intracellular parasites and represent a recurrent pathological finding in wild and farmed fish. Their presence has implications for fish health, diagnostic workflows, aquaculture productivity, and in some cases product quality and consumer acceptability. Despite this relevance, information on xenoma diversity, associated pathogens, and diagnostic practices remains fragmented across decades of literature. This scoping review synthesised available evidence on naturally occurring xenomas in fish, following PRISMA-ScR guidelines. Eligible sources included studies reporting clinical, pathological, or diagnostic information on xenomas in fish. Data were charted on host species and families, taxonomic identification of the aetiological agents, xenoma morphology, and diagnostic approaches. Across 114 publications published between 1968 and 2024, xenomas were reported in a wide range of teleost families and were attributed mostly to microsporidian infections, particularly species of Glugea, Loma, Spraguea, Pleistophora, and Microgemma, although myxosporean-associated cases (Kudoa, Myxidium, Nephrocystidium) were also documented. Light and electron microscopy were the most frequently applied diagnostic methods, whereas molecular techniques were used less consistently, with increasing use in the most recent decade. Macroscopic xenomas were typically described as whitish, rounded to oval, and well delimited, yet substantial morphological variation occurred across hosts and tissues. Overall, the review highlights major heterogeneity in pathogen identification and diagnostic pathways, underscoring the need for more standardised and integrative approaches.

Parasitologia doi: 10.3390/parasitologia6010009

Authors: Nehemiah M. Rindoria Willem J. Smit Iva Přikrylová Wilmien J. Luus-Powell

A supplemental description of Lamproglena barbicola Fryer, 1961 is provided based on specimens collected from the gills of Labeobarbus altianalis (Boulenger, 1900) from the Nyando River, Lake Victoria Basin, Kenya, using an integrated approach of scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and molecular analysis (18S, 28S rDNA, and cox1 gene regions). Morphologically, the specimens conform to L. barbicola and closely resemble Lamproglena hoi Dippenaar, Luus-Powell & Roux, 2001; however, SEM revealed a previously undescribed feature on the uniramous antennule in L. barbicola, namely indistinctly three-segmented, tapering from a broad base to the apex, basal segment much longer than distal, comprising 14 setae of varying sizes, ventral laterally, absence of distinctive anterior fringe of setae on the antennule, as well as several characters that differentiate L. barbicola from L. hoi, including 5 setae at the basal endopod of leg one, five cuticular protuberances in the oral region, 19 setae on the basal antennular segment, and 10 setae on the distal segment, with 1 seta on each ramus. The phylogenetic analysis confirms L. barbicola as a sister taxon of L. hoi, supporting their close relationship. The genetic divergence presented as the uncorrected genetic p-distances between L. barbicola and L. hoi are 23.1% and 0.45% for cox1 and 28S rDNA regions, respectively, with observed nucleotide differences of 145 and 3 bp between the sequences, respectively. There was no interspecific variability detected in the 18S rDNA sequences. This study provides novel molecular sequences and the first high-resolution SEM images, which reveal additional taxonomic features for L. barbicola, establishing a robust reference for future identification.

Parasitologia doi: 10.3390/parasitologia6010008

Authors: Fernando Pazmiño Gissela García Karla Novoa Stefan Michael Geiger

Soil-transmitted helminthiases (STH) represent the most prevalent helminth infections worldwide and are closely associated with inadequate sanitation and poverty. During 2020 and 2021, a significant information gap emerged as a consequence of the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic. Therefore, the objective of this study was to provide an updated post-pandemic overview by estimating the prevalence of STH, identifying the etiological agents involved, and analyzing the risk factors associated with these infections. The study was conducted in Ilaló, Pichincha, Ecuador, where a total of 320 individuals were examined using three diagnostic methods: Kato-Katz, McMaster, and Mini-FLOTAC. Of these, 73 participants tested positive (22.81%, 95% CI: 22.3–23.4). The most frequently identified parasite was Ascaris lumbricoides (74.73%, 95% CI: 73.7–75.8). The main risk factors identified were pig farming (OR: 4.16; 95% CI: 2.34–7.42) and vegetable and fruit cultivation (OR: 11.66; 95% CI: 4.32–41.08). These findings provide relevant epidemiological data on STH in the region, demonstrating a reduction in infection prevalence likely associated with improved prevention and control measures implemented during the COVID-19 pandemic.

Parasitologia doi: 10.3390/parasitologia6010007

Authors: Hee-Eun Shin Young-Ju Lee Seon-Ok Back Jung-Won Ju Hee-Il Lee Mi-Jin Kim Young-Min Shin Myoung-Ro Lee

Clonorchis sinensis and Metagonimus spp. are prevalent parasites in Korea, and accurate diagnosis is essential because treatment dosages differ between infections. However, their eggs are morphologically similar under light microscopy, making differentiation difficult and dependent on examiner expertise. To address this limitation, we evaluated an artificial intelligence (AI)-based automated microscope solution for the simultaneous detection and discrimination of both parasites. Microscopic images from 170 stool samples were analyzed using an AI system based on You Only Look Once version 5. The annotated dataset comprised 9455 egg images (6494 C. sinensis and 2961 Metagonimus spp.), randomly divided at the slide/patient level into training (6862), validation (1301), and test (1292) sets. Diagnostic performance was evaluated using mean average precision, confusion matrix analysis, and correlation with conventional microscopy. The model achieved a classification accuracy of up to 97.8%. C. sinensis showed higher recall and F1 scores, whereas Metagonimus spp. showed higher precision and specificity. Species identification showed complete concordance with conventional microscopy, and egg quantification was strongly correlated. These results indicate that the proposed AI system may serve as a supportive diagnostic tool comparable to conventional microscopy.

Parasitologia doi: 10.3390/parasitologia6010006

Authors: Ana Marija Radevska Sofija Mateska Angela Stamenkovska Marija Najdovska Silvana Stevanoska Verica Simin Ivana Bogdan Dragana Mijatović Dejan Jakimovski Pavle Banović

Tick-borne diseases are rising across Europe, yet human-biting tick data from the central Balkans remain limited. We analysed ticks removed from patients seeking care after tick bites at centers in Skopje (North Macedonia) and Novi Sad (Serbia) between January 2022 and December 2024, recording species, developmental stage, month of removal, and anatomical attachment site. A total of 1641 ticks were collected (North Macedonia, n = 157; Serbia, n = 1484) and identified morphologically. Six tick species were detected in North Macedonia and eight in Serbia. Ixodes ricinus was dominant in both countries, comprising ~69% of ticks in North Macedonia and >90% in Serbia, while Hyalomma marginatum was found in North Macedonia. Adult females predominated among ticks in North Macedonia (75.8%), whereas nymphs were most frequent among ticks in Serbia (55.6%); between-center comparisons of developmental stage should be interpreted cautiously given the marked sampling imbalance. In both settings, collections peaked in May–June (~64% of annual ticks), indicating highest bite pressure in late spring/early summer. Attachment sites were most commonly the torso and lower extremities, with significant between-country differences and species-/stage-specific patterns most evident in Serbia. These data refine the epidemiology of human tick exposure in two Balkan countries and support targeted seasonal prevention messaging and strengthened regional surveillance.

Parasitologia doi: 10.3390/parasitologia6010005

Authors: Rodrigo Ferreira Krüger Helena Iris Leite de Lima Silva Rafaela de Freitas Rodrigues Mengue Dimer Marta Farias Aita Pablo Parodi Steve Mihok Tiago Kütter Krolow

Horse flies (Tabanidae) negatively affect livestock by reducing productivity, compromising animal welfare, and serving as mechanical vectors of pathogens. However, the spatial processes shaping their community organization in southern Brazil’s Coastal Plain of Rio Grande do Sul (CPRS) remain poorly understood. To address this, we conducted standardized Malaise-trap surveys and combined them with historical–contemporary comparisons to examine distance–decay patterns in community composition. We evaluated both abundance-based (Bray–Curtis) and presence–absence (Jaccard) dissimilarities using candidate models. Across sites, Tabanus triangulum emerged as the dominant species. Dissimilarity in community structure increased monotonically with geographic distance, with no evidence of abrupt thresholds. The square-root model provided the best fit for abundance-based data, whereas a linear model best described presence–absence patterns, reflecting dispersal limitation and environmental filtering across a heterogeneous coastal landscape. Sites within riparian forests and conservation units displayed higher diversity, emphasizing the ecological role of protected habitats and the importance of maintaining connected corridors. Collectively, these findings establish a process-based framework for surveillance and landscape management strategies to mitigate vector, host contact. Future directions include integrating remote sensing and host distribution, applying predictive validation across temporal scales.

Parasitologia doi: 10.3390/parasitologia6010004

Authors: Josiane Pessanha Ribeiro Adriano Rodrigues de Paula Leila Eid Imad Silva Gerson Adriano Silva Carlos Peres Silva Tariq M. Butt Richard Ian Samuels

Entomopathogenic fungi are promising alternatives to synthetic insecticides for the control of vector species, notably the arbovirus vector, Aedes aegypti. The influence of intrinsic mosquito midgut microbiota on host susceptibility to fungal infection and subsequent physiological processes remains poorly understood. Here we treated female Ae. aegypti with the broad-spectrum antibiotic carbenicillin to reduce gut bacterial populations, then exposed them to Metarhizium anisopliae conidia. Female Ae. aegypti offered carbenicillin and then sprayed with fungi had significantly lower survival rates (38.9% ± 1.15) compared to non-antibiotic-treated mosquitoes sprayed with fungus (68.9% ± 0.58). To monitor the kinetics of microbial community recovery, mosquitoes were challenged with conidia at 0, 3, 6, and 9 days following antibiotic removal from the diet. Reduced survival persisted through the 6-day period (survival rates 37.8% to 45.6%), with a significant increase in survival observed 9 days post-antibiotic removal (58.9% vs. control 63.3%), which coincided with recovery of gut bacterial populations. Additionally, antibiotic and fungal treatments reduced egg production, larval eclosion, and pupal formation. These results demonstrate that gut bacteria contribute to mosquito defense against fungal pathogens and support normal reproductive and developmental functions. Understanding the interplay between gut microbiota and entomopathogenic fungi may enhance biological control approaches.

Parasitologia doi: 10.3390/parasitologia6010003

Authors: María M. De Vivero Nathalie Acevedo Serena Cavallero Stefano D’Amelio

Helminth infections caused by soil-transmitted species, like Ascaris lumbricoides, Trichuris trichiura, and hookworms, affect over one billion people worldwide, yet accurate diagnosis remains challenging due to low sensitivity of microscopy in detecting eggs in stool samples, especially in low-intensity infections. Molecular diagnostics, particularly PCR-based detection of helminth DNA in stool samples, have emerged as more sensitive and specific alternatives. Here we review advances in DNA extraction methods that overcome inhibitors in stool, multiplex PCR assays, and next-generation sequencing technologies enabling species differentiation and detection of drug resistance markers. These molecular tools enhance epidemiological surveillance and inform control strategies. Despite challenges such as sample complexity and cost, ongoing improvements in molecular diagnostics hold promise for more effective helminth detection and management in clinical and field settings.

