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Impact of Additives on Poly(acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene) Membrane Formation Process Using Non-Solvent-Induced Phase Separation
Quaternized Polysulfone as a Solid Polymer Electrolyte Membrane with High Ionic Conductivity for All-Solid-State Zn-Air Batteries
Restricted Surface Diffusion of Cytochromes on Bioenergetic Membranes with Anionic Lipids
Overcoming the Limitations of Forward Osmosis and Membrane Distillation in Sustainable Hybrid Processes Managing the Water–Energy Nexus

Journal Description

Membranes

Membranes is an international, peer-reviewed, open access journal, published monthly online by MDPI, covers the broad aspects of the science and technology of both biological and non-biological membranes. European Membrane Society (EMS), Membrane Society of Australasia (MSA) and Polish Membrane Society (PTMem) are affiliated with Membranes and their members receive discounts on the article processing charges.

Open Access— free for readers, with article processing charges (APC) paid by authors or their institutions.
High Visibility: indexed within Scopus, SCIE (Web of Science), Ei Compendex, PubMed, PMC, CAPlus / SciFinder, Inspec, and other databases.
Journal Rank: JCR - Q2 (Polymer Science) / CiteScore - Q1 (Chemical Engineering (miscellaneous))
Rapid Publication: manuscripts are peer-reviewed and a first decision is provided to authors approximately 17 days after submission; acceptance to publication is undertaken in 3.5 days (median values for papers published in this journal in the first half of 2025).
Recognition of Reviewers: reviewers who provide timely, thorough peer-review reports receive vouchers entitling them to a discount on the APC of their next publication in any MDPI journal, in appreciation of the work done.

Impact Factor: 3.6 (2024); 5-Year Impact Factor: 3.9 (2024)

Imprint Information Journal Flyer Open Access ISSN: 2077-0375

Latest Articles

17 pages, 5613 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Hierarchical Affinity Engineering in Amine-Functionalized Silica Membranes for Enhanced CO₂ Separation: A Combined Experimental and Theoretical Study

by Zhenghua Guo, Qian Li, Kaidi Guo and Liang Yu

Membranes 2025, 15(7), 201; https://doi.org/10.3390/membranes15070201 - 2 Jul 2025

Excessive carbon dioxide (CO₂) emissions represent a critical challenge in mitigating global warming, necessitating advanced separation technologies for efficient carbon capture. Silica-based membranes have attracted significant attention due to their exceptional chemical, thermal, and mechanical stability under harsh operating conditions. In [...] Read more.

Excessive carbon dioxide (CO₂) emissions represent a critical challenge in mitigating global warming, necessitating advanced separation technologies for efficient carbon capture. Silica-based membranes have attracted significant attention due to their exceptional chemical, thermal, and mechanical stability under harsh operating conditions. In this study, we introduce a novel layered hybrid membrane designed based on amine-functionalized silica precursors, where a distinct affinity gradient is engineered by incorporating two types of amine-functionalized materials. The top layer was composed of high-affinity amine species to maximize CO₂ sorption, while a sublayer with milder affinity facilitated smooth CO₂ diffusion, thereby establishing a continuous solubility gradient across the membrane. A dual approach, combining comprehensive experimental testing and rigorous theoretical modeling, was employed to elucidate the underlying CO₂ transport mechanisms. Our results reveal that the hierarchical structure significantly enhances the intrinsic driving force for CO₂ permeation, leading to superior separation performance compared to conventional homogeneous facilitated transport membranes. This study not only provides critical insights into the design principles of affinity gradient membranes but also demonstrates their potential for scalable, high-performance CO₂ separation in industrial applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Membrane Applications for Gas Separation)

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24 pages, 1083 KiB

Open AccessReview

Membrane-Based CO₂ Capture Across Industrial Sectors: Process Conditions, Case Studies, and Implementation Insights

by Jin Woo Park, Soyeon Heo, Jeong-Gu Yeo, Sunghoon Lee, Jin-Kuk Kim and Jung Hyun Lee

Membranes 2025, 15(7), 200; https://doi.org/10.3390/membranes15070200 - 2 Jul 2025

Membrane-based CO₂ capture has emerged as a promising technology for industrial decarbonization, offering advantages in energy efficiency, modularity, and environmental performance. This review presents a comprehensive assessment of membrane processes applied across major emission-intensive sectors, including power generation, cement, steelmaking, and biogas [...] Read more.

Membrane-based CO₂ capture has emerged as a promising technology for industrial decarbonization, offering advantages in energy efficiency, modularity, and environmental performance. This review presents a comprehensive assessment of membrane processes applied across major emission-intensive sectors, including power generation, cement, steelmaking, and biogas upgrading. Drawing from pilot-scale demonstrations and simulation-based studies, we evaluate how flue gas characteristics, such as CO₂ concentration, pressure, temperature, and impurity composition, govern membrane selection, process design, and operational feasibility. Case studies highlight the technical viability of membrane systems under a wide range of industrial conditions, from low-CO₂ NGCC flue gas to high-pressure syngas and CO₂-rich cement emissions. Despite these advances, this review discusses the key remaining challenges for the commercialization of membrane-based CO₂ capture and includes perspectives on process design and techno-economic evaluation. The insights compiled in this review are intended to support the design of application-specific membrane systems and guide future efforts toward scalable and economically viable CO₂ capture across industrial sectors. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Novel Membranes for Carbon Capture and Conversion)

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28 pages, 3292 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Optimization of the Quality of Reclaimed Water from Urban Wastewater Treatment in Arid Region: A Zero Liquid Discharge Pilot Study Using Membrane and Thermal Technologies

by Maria Avramidi, Constantinos Loizou, Maria Kyriazi, Dimitris Malamis, Katerina Kalli, Angelos Hadjicharalambous and Constantina Kollia

Membranes 2025, 15(7), 199; https://doi.org/10.3390/membranes15070199 - 1 Jul 2025

With water availability being one of the world’s major challenges, this study aims to propose a Zero Liquid Discharge (ZLD) system for treating saline effluents from an urban wastewater treatment plant (UWWTP), thereby supplementing into the existing water cycle. The system, which employs [...] Read more.