Parasitologia doi: 10.3390/parasitologia6010002

Authors: Ditebogo Sharon Molapo Tsireledzo Goodwill Makwarela Nimmi Seoraj-Pillai Mogaletloa Eugene Madiseng Tshifhiwa Constance Nangammbi

Tick-borne diseases (TBDs) pose a significant threat to livestock productivity and rural livelihoods in South Africa, particularly among resource-poor communal farmers. This narrative review synthesises findings from case studies on communal farmers’ knowledge, attitudes, and practices (KAPs) toward TBDs and their control. The analysis reveals that while many farmers can identify TBDs and their symptoms, significant gaps exist in understanding acaricide resistance and effective tick management. Socioeconomic factors, including age, gender, education, and access to veterinary services, strongly influence knowledge and practices. Indigenous ethnoveterinary practices are commonly used alongside conventional methods, although their efficacy remains understudied. The review emphasises the importance of integrated pest management, participatory approaches, and targeted awareness campaigns. A One Health framework is recommended to enhance surveillance, collaboration, and sustainable TBD control. Empowering farmers through training and inclusive communication strategies is crucial for mitigating the impacts of TBDs on communal farming systems.

Parasitologia doi: 10.3390/parasitologia6010001

Authors: Geoff Hide

It is now 35 years since the first review on the “The Molecular Epidemiology of Parasites” [...]

Parasitologia doi: 10.3390/parasitologia5040067

Authors: Diadem R. Ricarte Joshua M. Cambronero Carmela H. Lorico Herbert J. Santos Nestor S. Arce Aleyla E. de Cadiz

Paragonimus westermani is a food-borne zoonotic trematode transmitted to humans through the consumption of undercooked crustaceans. Freshwater crabs act as the second intermediate host for the encysted metacercariae stage. However, accurate identification of intermediate hosts remains a challenge. Here, we aimed to detect and identify P. westermani in randomly collected freshwater crabs and determine the species of infected crabs in Davao Oriental through molecular methods. Specifically, Sanger and next-generation sequencing were conducted for species identification through BLASTn, followed by phylogenetic analyses to understand geographic and taxonomic relationships. Results showed P. westermani DNA was detected in five out of eleven crab samples and these sequences were closely grouped to the Philippine reference sequence. Through a similar approach, the infected crabs showed high sequence similarity and formed tight clustering to Isolapotamon sp. Overall, the results provided evidence that P. westermani DNA was detected in Isolapotamon sp., a genus endemic to Mindanao, and can be a potential intermediate host. This expands our current understanding of transmission ecology beyond the only known intermediate host in the Philippines, Sundathelphusa philippina.

Parasitologia doi: 10.3390/parasitologia5040066

Authors: Chad Schou Justus Wambua Mukavi Jandirk Sendker Vasiliki Christodoulou Monica Cal Pascal Mäser Panagiotis Karanis Thomas J. Schmidt

In continuation of our recent report on the antileishmanial activity of an ethanolic extract from leaves of Ptilostemon chamaepeuce subsp. cyprius (Pcc, Asteraceae), we have now isolated the main sesquiterpene lactone, deacylcynaropicrin, along with a minor derivative, 13-hydroxy-11β,13-dihydro-deacylcynaropicrin. The main constituent was tested for antileishmanial activity against promastigotes and amastigotes of Leishmania infantum (Lin), the causative agent of visceral leishmaniasis. Both STLs were tested against additional protozoan pathogens, including L. donovani, Trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense (Tbr), and Plasmodium falciparum. The STL cynaropicrin from Artichoke (Cynara cardunculus), a congener of deacylcynaropicrin with a hydroxymethacrylate ester group, previously known to possess antiprotozoal activity, was retested against Lin for direct comparison. Cynaropicrin was found to be much more potent than either its deacyl congener or the hydroxylated derivative from Pcc against all tested parasites and also against an isolated parasite enzyme, Tbr pteridine reductase (TbPTR1). The ester moiety of cynaropicrin significantly enhances the antiprotozoal activity of this STL. Since cynaropicrin also displayed significant cytotoxicity against mammalian cells (L6 and J774A.1 cell lines), its utility as candidate for further development appears limited. However, this study provides valuable new insight into the structure–activity relationships of these compounds.

Parasitologia doi: 10.3390/parasitologia5040065

Authors: Lizandra Fernandes-Silva Ana Paula Carvalho Gomes Maria Laura Mendes Morais Mell Mosqueira da Mota Borges Renan Mendes Pires Moreira Maitê Cardoso Coelho da Silva Maykko Antônyo Bravo de Paula Silvia Roberta Cieslak-Sanches Lucas de Souza Quevedo Ísis Assis Braga Anah Tereza de Almeida Jácomo Leandro Silveira Tiago Jácomo Silveira Dirceu Guilherme de Souza Ramos

The pacarana (Dinomys branickii) is a typical rodent of the Amazonian biome crepuscular habits, feeding on fruits, leaves, and roots. However, studies on these animals, inhabiting behaviors, and their parasites are limited. This study aimed to report the parasites found in fecal samples and a dead specimen of D. branickii in the Brazilian Cerrado. In 2023, fecal samples from five animals were collected and examined using flotation and simple sedimentation techniques for the identification of parasitic eggs. In 2025, a necropsy was performed on a decreased animal. Fecal samples of all animals were positive for eggs of Strongyloides spp., with two cases of co-infection with Oxyuroidea eggs and one with Trichuris sp. eggs. The Wellcomia branickii found during necropsy is a specific helminth of the pacaranas gastrointestinal tract. The natural geographical range of D. branickii is in the Western Amazon. Its introduction in the Cerrado, although for conservation purposes, reinforces the potential for this translocated species to disseminate non-native parasites outside its natural range.

Parasitologia doi: 10.3390/parasitologia5040064

Authors: Julia Livengood Kelsey Young Candy Lint Nagaraja Thirumalapura Keith J. Price Deepanker Tewari

Haemaphysalis longicornis (Asian longhorned tick) is an invasive species recently established in the United States and a potential vector for pathogens. This study included 620 H. longicornis collected in southern Pennsylvania from 2022 to 2023 with the aim of investigating the microbial community and host preferences of these ticks along with any association with newly emerging pathogens. To assess specific emerging pathogen carriage, all collected ticks were screened for Theileria orientalis and Anaplasma marginale by targeted PCR. To evaluate host use and broader pathogen diversity, a subset of 56 partially engorged ticks was analyzed by cytochrome b PCR and tested with a multiplex Luminex xMAP® panel for 16 tick-borne pathogens. A subset of these partially engorged (44) H. longicornis were further examined by Oxford Nanopore metatranscriptomic sequencing. Sequencing identified a bacterial community dominated by Coxiella-like endosymbionts, with additional genera including Acinetobacter, Sphingomonas, Pseudomonas, Staphylococcus, Escherichia, Klebsiella, and Wolinella. Neither targeted screening nor sequencing detected recognized human or veterinary pathogens. Blood meal analysis of partially engorged ticks indicated deer (Odocoileus spp.) as primary hosts. The feeding behavior of H. longicornis and its known role as an established vector for pathogens highlight the need for continued surveillance.

Parasitologia doi: 10.3390/parasitologia5040063

Authors: Wilfredo Sosa-Ochoa Silvia Argüello-Vargas Geannina Moraga-López César A. Ríos-Muñoz Concepción Zúñiga Orlinder Nicolas Zambrano Elisa Alcántara Henrriquez Carmen Maria Sandoval-Pacheco Gabriela Venicia Araujo-Flores Marcia Dalastra Laurenti

Leishmaniasis is a tropical and subtropical disease caused by protozoans of the genus Leishmania, primarily transmitted to humans through the bite of sandflies. This neglected disease poses a serious global health challenge due to its spectrum of clinical manifestations, which can lead to potentially fatal outcomes. In Honduras, four clinical forms of leishmaniasis are present: ulcerative cutaneous leishmaniasis (UCL), mucosal leishmaniasis (ML), non-ulcerated cutaneous leishmaniasis (NUCL), and visceral leishmaniasis (VL). This study aims to identify spatial patterns of these four clinical forms of the disease in Honduras, utilizing epidemiological data from 2009 to 2016. Geographic Information System (GIS) analysis was employed for spatial assessment. Moran’s I was used to evaluate the data and reveal patterns, while Hot Spot Analysis identified statistically significant spatial clusters of high and low values. For UCL and NUCL, all Global Moran’s I p-values were below 0.001 throughout the study period. For VL, p-values were under 0.001 in 2010, 2013, and 2016. For ML, p-values were below 0.05 in 2009, 2011, 2014, and 2015. In conclusion, our findings demonstrate geographical segregation among the different clinical forms of leishmaniasis.

Parasitologia doi: 10.3390/parasitologia5040062

Authors: John M. Gilmore Shane Mc Gettrick Rebecca Fröhlich Ciara Mc Dermott Kieran Beirne Amalia Naranjo-Lucena Maresa Sheehan Seamus Fagan John F. Mee Timothy W. J. Keady Anne Marie Flaherty Laura Del Rio Annetta Zintl

Anaplasma phagocytophilum causes tick-borne fever (TBF) in ruminants and is considered the most widespread tick-borne pathogen in sheep in Europe. This study aimed to determine the contribution of TBF to lamb mortality in Ireland and to identify factors associated with the risk of co-infection with A. phagocytophilum. Samples from dead lambs submitted to 3 Irish Regional Veterinary Laboratories (RVLs) in 2021 and 2022 were screened for the presence of A. phagocytophilum using real-time PCR. In total, 864 animals were sampled, of which 57 (6.6%) tested positive. The majority of the positive results originated in the northwest of the country; a region generally associated with high rainfall and a high prevalence of ticks and tick-borne infections in sheep. The most common causes of death reported in all lambs (including both TBF-positive and TBF-negative animals) were pneumonia, clostridial infection, and bacteraemia. Pneumonia accounted for 14.5% of deaths including 22.8 and 13.0% of TBF-positive and TBF-negative lambs, respectively. Bacteria from the family Pasteurellaceae were identified in 33.3 and 17.7% of TBF-positive and TBF-negative lambs, respectively. It was concluded that A. phagocytophilum is a possible concomitant infection and contributor to other infectious diseases in sheep, particularly those caused by bacteria in the Pasteurellaceae family. Understanding the prevalence and co-morbid associations of TBF is essential for improving disease surveillance and control strategies in endemic regions.

Parasitologia doi: 10.3390/parasitologia5040061

Authors: Nina Vancheva Boyko B. Georgiev

The species composition and host–parasite associations of Gyrodactylus parasitising freshwater fishes in Bulgaria were re-examined based on the revision of museum specimens. Revised data are provided for 28 species. There are 22 species confirmed as occurring in Bulgaria based on morphological examination (G. aphyae, G. cyprini, G. fossilis, G. gobii, G. gracilihamatus, G. katharineri, G. laevis, G. latus, G. leucisci, G. luciopercae, G. macrocornis, G. macronychus, G. malmbergi, G. markakulensis, G. medius, G. prostae, G. rhodei, G. shulmani, G. sprostonae, G. stankovici, G. truttae and G. vimbi). New records for the country are reported for G. cobitis, G. dykovae, G. gobiensis and G. papernai. The data about the occurrence of nine species could not be verified. The most species-rich region is the Danube Drainage (21 species), followed by the East-Aegean Sea Drainage (12 species). The smaller drainages (Black Sea Drainage—nine species; West-Aegean Sea Drainage—four species) are less studied. G. prostae (four host species from eight localities) and G. sprostonae (four host species, four localities) are revealed as the most frequent species; these euryxenous parasites infect a broad range of host species, often fishes of economic importance. Fish species of less commercial value are less studied.

Parasitologia doi: 10.3390/parasitologia5040060

Authors: Rafaela Regina Fantatto Flávio Augusto Sanches Politi Rodrigo Sorrechia Rosemeire Cristina Linhari Rodrigues Pietro

The tick Rhipicephalus sanguineus is the most prevalent ectoparasite in dogs, causing discomfort to the animals and acting as a vector for several pathogens, including the bacterium Ehrlichia canis and the protozoa Babesia canis, Babesia gibsoni, and Hepatozoon canis. Control of this parasite is traditionally carried out with synthetic chemical acaricides. However, due to the increasing number of cases of resistance, phytotherapy has been increasingly investigated as a promising alternative. In this study, the larvicidal activity of the crude ethanolic extract and essential oil obtained from the inflorescences of Achyrocline satureioides was evaluated, whose constituents were identified through phytochemical analyses and gas chromatography. The analyses revealed that the extract is rich in flavonoids, tannins, and saponins, while the essential oil is composed mainly of terpenes. In contact tests with impregnated paper, the extract at 100 mg/mL showed a mortality rate of 32.2% in R. sanguineus larvae with LC50 calculated at 249.62 mg/mL, while the essential oil, at the same concentration, resulted in 56.55% mortality, and the LC50 and LC90 were 119.73 mg/mL and 185.53 mg/mL, respectively. These results indicate that the essential oil of A. satureioides has significant larvicidal activity and has potential for use as an alternative, alone or in combination with other extracts or synthetic acaricides.

Parasitologia doi: 10.3390/parasitologia5040059

Authors: Patrícia Kóczán László Kovács Adrienn Örkényi Dorottya Kovács László Kőrösi Edit Eszterbauer

Our study reports the first molecular detection of the protozoan pathogen Histomonas meleagridis, the causative agent of histomonosis, in the poultry red mite Dermanyssus gallinae. Mite samples were collected from a commercial poultry farm and a backyard flock in Hungary and analyzed using PCR assays that targeted the COX1 gene in mites and 18S rRNA gene in H. meleagridis. Phylogenetic analysis confirmed the identity of D. gallinae and revealed distinct genetic lineages between farm and backyard isolates. H. meleagridis DNA was detected in 10 of 17 mite samples, representing multiple variants within Genotype 1. No histomonosis was detected in the examined poultry, although one hen harbored Simplicimonas sp. The findings suggest that D. gallinae could serve as a carrier for H. meleagridis, potentially facilitating the persistence and transmission of the pathogen. This novel host–pathogen association highlights the need for further research into the epidemiological role of poultry ectoparasites in the spread of histomonosis.

Parasitologia doi: 10.3390/parasitologia5040058

Authors: Marina Ziliotto José Artur Bogo Chies Joel Henrique Ellwanger

Helminth parasites infect mammalian hosts through complex life cycles, mostly triggering T helper type 2 (Th2) immune responses characterized by interleukin-4 (IL4), interleukin-5 (IL5), and interleukin-13 (IL13) production. Environmental chemical exposures may modulate these immune pathways, potentially affecting infection outcomes. Using The Comparative Toxicogenomics Database (CTD), we analyzed chemical–gene interactions affecting IL4, IL5, and IL13 genes to identify chemicals capable of modulating Th2 immunity and their associated expression profiles. Accordingly, a total of 818 chemicals can interact with IL4, IL5 and/or IL13, with 145 chemicals showing the potential of affecting all three genes. These 145 chemicals include air pollutants (8.3%), allergens (2.7%), bioactive molecules (8.3%), industry-related chemicals (14.5%), medicinal drugs (21.4%), metal and metal-containing chemicals (8.3%), pesticides (3.4%), plant compounds (12.4%), and others (20.7%). We observed a greater number of chemicals associated with increased (n = 95) gene expression compared to decreased (n = 14) gene expression, suggesting a Th2 pathway hyperactivation caused by chemicals capable of affecting IL4, IL5 and IL13. Eight classes of parasitic diseases were observed among chemical-associated conditions. Environmental chemicals extensively modulate Th2 immune responses through diverse molecular mechanisms. The trend concerning upregulation of Th2 pathways may enhance antiparasitic protection but, on the other hand, could predispose individuals to allergic diseases, among other Th2-related conditions. These exploratory findings suggest that chemical pollution may influence the susceptibility and pathogenesis of helminth infections and highlight the need for the incorporation of exposome-based approaches in parasitology research.

Parasitologia doi: 10.3390/parasitologia5040057

Authors: Joshua Kamani Shimon Harrus Bukar Laminu Yaarit Nachum-Biala Mike Shand Gonzalo Roca-Acevedo Ariel Ceferino Toloza

Pediculosis produced by the presence of the human head louse (Pediculus humanus capitis DeGeer, 1767) and the body louse (Pediculus humanus humanus L., 1758) remains a neglected tropical disease in Nigeria, where permethrin-based pediculicides are widely used. However, the resistance status of lice populations has not been previously assessed. Knockdown resistance (kdr) to pyrethroids is primarily driven by two mutations—T917I and L920F—in the voltage-sensitive sodium channel (VSSC) gene. This study investigated the presence of these mutations in 85 head and body lice collected from school-age children in two settlements in Nigeria. The T917I mutation was detected in head lice at frequencies ranging from 21% to 76%, and in body lice from 10% to 95%, with significant variation between sites and louse types. Remarkably, all lice examined carried the L920F mutation, regardless of T917I genotype, a pattern not previously reported in body lice. These findings suggest that pyrethroid resistance is well established or under active selection in the study populations. This is the first report of kdr mutations in human lice from Nigeria and highlights the urgent need for resistance monitoring programs. Early genetic surveillance of these mutations can inform treatment strategies and help prevent widespread resistance in lice populations, preserving the efficacy of available pediculicides.

Parasitologia doi: 10.3390/parasitologia5040056

Authors: Beni Jequicene Mussengue Chaúque Thaisla Cristiane Borella da Silva Luiza Bernardes Chagas Letícia F. G. Kinape Paula Eliete Rodrigues Bitencourt Custódio José Gaspar Alexandre Coelho Borges Cheinquer Marilise Brittes Rott Régis Adriel Zanette José Roberto Goldim

The increasing global incidence of infections caused by free-living amoebae (FLA) and the lack of effective, safe, and approved treatments highlight the urgent need for novel amoebicidal compounds with pharmacological potential. Despite a growing body of literature on the anti-FLA properties of various compounds, comprehensive reviews summarizing this progress remain scarce. This study aimed to identify the most promising compounds tested in vitro and/or in vivo for anti-FLA activity. A systematic review was conducted, analyzing 108 studies published between 1986 and 2024, selected from an initial pool of 23,653 database results. A total of 537 compounds were evaluated for their in vitro anti-FLA activity. Compounds exhibiting ≥50% reduction in amoeba viability relative to untreated controls were classified as promising if they showed low toxicity in mammalian cell models, particularly when active at concentrations ≤ 10 µM, consistent with predicted favorable pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic profiles. The most promising compounds for drug and disinfectant development include ten trophocidal agents against B. mandrillaris, thirty-two trophocidal and four cysticidal agents against N. fowleri, and sixty-two trophocidal and nineteen cysticidal agents against Acanthamoeba spp. Compounds active at low concentrations (≤10 µM or <0.014 mg/mL) prioritized for in vivo drug development studies include: against Balamuthia mandrillaris, trophocidal 515, 531, 533; against Naegleria fowleri, trophocidal 421, 416, 518, 46, 254, 522, 111–120 and cysticidal 16; and against Acanthamoeba spp., trophocidal 498, 499, 500, 535, 107, 347, 348, and 340. Future studies should evaluate their efficacy, safety, pharmacokinetics, and pharmacodynamics toward developing effective drugs, antiseptics, and disinfectants.

Parasitologia doi: 10.3390/parasitologia5040055

Authors: Artefio Martins Oliveira Erick Platiní Ferreira Souto Antônia Aniellen Raianne Moisés Aguiar Victor Hugo Alves Sousa Formiga Thais Ferreira Feitosa Antônio Flávio Medeiros Dantas Vinícius Longo Ribeiro Vilela

The main pathological, epidemiological, and clinical findings of haemonchosis in goats and sheep in a semi-arid region of Northeast Brazil are described. Necropsy records conducted between January 2012 and December 2021 at the Animal Pathology Laboratory (APL) of the UFCG, were reviewed. In 2022, a prospective study monitored the necropsies performed on these species. In total, necropsies were conducted on 410 goats and 319 sheep, haemonchosis was observed in 50 (12%) goats and 49 (15%) sheep. For goats, females (45/50, 90%; p ≤ 0.05), the age range of 13–35 months (25/50, 50%; p ≤ 0.05), and crossbred animals (38/50, 76%; p ≤ 0.05) were most affected. Both goat and sheep, respectively, raised in a semi-intensive system were more infected (41/50, 82%; 36/49, 76.5%; p ≤ 0.05). The animals came from the States of Paraíba, Pernambuco, Ceará, and Rio Grande do Norte. The proportion of goats (32/50, 64%) and sheep (30/49, 61.2%) with a normal body condition score was significantly different (p ≤ 0.05). The main pathological alterations (p ≤ 0.05) were the mucosal and carcass paleness, and the presence of H. contortus specimens in the abomasum. Haemonchosis remains a significant parasitic disease affecting small ruminants in the semi-arid region of Northeast Brazil, leading to mortality and decreased production rates, posing substantial economic challenges that adversely impact goat and sheep farming.

Parasitologia doi: 10.3390/parasitologia5040054

Authors: Xuran Yang Huimin Dong Xiangzhan Kong Xuerong Li Xuejing Chi Qiannan Liu Xinbing Yu Wenfang Li Yan Huang

Excretory/secretory products from parasites (ESPs) can act as pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) to activate innate immunity. Parasites may achieve immune evasion by modulating the interaction between PAMPs and the nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain-like receptor family, pyrin domain-containing three (NLRP3) inflammasome. Previous studies have suggested that some components of ESPs from Clonorchis sinensis (CsESPs) can induce the host’s immune responses, but the components that balance immunopathology and maintain chronic infection in chronic Clonorchis sinensis (C. sinensis) remain unclear. We previously found that the iNOS-interacting protein from C. sinensis (CsNOSIP), a component of CsESP, stimulates macrophages to produce reactive oxygen species (ROS) and nitric oxide (NO), both of which inhibit NLRP3 inflammasome activation. Therefore, this study investigated the effects of CsESP and CsNOSIP on inflammasome activation using RT-PCR, Western blot, and ELISA. This study showed that CsESPs promoted NLRP3 inflammasome activation in RAW264.7 cells, while CsNOSIP inhibited LPS-induced IL-1β secretion through an NLRP3-caspase-1-dependent pathway and reversed the CsESPs-induced activation through the iNOS/NO–NF-κB pathway. These results reveal the antagonistic effects of CsESPs and CsNOSIP in inflammasome regulation, suggesting that this balance contributes to the regulation of the host’s immunity and the promotion of chronic infection of C. sinensis, providing potential targets for prevention and treatment.

Parasitologia doi: 10.3390/parasitologia5040053

Authors: Chinwe Chukwudi Elizabeth Odebunmi Chukwuemeka Ibeachu

African trypanosomiasis is a protozoan disease that affects both humans and animals. Human African Trypanosomiasis (HAT) is a Neglected Tropical Disease targeted for elimination in 2030. Although WHO has not reported HAT from Nigeria in the last decade, there are published studies reporting seroprevalence, parasite detection/isolation, and animal reservoirs potentially involved in HAT transmission in Nigeria. Interestingly, the burden of Animal African Trypanosomiasis (AAT) continues to increase. In this study, we synthesized published reports on the prevalence of HAT and AAT in Nigeria from 1993–2021, the trypanosome species involved, the spread of animal reservoirs, and the variability in diagnostic methodologies employed. A scoping review was performed following the methodological framework outlined in PRISMA-ScR checklist. Sixteen eligible studies published between 1993 and 2021 were reviewed: 13 for AAT and 3 for HAT. Varying prevalence rates were recorded depending on the diagnostic methods employed. The average prevalence reported from these studies was 3.3% (HAT), and 27.3% (AAT). Diagnostic methods employed include microscopy, PCR and Card Agglutination Test for Trypanosomiasis (CATT). Cattle, pigs, and dogs were identified as carriers of human-infective trypanosomes. This study highlights the scarcity of HAT epidemiological studies/data from Nigeria, the high prevalence, complex epidemiology, limited attention and surveillance of African Trypanosomiasis in Nigeria. Remarkably, WHO records do not reflect the published data showing evidence of HAT prevalence/cases in Nigeria. Unfortunately, diagnostics challenges and unrealistic disease reporting protocols seem to limit HAT reporting from Nigeria. Therefore, adequately coordinated epidemiological surveys and targeted intervention policies are imperative to ascertain the true epidemiological status of HAT in Nigeria and prevent disease re-emergence towards achieving WHO’s elimination targets. The presence of animal carriers of human-infective trypanosomes underscores the importance of a one-health approach to combat African trypanosomiasis effectively.

Parasitologia doi: 10.3390/parasitologia5040052

Authors: Chaimaa Azzouzi Mehdi Boucheikhchoukh Noureddine Mechouk Scherazad Sedraoui Safia Zenia

Stomoxys calcitrans (Linnaeus, 1758) is a hematophagous fly species of veterinary importance, known for its negative effects on animal health and productivity. The stress caused by their painful bites results in losses in milk and meat production. Despite its impact, data on its ecology and activity in Algeria are lacking. Such knowledge is needed to evaluate its potential effects on livestock production and rural health, and to support surveillance, outbreak prediction, and control strategies. This study aimed to investigate the monthly and daily dynamics of S. calcitrans in livestock farms in the Batna region and evaluate the influence of climatic factors on its abundance. From July 2022 to July 2023, Vavoua traps were placed monthly from 7 a.m. to 6 p.m. on four farms in the Batna region, representing different livestock types. Captured flies were identified, sexed, and counted every two hours. Climatic data were collected both in situ and from NASA POWER datasets. Fly abundance was analyzed using non-parametric statistics, Spearman’s correlation, and multiple regression analysis. A total of 1244 S. calcitrans were captured, mainly from cattle farms. Activity occurred from August to December, with a peak in September. Males were more abundant and exhibited a bimodal activity in September. Fly abundance was positively correlated with temperature and precipitation and negatively correlated with wind speed and humidity. This study presents the first ecological data on S. calcitrans in northeastern Algeria, highlighting its seasonal dynamics and the climatic drivers that influence it. The results highlight the species’ preference for cattle and indicate that temperature and rainfall are key factors influencing its abundance. These findings lay the groundwork for targeted control strategies against this neglected pest in Algeria.

Parasitologia doi: 10.3390/parasitologia5040051

Authors: Roberta Virruso Valeria Gargano Francesco Scarlata Stefano Rizzuto Antonio Vella Rita Immordino Teresa Fasciana Walter Razete Giovanni Maurizio Giammanco Cinzia Calà

Human subcutaneous dirofilariasis caused by Dirofilaria repens is an emerging zoonotic parasitic infection increasingly observed in southern Europe. We report a case of a woman from western Sicily, who likely acquired the infection locally through a mosquito bite. The high prevalence of D. repens in the local canine population (up to 20.4%) suggests a role of dogs as a probable reservoir for transmission to humans in the local population. With ultrasound analysis being inconclusive, only after surgical removal was the presence of an adult worm evident, and only after molecular analysis through DNA sequencing of the cytochrome oxidase subunit I gene (COI) could a definitive D. repens infection diagnosis be obtained. This case highlights the need for enhanced vector control, animal health surveillance and public awareness to limit the transmission to humans of D. repens. A correct parasitological diagnosis would be imperative for the recognition of human cases.

Parasitologia doi: 10.3390/parasitologia5040050

Authors: Gustavo Souza Carneiro Karoliny Caldas Xavier José Ledamir Sindeaux-Neto Alanna do Socorro Lima da Silva Michele Velasco Oliveira da Silva

In this study, a diverse collection of images of myxozoans from the genera Henneguya and Myxobolus was created, providing a practical dataset for application in computer vision. Four versions of the YOLOv5 network were tested, achieving an average precision of 97.9%, a recall of 96.7%, and an F1 score of 97%, demonstrating the effectiveness of MLens in the automatic detection of these parasites. These results indicated that machine learning has the potential to make microparasite detection more efficient and less reliant on manual work in parasitology. The beta version of the MLens showed strong performance, and future improvements may include fine-tuning the WebApp hyperparameters, expanding to other myxosporean genera, and refining the model to handle more complex optical microscopy scenarios. This work presented a significant advancement, opening new possibilities for the application of machine learning in parasitology and substantially accelerating parasite detection.

Parasitologia doi: 10.3390/parasitologia5030049

Authors: Patrick Opare Sakyi Emmanuella Bema Twumasi Mary Ayeko Twumasi Gideon Atinga Akolgo Richard Kwamla Amewu Dorcas Osei-Safo

The pressing global challenges of parasitic diseases, particularly prevalent in tropical and subtropical regions, underscore the critical urgent need for innovative therapeutic strategies in identifying and developing new treatments. The immense chemical diversity inherent in nature has rendered natural product (NP) chemistry a promising avenue for the discovery of novel antiparasitic chemotypes. Despite challenges such as sourcing, synthetic complexity, and drug resistance, NPs continue to offer invaluable contributions to antiparasitic therapy. This review focuses on recent advancements in NP chemistry and their application in the development of antiparasitic therapeutics. Key highlights include the identification of new molecular targets such as enzymes, membrane proteins, and metabolic pathways in parasites, as well as the role of metabolomics, genomics, and high-throughput screening in accelerating drug development. Additionally, the exploration of microorganisms (including soil bacteria and fungi) and marine organisms as a latent reserve of bioactive compounds with potent antiparasitic activity is discussed. The review further examines emerging strategies such as chemoinformatics and combination and polypharmacology therapies, aimed at addressing the challenges of antiparasitic chemotherapeutic treatment and advancing the development of new and effective treatments. Ultimately, NP chemistry represents a frontier for the design of novel antiparasitic drugs, offering the potential for more effective and sustainable therapies for combating parasitic diseases.

Parasitologia doi: 10.3390/parasitologia5030048

Authors: Julio César Segura-Tinoco Rocío Estefanía Morales-Guerrero Juan José Pérez-Rivero Oscar Rico-Chávez Victor Hugo Del Río-Araiza Yazmin Alcala-Canto

Due to their zoonotic potential and close interaction with humans, feline parasitic infections are an important public health concern. This study investigated 2758 domiciled and feral cats sampled across Mexico to assess the occurrence of parasites, coinfections, and associated risk factors. Twelve genera of parasites were identified, with Ancylostoma and Ctenocephalides being the most frequent. Coinfections were common, often involving both intestinal and ectoparasites. Multivariable logistic regression revealed that feral lifestyle, absence of recent antiparasitic treatment, female sex, and climatic conditions were significant predictors of infection. Cats with unrestricted outdoor access and direct contact with other cats, where hunting behavior and the ingestion of prey cannot be ruled out (ESCCAP risk group B), were more than five times as likely to be infected as those cats that live indoors (ESCCAP risk group A). Although antiparasitic use was reported in some cats, inappropriate drug choice and long treatment intervals reduced effectiveness, while nearly seven out of ten cats had never received treatment. These findings highlight major gaps between current practices in Mexico and international guidelines. Strengthening surveillance, promoting owner education, and implementing risk-based strategies are critical to reducing feline parasitism and associated zoonotic risks within a One Health framework.

Parasitologia doi: 10.3390/parasitologia5030047

Authors: María Azul de Hernández Silvina Raquel Villar Pamela Cribb

Chagas disease, caused by Trypanosoma cruzi, presents a variety of clinical outcomes ranging from mild symptoms to Chagas cardiomyopathy, the most severe and life-threatening manifestation of the disease. The degree of virulence is influenced by both parasite and host factors. In this study, we characterized a murine infection model using the T. cruzi Dm28c strain in BALB/c mice to assess disease progression. Infected mice showed a peak of parasitemia at 14 dpi, followed by a progressive decrease. Spleen weight increased up to sixfold compared to uninfected controls at 14 and 21 dpi, correlating with parasitemia levels. Histological analysis revealed focal inflammatory infiltrates in the heart starting at 7 dpi, with maximal intensity at 14 and 21 dpi. The expression of inflammatory cytokines (IFN-γ, IL-1β, TNF-α) and anti-inflammatory cytokines (IL-10, TGF-β) in the spleen showed a dynamic profile, with an early increase during the acute phase. Dm28c infection of BALB/c mice can be considered as a non-lethal Chagas disease experimental model, with detectable parasitemia during the acute phase and a controlled inflammatory response.

Parasitologia doi: 10.3390/parasitologia5030046

Authors: Ana Lucía Torres-Barajas Melissa Paola Rincón-González Sandra Luz Martínez-Hernández Martín Humberto Muñoz-Ortega David Ibarra-Martínez Eduardo Sánchez-García Erick López-Macías Alberto Aguayo-Acosta Joel Horacio Elizondo-Luevano David Alejandro Hernández-Marín

Trypanosoma cruzi is a hemoflagellate protozoan and the causative agent of Chagas disease, also known as American trypanosomiasis. Transmission occurs through the feces of triatomine insects, its biological vector. It is estimated that around 7 million people are infected across Mexico, Central America, and South America. This study aimed to identify and characterize T. cruzi isolates obtained from wild triatomine vectors collected in Aguascalientes, Mexico. Molecular identification was performed at different developmental stages—epimastigotes in culture media, metacyclic trypomastigotes in triatomine feces, and amastigotes in mouse cardiac tissue—using endpoint PCR targeting satDNA and mtCytB regions. In addition, next-generation sequencing was employed to analyze variable regions of kinetoplast DNA minicircles. The pathogenicity of the isolated and identified T. cruzi strain was assessed in a murine model, where trypomastigote stages were detected in peripheral blood and amastigote stages in muscle tissue. Molecular analyses confirmed the presence of T. cruzi across different developmental stages from wild vectors, demonstrating that the isolated wild strain possesses pathogenic potential when completing its life cycle in an experimental mammalian host, specifically BALB/c mice.

Parasitologia doi: 10.3390/parasitologia5030045

Authors: Muhammad Belal Hossain Sadia Choudhury Shimmi M Tanveer Hossain Parash Phoebe Tran

Vector-borne diseases (VBDs) continue to pose a persistent global health challenge, disproportionately impacting low- and middle-income countries where surveillance and healthcare infrastructure are constrained. Within these countries, residents of remote island communities are particularly vulnerable to emerging VBD threats; however, they remain critically understudied. We conducted a community-based cross-sectional survey of 300 residents from Shahpori Island, Bangladesh, and Gaya Island, Malaysia, to assess knowledge, attitudes, and practices (KAP) related to VBDs. Using a structured questionnaire and mixed-effects Poisson regression modeling, we identified socio-demographic predictors of VBD-related knowledge and compared KAP outcomes across the two islands. Significant disparities were observed between the two settings: the Gaya Island residents demonstrated a higher level of awareness regarding VBDs and preventive practices compared to the Shahpori residents. Education was a strong predictor of VBD knowledge, with individuals possessing secondary education or above exhibiting significantly better knowledge (β = 0.2024, p = 0.0003). Marital status was also a significant factor, with unmarried respondents showing lower levels of knowledge (β = –0.1657, p = 0.0372). Age was positively correlated with VBD knowledge (β = 0.0051, p = 0.0119), indicating a gradual increase with age, while income, gender, occupation, and household size were not significantly associated. Despite basic awareness of VBD symptoms and transmission, detailed understanding of mosquito ecology, disease symptoms, and breeding prevention strategies was remarkably poor, especially among the Shahpori residents. Our findings highlight critical gaps in VBD-related knowledge and prevention behaviors shaped by socio-economic and educational disparities. Community-focused public health strategies including educational campaigns, establishment of health infrastructure, access to trained healthcare providers, and integrated vector control interventions are urgently needed to enhance resilience against emerging VBD threats such as drug-resistant malaria in remote island populations.

Parasitologia doi: 10.3390/parasitologia5030044

Authors: Sarah Alhakimi Navneet Kaur Javeriya Choudry Naa Adjeley Frempong Charity Ahiabor William K. Anyan Abraham K. Anang Nilanjan Lodh

Aim: In sub-Saharan Africa, approximately 40 million pregnant women are exposed to parasitic diseases such as malaria caused by Plasmodium falciparum, Schistosome parasites, and soil-transmitted helminths (STHs). When parasitic diseases share the same habitat and overlap in distribution, then high co-infection rates occur. The co-infection can lead to consequences for the child, such as intrauterine growth retardation, low birth weight, pre-term delivery, and neonatal mortality. Methods: The objective of the study was to determine the nature and extent of coinfection from 100 samples collected from the Battor (50) and Adidome (50) towns of Ghana in collaboration with the Noguchi Memorial Institute for Medical Research, University of Ghana. Results: Out of 50 for the Adidome towns determined for P. falciparum by Rapid Diagnostic Test (RDT), Malaria Pan-specific Antigen (PAN), and Malaria Pf kit, 39 were true positive (TP), 8 were true negative (TN), and 30 were false negative (FN). For Battor, 19 were TP, 12 TN, and 20 FN. For S. mansoni in Adidome via polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP), 21 tested positive, and 29 were negative, with 52.5% sensitivity and 100% specificity. For S. haematobium, 28 were positive and 22 negative using PCR with 70% sensitivity and 100% specificity. In LAMP, 28 were positive, and 22 negatives, with 70% sensitivity and 100% specificity. In Battor PCR for S. mansoni, 28 positives and 22 negatives with 68.3% sensitivity and 100% specificity. In LAMP, 32 were positive, and 18 were negative, with 80% sensitivity and 100% specificity. For S. haematobium, PCR showed 30 positive and 20 negative, with 73.2% sensitivity and 100% specificity. With LAMP, 21 were positive, and 29 negatives, with 51% sensitivity and 100% specificity. In both towns, 20–30 years had the highest infection prevalence for P. falciparum, S. mansoni, S. haematobium, and Strongyloides stercoralis. Conclusion: The results will be utilized as a part of the continuous surveillance for future research aiming at gathering nationally representative data in Ghana on the prevalence of coinfection and proposing interventions based on that for the vulnerable pregnant women population.

Parasitologia doi: 10.3390/parasitologia5030043

Authors: Moshe Shmueli Siham Elamour Galina Ling Shalom Ben-Shimol

Background: First-line treatments for cutaneous leishmaniasis (CL), including topical agents, are often limited in cases of complicated disease involving multiple, facial, or treatment-resistant lesions. Data on intravenous liposomal amphotericin B (L-AmB) are scarce, especially in children. We report our experience using L-AmB to treat pediatric CL, focusing on treatment rationale, safety, and clinical effectiveness. Methods: A retrospective case series. Diagnosis was confirmed by PCR. Data on demographics, clinical presentation, treatment rationale, adverse events, lab findings, and outcomes, during treatment and follow-up, were collected. Results: Twenty-seven children were included, most (96%) with Leishmania major. The mean number of lesions per child was 5.71 ± 6.19. All had facial involvement; 41% nasal and 15% eyelid. Most lesions were ulcerated (78%). Prior treatment failure was common (78%), with the use of topical antimicrobials, liposomal amphotericin gel, and paromomycin-containing ointments (59%, 38%, 19%, respectively). Twenty-four children (89%) completed treatment successfully. Adverse events occurred in 41% of cases but were mostly mild and reversible: flushing, rash, shortness of breath, and vomiting (11%, each). One case of transient renal impairment and one case with neutropenia were recorded. Early improvement was noted by day 10, with 50% (n = 12) of cases exhibiting crust falling/reduced ulceration and a 50% lesion size reduction. By day 30–90, 92% achieved substantial healing without the need for further therapy. Nevertheless, scarring was noted in 79% of cases. Conclusions: L-AmB treatment appears to be safe and effective for pediatric CL, particularly in cases with facial lesions or prior treatment failure. Clinical improvement was notable, although scarring was common.

Parasitologia doi: 10.3390/parasitologia5030042

Authors: Karoline Koether Ana L. H. de Albuquerque Luiza S. Zakia Fernanda Panseri Rodrigues José P. Oliveira-Filho Regina Kiomi Takahira Alexandre S. Borges José Gabriel G. Lins

Trypanosoma vivax, a haemoprotozoan of African origin, has spread throughout Latin America, mainly affecting cattle through mechanical transmission by flies. This study reports an outbreak of T. vivax on a dairy farm in the midwestern region of São Paulo State, Brazil. Clinical signs included progressive weight loss, lethargy, hyporexia, reduced milk production, abortions, neurological signs, and deaths. The herd comprised 238 crossbred Holstein-Gir cattle (200 cows, 38 calves). Blood samples were collected from 104 randomly selected cows and all 38 calves to assess hematocrit (HCT) and total plasma protein (TPP), and detect trypomastigote forms using blood and buffy coat smears. PCR was performed on EDTA blood from 30 smear-negative cows. Trypanosoma sp. was identified in 51.9% (54/104) of the smear samples, with morphometric confirmation of T. vivax infection. About 66.6% (20/30) of the smear-negative cows tested positive by PCR, showing the higher sensitivity of molecular tests. Anemia was observed in 56.8% of infected cows, with significantly lower HCT and TPP values than in uninfected animals. The absence of quarantine for new animals, high fly density, and shared needles for oxytocin injections were likely contributing factors. This study underscores the crucial role of molecular diagnostics in accurately investigating outbreaks.

Parasitologia doi: 10.3390/parasitologia5030041

Authors: Stylianos Papadopoulos Vasileios Zisis Konstantinos Poulopoulos Christina Charisi Athanasios Poulopoulos

Objectives: Anisakidosis is an emerging, cosmopolitan, and underdiagnosed parasitic disease caused by the accidental ingestion of third-stage anisakid larvae when consuming raw or improperly prepared seafood. Within hours to days of consuming infected raw seafood, patients may develop acute gastrointestinal symptoms including pain, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea and/or constipation, as live anisakid larvae attach to the gastric, or more rarely, the intestinal mucosa. Cases have been reported in which the nematodes succeed at migrating from the stomach upwards to the esophagus and then the oral cavity. Therefore, the purpose of the present literature review is to collect, analyze, summarize and present the relevant epidemiological, clinical, diagnostic, parasitological, therapeutic, and prognostic data concerning anisakidosis localized inside the oral cavity. Methods: An electronic search of the PubMed, Scopus, and Ovid databases was performed with them being accessed for the last time on 29 March 2025. Results: The present literature review identified 13 individual case reports of oral mucosa anisakidosis, which were published in the period 1971–2022. Conclusions: Our review aims to summarize the relevant epidemiological, clinical, diagnostic, parasitological, therapeutic, and prognostic data regarding the oral localization of anisakidosis, a helminthic infection caused by the accidental ingestion of live anisakid larvae and which manifests mainly with gastrointestinal symptoms. Its localization in the oral mucosa appears to be exceptionally rare and, in most cases, occurs with a characteristic clinical picture, defined by the onset of acute mouth or throat pain immediately after the consumption of raw seafood and by the observation of one or more larvae, either lying on or penetrating the oral mucosa. Despite its rarity, dental health professionals and other clinicians should be aware of this disease and the possibility of its intraoral localization, since environmental factors on the one hand, and the adoption of foreign dietary habits on the other, will likely make anisakidosis a much more common disease worldwide in the near future.

Parasitologia doi: 10.3390/parasitologia5030040

Authors: Nicole Urriola-Urriola Gabriela Rossi-Vargas Yenny Nilo-Bustios

Cystic echinococcosis is a zoonosis caused by the cestode Echinococcus granulosus sensu stricto. Population genetic studies and phylogeographic patterns are essential to understanding the transmission dynamics of this parasite under varying environmental conditions. In this study, the genetic diversity of E. granulosus s.s. was evaluated using 46 hydatid cyst samples obtained from sheep, goats, cattle, and humans across three regions of Chile: Coquimbo, La Araucanía, and Magallanes. Mitochondrial cox1 gene sequences were analyzed and compared with reference sequences reported from South America, Europe, Africa, Asia, and Oceania. In Chile, the EG01 haplotype was the predominant haplotype. A total of four haplotypes were identified, with low haplotype diversity (Hd = 0.461 ± 0.00637) and low nucleotide diversity (π = 0.00181 ± 0.00036). The haplotype network displayed a star-like configuration, with the EG01 genotype at the center, suggesting a potentially ancestral or widely distributed lineage. In Coquimbo (Tajima’s D = −0.93302, p = 0.061; Fu’s Fs = −0.003, p = 0.502) and Magallanes (Tajima’s D = −0.17406, p = 0.386; Fu’s Fs = −0.121, p = 0.414), both neutrality tests were non-significant, indicating no strong evidence for recent population expansion or selection. Star-like haplotype network patterns were also observed in populations from Europe, the Middle East, Asia, Africa, and Oceania, with the EG01 genotype occupying the central position. The population genetic structure of Echinococcus granulosus s.s. in Chile demonstrates considerable complexity, with EG01 as the predominant haplotype. Further comprehensive studies are required to assess the intraspecific genetic variability of E. granulosus s.s. throughout Chile and to determine whether this variability influences the key biological traits of the parasite. This structure may prove even more complex when longer fragments are analyzed, which could allow for the detection of finer-scale microdiversity among isolates from different hosts. We recommended that future cystic echinococcosis control programs take into account the genetic variability of E. granulosus s.s. strains circulating in each endemic region, to better understand their epidemiological, immunological, and possibly pathological differences.

Parasitologia doi: 10.3390/parasitologia5030039

Authors: Anthony Brayan Rivera Prado Kelly Geraldine Yparraguirre Salcedo Luis Lloja Lozano Vicente Freddy Chambilla Quispe Claudio Willbert Ramirez Atencio

Background: Anaemia in adolescents can be influenced by parasitic infections, systemic inflammation, and nutritional status. Objective: To determine whether C-reactive protein (CRP), nutritional status, and infection with Ascaris lumbricoides, Giardia lamblia, or Trichuris trichiura are associated with anaemia in adolescent athletes from Tacna compared to non-athletes. Methods: A cross-sectional study was conducted involving 250 male football players aged 13–18 years and 150 age-matched non-athletes. Haemoglobin, haematocrit, ferritin, serum iron, CRP, and parasitic status were measured; mean comparisons and logistic regression were applied. Results: Anaemia was more prevalent among athletes than non-athletes (30% vs. 18%; p < 0.001). Infected athletes showed lower haemoglobin (11.9 ± 1.1 g/dL) and higher CRP (5.0 ± 1.9 mg/L) levels compared to non-infected athletes (13.8 ± 1.0 g/dL and 2.2 ± 1.1 mg/L; p < 0.001). Logistic regression identified CRP as an independent predictor of anaemia (adjusted OR = 1.20; 95% CI: 1.08–1.38; p < 0.001), while parasitic infections showed no direct association after adjustment. Underweight status was associated with a higher prevalence of anaemia (36%). Conclusions: Systemic inflammation emerged as the main factor associated with anaemia in this population, with parasitic infections contributing indirectly by increasing inflammation. Periodic deworming, iron supplementation, and CRP monitoring are recommended to reduce the burden of anaemia in adolescent athletes from endemic regions.

Parasitologia doi: 10.3390/parasitologia5030038

Authors: Ana Cabete Elisa Bettencourt Ludovina Padre Jacinto Gomes

Equine piroplasmosis (EP) is a tick-borne disease caused by Theileria equi, Theileria haneyi and Babesia caballi. It affects equids, representing significant health and economic concerns for the equine industry. EP is endemic in Portugal, so developing and implementing preventive strategies is essential. Accessing veterinarians’ knowledge, attitudes and practices (KAP) through a survey is a suitable approach, and no such studies have been conducted in Portugal until now. A KAP survey was applied to 41 Portuguese equine vets, representing mainly the Alentejo region. The average knowledge score went from medium to high, correctly identifying the causative agents, transmission routes and clinical signs. Knowledge gaps mostly concerned the identification of T. haneyi as an agent, transplacental transmission, duration of infection and diagnostic methods. Reported practices were appropriate overall, including enhancing breeders’ awareness of the disease and its prevention. Diagnostic and treatment protocols were generally consistent with current recommendations; however, these protocols are not yet fully standardized. Our findings highlight key areas where increasing expertise is needed and could serve as a foundation for future evidence-based guidelines to improve EP control in Portugal.

Parasitologia doi: 10.3390/parasitologia5030037

Authors: Màrius Vicent Fuentes Irina Royo Alba Tellols Elena Madrid Ángela Lilia Debenedetti Sandra Sáez-Durán María Trelis

The Atlantic chub mackerel, Scomber colias, is sold in Spain, as well as another species of the genus, like the Atlantic mackerel, S. scombrus, often mistaken to be the same fish. This study aims to analyse the risk of human anisakiosis through the consumption of S. colias, and to clarify if these two species differ regarding this risk. A total of 250 S. colias (125 originating from the Atlantic and 125 from the Mediterranean) were helminthologically analysed using conventional parasitological techniques. Concerning Ascaridoid nematodes, the prevalence of Anisakis type I was higher in the Atlantic than in the Mediterranean. The presence of three other helminth parasites stands out, two other Ascaridoid nematodes, the larvae of Contracaecum spp. and Hysterothylacium spp., the latter a food-spoiling and non-pathogenic parasite. The other helminth found was the intestinal adult of the acanthocephalan Rhadinorhynchus pristis, also non-pathogenic. The comparison of the current results with previously published ones by our research group on S. scombrus show that Anisakis type I prevalence was higher in S. scombrus than in S. colias, making the correct differentiation between them necessary, given their varying risk of human anisakiosis. Furthermore, fish label information is important to prevent the risk of anisakiosis for consumers.

Parasitologia doi: 10.3390/parasitologia5030036

Authors: Kevin Euceda Gabriela Matamoros María Esther Araujo Lesly Chaver Gloria Ardón Gustavo Fontecha

Plasmodium vivax malaria continues to pose a significant and enduring public health challenge across the Americas. Transmission-blocking vaccines (TBVs), which target gametocyte surface antigens such as Pvs47 and Pvs48/45, are being investigated as promising tools to interrupt transmission and advance toward disease elimination. To investigate the genetic diversity and phylogeographic structure of the pvs47 and pvs48/45 genes in P. vivax, we conducted molecular analyses on samples collected from seven malaria-endemic regions of Honduras using PCR-based sequencing, population genetics, and phylogenetic approaches. This study presents the first complete characterization of the pvs47 gene and expands the available data on pvs48/45 in P. vivax from Honduras. We observed a low level of genetic diversity with no evidence of geographic structuring within the country. At a global scale, Honduran sequences shared variants with other Latin American strains and exhibited region-specific amino acid signatures. These findings suggest that local selective pressures, possibly driven by mosquito vector compatibility, are shaping the evolution of these TBV candidate genes. Our results underscore the importance of regional surveillance to inform the development and deployment of effective transmission-blocking strategies.

Parasitologia doi: 10.3390/parasitologia5030035

Authors: Geoff Hide

In my editorials, you may have often read my references to Parasitologia being a new journal—we only started in 2021—but at some point, we need to move on from this “honeymoon” description [...]

Parasitologia doi: 10.3390/parasitologia5030034

Authors: Yaseen Majid Salman Al-Adilee Maulood M. Shather Dalia A. Kalef Sadiya Maxamhud Eylem Akdur Öztürk Eleni Gentekaki Anastasios D. Tsaousis

Intestinal microbial eukaryotic parasites represent a significant public and veterinary health burden, especially in low- and middle-income countries, yet their transmission dynamics at the human–animal–environment interface remain poorly characterized in certain countries. This study investigated the prevalence and genetic diversity of key microbial eukaryotes, including Cryptosporidium spp., Giardia duodenalis, Blastocystis spp., Entamoeba histolytica, and Enterocytozoon bieneusi, in a rural village in Iraq. Samples collected from humans (n = 50), livestock (sheep and goats, n = 50), water (n = 20), and soil (n = 20) were analysed using microscopy and molecular methods (qPCR and nested PCR). Blastocystis spp. (78% animals, 16% humans, 45% soil, 5% water) and Cryptosporidium spp. (26% animals, 12% humans, 5% soil, 15% water) were the most frequently found microeukaryotes using either microscopy and/or molecular detection. Molecular methods identified Cryptosporidium parvum in humans and sheep, hinting at zoonotic transmission potential. Enterocytozoon bieneusi and Giardia were also found. Cryptosporidium ubiquitum and E. bieneusi genotypes BEB6 and COS-I, respectively, were detected exclusively in sheep, suggesting roles as potential reservoirs. Blastocystis ST1 was detected in humans, while ST4 and ST10 occurred in sheep. Notably, molecular detection rates of Blastocystis were much lower than those of microscopy. Entamoeba histolytica was not detected. The detection of the same organisms in humans, animals and the environment suggest zoonotic and environmental transmission pathways, which warrant further investigation using the One Health approach.

Parasitologia doi: 10.3390/parasitologia5030033

Authors: Zuko Mpisana Mandla Yawa Mhlangabezi Slayi Nkululeko Nyangiwe James Oguttu Ishmael Festus Jaja

Fascioliasis, a parasitic disease caused by liver flukes of the genus Fasciola, remains a significant threat to livestock productivity globally. Despite its economic and zoonotic importance, the knowledge levels of dairy farm personnel regarding this disease remain insufficiently explored in South Africa. This study assessed knowledge and awareness of bovine fasciolosis, including its etiology, risk factors, clinical signs, zoonotic implications, and control measures, among dairy farm personnel in the Eastern Cape Province. A structured questionnaire was randomly administered to 152 dairy farm workers. Descriptive statistics and Chi-square tests were used to examine associations between respondents’ demographic characteristics and their knowledge of fasciolosis. Most respondents were males (65.8%), aged 31–40 years (45.4%), with tertiary education (64%), over six years of experience (65%), and residing in inland regions (65.4%). A high proportion reported implementing pasture management practices such as irrigation (90.8%), pasture resting (69.8%), and rotation (94.7). Significant associations were found between geographic location and knowledge of Fasciola spp. as the causative agent, as well as awareness of swampy areas and water snails as key risk factors (p < 0.01). Educational level was significantly associated with awareness of the zoonotic potential of fasciolosis (p < 0.01), and regional location influenced knowledge on control practices (p < 0.01). These findings highlight persistent gaps in the understanding of bovine fasciolosis among dairy farm personnel, particularly in relation to causative agents, clinical signs, and zoonotic risk. Strengthening extension services, enhancing community awareness, and implementing targeted training programs are essential to address these knowledge gaps and improve disease control strategies in the Eastern Cape Province.

Parasitologia doi: 10.3390/parasitologia5030032

Authors: Beatriz Brener Guilherme Sena Magda Antonello Júlia Piolla Michelle Fonseca Marcelo Knoff

Seabirds of the families Fregatidae, Phalacrocoracidae and Sulidae, common on the southeastern coast of Brazil, form colonies and play a bioindicator role in coastal ecosystems due to their ecological habits. This study aimed to identify the prevalence of parasitic helminths in Suliformes birds, of the species Fregata magnificens Mathews, 1914, Sula leucogaster Boddaert, 1783 and Nannopterum um Gmelin, 1789, from the Instituto de Pesquisas Cananeia (IPeC) on the southern coast of the State of São Paulo, and to record the diversity and parasitic indices, since reports of helminth prevalence in pelagic birds are scarce in Brazil. From 2018 to 2020, a total of 270 nematode specimens and 271 acanthocephalan parasites were collected from 51 Suliformes birds (20 F. magnificens, 10 N. brasilianum and 21 S. leucogaster). The host species F. magnificens was parasitized by Contracaecum plagiaticium and Contracaecum pelagicum. The host S. leucogaster was parasitized by C. plagiaticium. In the host N. brasilianum, specimens of Contracaecum australe, Contracaecum rudolphii, Contracaecum multipapillatum, Syncuaria squamata and Andracantha tandemtesticulata were found. This is the first report of C. plagiaticium and C. pelagicum in F. magnificens in Brazilian territory, and of A. tandemtesticulata in N. brasilianum in the southeast region of Brazil.

Parasitologia doi: 10.3390/parasitologia5030031

Authors: Lamine M. Moustapha Muhammad M. Mukhtar Abdoul-Nasser H. Sanda Shuaibu Adamu Yusuf Y. Aliyu Hadizat K. Einoi Maryam U. Maigari Peter C. Okeke David E. Nwele Abiodun Obembe Udoka C. Nwangwu Jeremy K. Herren Sulaiman S. Ibrahim

Microsporidia MB (MB), a promising biological control agent, suppresses Plasmodium falciparum transmission in Anopheles mosquitoes. This study examined the spatial distribution of MB infection in natural populations of An. gambiae s.l. mosquitoes collected in Nigeria and Niger Republic, and its association with insecticide susceptibility in the mosquitoes. Microsporidia MB has wide geographic distribution across Nigeria and Niger Republic. The overall prevalence of MB in F0 mosquitoes was 12.25% (95% CI: 7.76–16.75%); 25 mosquitoes out of 204 were positive. Geographic variation was observed, with a higher prevalence (5/15 mosquitoes) in Ebonyi State (33.33%, CI: 9.48–57.19%, Fisher’s exact test, p = 0.008). Infection rates were higher in An. coluzzii mosquitoes (21/133 mosquitoes), estimated at 15.79% (CI: 9.59–21.99%) compared to An. gambiae s.s. mosquitoes (4/71), with approximately 5.63% (CI: 0.27–11.00%, χ2 = 4.44; df = 1, p = 0.035). Resistant mosquitoes had a significantly higher prevalence of MB infection than susceptible mosquitos at 28.57% (CI: 16.74–40.40%) with an odds ratio of 3.33 (CI: 1.23–9.03, p = 0.017). These findings suggests that MB can be exploited as an alternative for vector control in Nigeria and Niger, but its possible association with pyrethroid resistance suggests that it should be taken into account as a potential confounder when designing insecticide resistance management strategies.

Parasitologia doi: 10.3390/parasitologia5030030

Authors: Sibusiso Moloi Ágnes Csivincsik Eszter Nagy Tamás Tari Tibor Halász Klaudia Polgár Gábor Nagy

Estimating the human impact on parasites in wildlife is essential to create efficient strategies to control diseases and improve public health. This study assessed the human influence on the parasite burden of the two commonest canine mesocarnivores, the red fox (N = 194) and the golden jackal (N = 151), in Europe. We compared the infracommunity crowding index, parasite diversity, prevalence, and abundance of different parasite taxa, and the presence of Echinococcus multilocularis between groups of hosts, such as jackals and foxes hunted at different distances from human settlements. The analysis of hosts’ distribution ascertained that 61.2% of the investigated wild canids were hunted in a 500–1750 m ring around the human settlements. Ancylostomatidae proved the most prevalent taxon (>60%), while Echinococcus multilocularis and Dipylidium caninum occurred least frequently. The two taxa that mostly contributed to the crowding of infracommunities were Ancylostomatidae and Toxocaridae, with a negative correlation between their abundances (Spearman’s ρ = −0.445, p < 0.001). Parasite infracommunities were more crowded in Echinococcus multilocularis infected foxes (p = 0.02) and jackals (p = 0.001). Our study highlighted that human modification of landscapes worsened the parasite burden of wild mesocarnivores, which could increase the public health risk of zoonotic parasites.

Parasitologia doi: 10.3390/parasitologia5030029

Authors: Ayman Ahmed Emmanuel Edwar Siddig Nouh Saad Mohamed

Vector-borne parasitic diseases represent a critical public health challenge in Africa, disproportionately impacting vulnerable populations and linking human, animal, and environmental health through the One Health framework. In this review, we explore the existing burden of these diseases, particularly those that are underreported. Climate change, urbanization, the introduction of alien species, and deforestation exacerbate the emergence and reemergence of arthropod-borne zoonotic parasitic diseases like malaria, leishmaniasis, and trypanosomiasis, complicating control and disease elimination efforts. Despite progress in managing certain diseases, gaps in surveillance and funding hinder effective responses, allowing many arthropod zoonotic parasitic infections to persist unnoticed. The increased interactions between humans and wildlife, driven by environmental changes, heighten the risk of spillover events. Leveraging comprehensive data on disease existence and distribution coupled with a One Health approach is essential for developing adaptive surveillance systems and sustainable control strategies. This review emphasizes the urgent need for interdisciplinary collaboration among medical professionals, veterinarians, ecologists, and policymakers to effectively address the challenges posed by vector-borne zoonotic parasitic diseases in Africa, ensuring improved health outcomes for both humans and animals.

Parasitologia doi: 10.3390/parasitologia5020028

Authors: Mhlangabezi Slayi Zuko Mpisana

Gastrointestinal parasites (GIPs) and tick infestations remain critical health challenges limiting cattle productivity in rural South Africa, particularly within communal farming systems. The Eastern Cape Province, characterized by high livestock densities and variable management practices, provides a unique context in which to examine parasitic burdens across systems. This study aimed to compare the prevalence, intensity, and diversity of GIPs and tick species in cattle raised under rural communal grazing versus communal feedlot systems in the Eastern Cape Province of South Africa. A total of 160 cattle (n = 80 per system) were randomly selected for fecal and tick examinations in community-based feedlots in Holela (Centane) and Gxwalibomvu (Tsomo), as well as from surrounding rural villages. Fecal samples were analyzed using the McMaster technique to determine fecal egg counts (FEC), while tick species were identified and counted from standardized body regions. Body condition scores (BCS) were recorded, and farmer practices related to parasite control were surveyed. Results showed significantly higher GI parasite prevalence and FEC in rural community cattle compared to feedlot cattle (p < 0.05), with Haemonchus contortus and Trichostrongylus spp. being the most prevalent. Similarly, rural cattle had significantly higher tick infestation rates, dominated by Rhipicephalus microplus and Amblyomma hebraeum. Logistic regression identified rural production system, poor body condition (BCS ≤ 2), and absence of recent deworming as significant risk factors for GI parasitism (p < 0.05). Strong negative correlations were found between BCS and both FEC (r = −0.63) and tick burden (r = −0.57). Additionally, rural farmers reported lower acaricide usage and greater reliance on traditional remedies. The study confirms that rural communal systems expose cattle to higher parasitic risks due to unmanaged grazing, limited veterinary support, and poor parasite control strategies. Communal feedlots, by contrast, offer more controlled conditions that reduce parasitic burden. Integrating strategic parasite management, farmer training, and expanded veterinary outreach is essential to improving cattle health and productivity in communal areas.

Parasitologia doi: 10.3390/parasitologia5020027

Authors: Maria Celeste Facelli Fernández Johann Barolin Martin Allassia Javier Hernan Gonzalez Pablo Martin Beldomenico Lucas Daniel Monje

Bovine trypanosomiasis, caused by Trypanosoma vivax, affects livestock productivity and is increasingly being reported in South America. This study aimed to detect and characterize Trypanosoma spp. infections, with a focus on T. vivax, in cattle from two distinct agroecological regions of central Argentina: a dairy-producing plain, located in the Espinal ecoregion, and a riparian zone, dedicated to beef production, located in the Delta and Islands of Paraná ecoregion. A total of 220 blood samples were collected from nine cattle farms and analyzed using real-time PCR, melting curve analysis, and the sequencing of 18S rRNA gene fragments. Trypanosoma vivax was detected at low prevalence (2.73%), exclusively in dairy cattle. In contrast, the prevalence of Trypanosoma theileri was much higher (10.91%), and it was found mainly in beef cattle from the riparian region. Phylogenetic analyses confirmed the species identity in all sequenced samples. No trypanosomes were observed by microscopy, and none of the animals showed clinical signs. The results indicate a differential distribution of T. vivax and T. theileri between regions and production systems. Although the study initially focused on T. vivax, the detection of T. theileri highlights the need to consider multiple Trypanosoma species in epidemiological surveys. This study contributes new data on the occurrence of bovine trypanosomes in central Argentina under extensive and semi-intensive management systems.

Parasitologia doi: 10.3390/parasitologia5020026

Authors: Manuel Salvador Balanzar-Aguilera Enrique Gutiérrez-Medina Gustavo Pérez-Anzúrez Edgar Jesús Delgado-Núñez María Eugenia López-Arellano Ana Yuridia Ocampo-Gutiérrez Pedro Mendoza-de Gives

This study aimed to explore and identify soil-dwelling nematophagous fungi (NF) from the “El Texcal” Ecological Reserve in Morelos, Mexico, and evaluate their potential as biological control agents against Haemonchus contortus infective larvae (HcL3), a major parasitic threat in livestock systems. The fungi were isolated from soil using the sprinkling of soil on water agar plates. The identification of NF was achieved using morphological identification keys, which was corroborated by molecular procedures using the PCR technique in the ITS4 and ITS5 regions. The nematocidal effects occasioned by these NF were examined through their predatory activity (PA) against HcL3 on water agar plates, and additionally, the larval mortality attributed to their liquid filtrates (LFs) was assessed at three different concentrations (25, 50, and 100 mg/mL) on 96-well microtiter plates. Two NF were identified and classified as two species of Dactylellina genus, namely D. haptospora (Dh) and D. phymatopaga (Dp). The PA exhibited by these NF were 94.79% for Dh and 68.88% for Dp; while their LFs showed 27.83% mortality for Dh and 32.86% for Dp at the highest concentration assessed. While the PA was notably high, the moderate larvicidal effect of the LF suggests that their efficacy may primarily rely on direct physical interaction rather than metabolite-mediated toxicity. The high PA demonstrated by these two isolates of NF indicates that they could be effective candidates for biological control agents against HcL3.

Parasitologia doi: 10.3390/parasitologia5020025

Authors: Márton Hartdégen András József Laki Kolos Farkasvölgyi Kristóf Iván Judit Plutzer

Giardia duodenalis is a flagellated protozoan pathogen causing parasitic enteric disease outbreaks worldwide. Among detection methods, loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP) has high selectivity and sensitivity, and the detection time is lower than that of conventional molecular methods. In this study, three published Giardia LAMP primer sets were tested and adapted to touchdown LAMP conditions. The measurement time, the volume of reagents, the effect of the denaturation step, different kinds of polymerases, and the presence or absence of betaine on the reaction were tested and evaluated. Based on the results of this study, the 66–60 °C range touchdown LAMP with the use of betaine, 90 °C denaturation step, Bst 2.0 WarmStart® DNA Polymerase, and the primer set of Momoda et al. were the optimal conditions. We increased the analytical sensitivity of the LAMP reaction to 7.8- and 8-fold higher than the previously published methods for G. duodenalis assemblages A and B, with detection limits of 20 and 19.5 fg/assay, respectively, instead of 156 fg/assay. The detection time was less than 49 min for G. duodenalis assemblage A and less than 35 min for assemblage B, compared to the previously published 60 min. Our optimized LAMP protocol can be directly applied to improve Giardia LAMP tests in routine testing laboratories, could be implemented in standard diagnostic or environmental monitoring workflows, and can be used for the development of Giardia LAMP point-of-care devices or high-throughput systems.

Parasitologia doi: 10.3390/parasitologia5020024

Authors: Jitender P. Dubey Aditya Gupta Benjamin M. Rosenthal Mason Reichard

Archived, frozen tongues of 56 bobcats (Lynx rufus) from Oklahoma, USA, were tested for parasites. Testing for Sarcocystis infections included microscopic examination of unstained muscle squashes, histological sections of paraffin-embedded tissues, and molecular characterization. By a combination of both compression methods and histology, sarcocysts were found in 28 (50.0%) of 56 bobcats. In compression preparations, the sarcocyst wall appeared thin and protrusions were not clear. Histologically, tissues were degraded and, in most tongues, only a few sarcocysts were found, except bobcat #35. Multilocus genotyping utilizing 18S rRNA, 28S rRNA, and cox1 genes yielded sequences exhibiting 98–100% identity with both Sarcocystis arctica and Sarcocystis caninum isolates available in the NCBI database. Hepatozoon rufi-like meronts were found in two tongues and is the first report of Hepatozoon infections in bobcats in Oklahoma.

Parasitologia doi: 10.3390/parasitologia5020023

Authors: Dilip Kumar Baruah Kuntala Boruah Nagendra Nath Barman Abhijit Deka Arpita Bharali Lukumoni Buragohain

This research introduces a novel method that integrates both unsupervised and supervised learning, leveraging SimCLR (Simple Framework for Contrastive Learning of Visual Representations) for self-supervised learning along with different pre-trained models to improve microscopic image classification of Babesia parasite in canines. We focused on three popular CNN architectures, namely ResNet, EfficientNet, and DenseNet, and evaluated the impact of SimCLR pre-training on their performance. A detailed comparison of the different variants of ResNet, EfficientNet, and Densenet in terms of classification accuracy and training efficiency is presented. Base models such as different variants of the ResNet, EfficientNet, and DenseNet models were utilized within the SimCLR framework. Firstly, the models were pre-trained on unlabeled images, followed by training classifiers on labeled datasets. This approach significantly improved the robustness and accuracy, demonstrating the potential benefits of combining contrastive learning with conventional supervised techniques. The highest accuracy of 97.07% was achieved by Efficientnet_b2. Thus, detection of Babesia or other hemoparasites in microscopic blood smear images could be automated with high accuracy without using a labelled dataset.

Parasitologia doi: 10.3390/parasitologia5020022

Authors: Yazmin Alcala-Canto Juan Antonio Figueroa-Castillo

(1) Background: Coproparasitological techniques are fundamental in veterinary medicine for diagnosing intestinal parasitic infections and form a core part of clinical training. Due to their procedural nature, teaching these techniques can benefit from scalable, visual tools that support skill acquisition and self-directed learning. This study aimed to evaluate the impact of instructional videos on students’ understanding and perceptions of coproparasitological methods. (2) Methods: A cross-sectional study was conducted with 110 veterinary students who viewed instructional videos covering 11 coproparasitological techniques. Their knowledge was assessed using a 17-item multiple-choice exam. Additionally, a structured opinion questionnaire was used to gather student feedback on the clarity and usefulness of the videos. (3) Results: Fourteen of the seventeen exam items were answered correctly by more than 80% of participants, with one item reaching 96.4% accuracy. Regarding perceptions, 94% of students rated the videos as “very clear”, and 94% as “very useful”, highlighting strong acceptance and satisfaction. (4) Conclusions: Instructional videos significantly supported students’ comprehension and were perceived as effective learning tools. Their integration into veterinary parasitology curricula is recommended to reinforce technical training, improve learning outcomes, and address limitations in access to hands-on instruction, especially in resource-constrained educational settings. Overall, instructional videos represent a valuable strategy to strengthen practical competencies in veterinary parasitology education.

Parasitologia doi: 10.3390/parasitologia5020021

Authors: Fernando A. Fariña Mariana I. Pasqualetti Marina Winter Sergio Abate Gustavo Daneri Ana Harrington Tatiana Aronowicz Claudio Calvo Cecilia Lapuyade Florencia A. D’Francisco M. Mabel Ribicich

Parasites of the genus Trichinella are widely distributed and infect a wide range of domestic and wild animals. Their presence spans across various continents, impacting agricultural and wildlife ecosystems alike. In Argentina, Trichinella spiralis, Trichinella patagoniensis, and Trichinella pseudospiralis have been detected infecting both domestic and wild animals. The aim of the present study is to detect Trichinella spp. in samples from domestic pigs and wildlife across Argentina between 2019 and 2024 and to identify these parasites at the species level. A total of 216 samples from domestic and wild animals underwent artificial digestion. In cases where a positive result was obtained, muscle larvae were further processed using PCR targeting the ESV region. Samples originating from 16 animals were analyzed. Among the animals tested, 52 were positive for Trichinella spp., including two pumas infected with T. patagoniensis; 43 domestic pigs, with 34 identified as T. spiralis at the species level; and seven wild boars, with five identified as T. spiralis at the species level. The present study enhances our understanding of the distribution and transmission dynamics of Trichinella among domestic and wild animals in Argentina.

Parasitologia doi: 10.3390/parasitologia5020020

Authors: Virginia Perdomo Victoria Boselli Romina Manarin Esteban Serra

Metacyclogenesis is a critical process in the Trypanosoma cruzi life cycle. This transition naturally occurs in an insect vector’s gut. Although Triatomine Artificial Urine (TAU) medium is the widely adopted approach to metacyclogenesis in vitro, its efficiency decreases with prolonged epimastigote culture, limiting the availability of metacyclic trypomastigotes for study. We aimed to establish a practical and efficient method for generating high concentrations and purities of metacyclic trypomastigotes in vitro. Epimastigotes of the Dm28c strain were exposed to pH shifts in nutrient-rich (MT-LIT) and nutrient-poor (M16) media, under static or agitated conditions. Both media promoted higher metacyclogenesis rates than TAU, with epimastigotes’ adherence to the substrate being a crucial factor. Metacyclogenesis efficiency varies depending on the strains and culture conditions. Notably, both LIT and M16 at pH 6 produced metacyclic trypomastigotes with infective capacity on Vero cells. Under these conditions, a variety of intermediate forms were observed compared to those induced by TAU metacyclogenesis. Our findings further emphasize the strain-dependent nature of optimal in vitro metacyclogenesis conditions and offer new opportunities for studying the intermediate forms involved in this essential process.

Parasitologia doi: 10.3390/parasitologia5020019

Authors: Eliana Riva Mariana Alejandra Rivero Milagros Junco Federica Sagües Sara Zegbi Inés Guerrero Mariana Elisabet Fuentes Manuela Southwell Santiago Linares María Emilia Bellusci Gisele Bernat Silvina Fernández

Dogs harbour a wide range of endoparasites, many of which pose a significant risk to public health globally due to their zoonotic potential. Addressing the dynamics of zoonotic parasites comprehensively requires epidemiological studies under the One Health paradigm, incorporating multidisciplinary methodologies to explore the complex interactions among humans, animals and the environment. The present study aimed to investigate the presence of canine parasites in public green places (PGPs) in Tandil, Argentina, using epidemiological and geographical tools to enhance efforts towards the prevention and control of canine parasitic diseases impacting public health. Between August 2024 and January 2025, 893 canine faecal samples were collected through a randomised two-stage sampling process from 92 public green places. The overall prevalence of intestinal parasites was 29.9% and the identified parasites were Trichuris vulpis, Ancylostoma caninum, Eucoleus spp., Uncinaria stenocephala, Toxascaris leonina, and Cystoisospora sp. Risk factors identified included the presence of playgrounds and a higher dog density, while protective factors comprised sampling during spring vs. winter and presence of areas of bare soil on the public green places. Spatial analysis revealed clusters of high prevalence in areas with lower socioeconomic status, and clusters of low prevalence in higher socioeconomic areas. These findings emphasise the need for targeted preventive measures, including responsible pet ownership policies. Moreover, the methodological approach adopted could be replicated in other regions to enhance public health protection and mitigate the risks associated with zoonotic parasitic diseases.