With water availability being one of the world’s major challenges, this study aims to propose a Zero Liquid Discharge (ZLD) system for treating saline effluents from an urban wastewater treatment plant (UWWTP), thereby supplementing into the existing water cycle. The system, which employs membrane (nanofiltration and reverse osmosis) and thermal technologies (multi-effect distillation evaporator and vacuum crystallizer), has been installed and operated in Cyprus at Larnaca’s WWTP, for the desalination of the tertiary treated water, producing high-quality reclaimed water. The nanofiltration (NF) unit at the plant operated with an inflow concentration ranging from 2500 to 3000 ppm. The performance of the installed NF90-4040 membranes was evaluated based on permeability and flux. Among two NF operation series, the second—operating at 75–85% recovery and 2500 mg/L TDS—showed improved membrane performance, with stable permeability (7.32 × 10⁻¹⁰ to 7.77 × 10⁻¹⁰ m·s⁻¹·Pa⁻¹) and flux (6.34 × 10⁻⁴ to 6.67 × 10⁻⁴ m/s). The optimal NF operating rate was 75% recovery, which achieved high divalent ion rejection (more than 99.5%). The reverse osmosis (RO) unit operated in a two-pass configuration, achieving water recoveries of 90–94% in the first pass and 76–84% in the second. This setup resulted in high rejection rates of approximately 99.99% for all major ions (Cl⁻, Na⁺, Ca²⁺, and Mg²⁺), reducing the permeate total dissolved solids (TDS) to below 35 mg/L. The installed multi-effect distillation (MED) unit operated under vacuum and under various inflow and steady-state conditions, achieving over 60% water recovery and producing high-quality distillate water (TDS < 12 mg/L). The vacuum crystallizer (VC) further concentrated the MED concentrate stream (MEDC) and the NF concentrate stream (NFC) flows, resulting in distilled water and recovered salts. The MEDC process produced salts with a purity of up to 81% NaCl., while the NFC stream produced mixed salts containing approximately 46% calcium salts (mainly as sulfates and chlorides), 13% magnesium salts (mainly as sulfates and chlorides), and 38% sodium salts. Overall, the ZLD system consumed 12 kWh/m³, with thermal units accounting for around 86% of this usage. The RO unit proved to be the most energy-efficient component, contributing 71% of the total water recovery. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Applications of Membrane Distillation in Water Treatment and Reuse)

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14 pages, 2508 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Enhancement of Efficiency in an Ex Situ Coprecipitation Method for Superparamagnetic Bacterial Cellulose Hybrid Materials

by Thaís Cavalcante de Souza, Italo José Batista Durval, Hugo Moraes Meira, Andréa Fernanda de Santana Costa, Eduardo Padrón Hernández, Attilio Converti, Glória Maria Vinhas and Leonie Asfora Sarubbo

Membranes 2025, 15(7), 198; https://doi.org/10.3390/membranes15070198 - 1 Jul 2025

Superparamagnetic magnetite nanoparticles (Fe₃O₄) have garnered considerable interest due to their unique magnetic properties and potential for integration into multifunctional biomaterials. In particular, their incorporation into bacterial cellulose (BC) matrices offers a promising route for developing sustainable and high-performance [...] Read more.

Superparamagnetic magnetite nanoparticles (Fe₃O₄) have garnered considerable interest due to their unique magnetic properties and potential for integration into multifunctional biomaterials. In particular, their incorporation into bacterial cellulose (BC) matrices offers a promising route for developing sustainable and high-performance magnetic composites. Numerous studies have explored BC-magnetite systems; however, innovations combining ex situ coprecipitation synthesis within BC matrices, tailored reagent molar ratios, stirring protocols, and purification processes remain limited. This study aimed to optimize the ex situ coprecipitation method for synthesizing superparamagnetic magnetite nanoparticles embedded in BC membranes, focusing on enhancing particle stability and crystallinity. BC membranes containing varying concentrations of magnetite (40%, 50%, 60%, and 70%) were characterized using X-ray diffraction (XRD), Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and vibrating sample magnetometry (VSM). The resulting magnetic BC membranes demonstrated homogenous dispersion of nanoparticles, improved crystallite size (6.96 nm), and enhanced magnetic saturation (Ms) (50.4 emu/g), compared to previously reported methods. The adoption and synergistic optimization of synthesis parameters—unique to this study—conferred greater control over the physicochemical and magnetic properties of the composites. These findings position the optimized BC-magnetite nanocomposites as highly promising candidates for advanced applications, including electromagnetic interference (EMI) shielding, electronic devices, gas sensors, MRI contrast agents, and targeted drug delivery systems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Membrane Fabrication and Characterization)

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18 pages, 5149 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Construction of Transport Channels by HNTs@ZIF-67 Composites in a Mixed-Matrix Membrane for He/CH₄ Separation

by Jiale Zhang, Huixin Dong, Fei Guo, Huijun Yi, Xiaobin Jiang, Gaohong He and Wu Xiao

Membranes 2025, 15(7), 197; https://doi.org/10.3390/membranes15070197 - 30 Jun 2025

In this work, HNTs@ZIF-67 composites were synthesized using the in situ growth method and incorporated into 6FDA-TFMB to prepare mixed-matrix membranes (MMMs). Scanning electron microscope (SEM) and transmission electron microscope (TEM) proved that the HNTs@ZIF-67 composite not only retained the hollow structure of [...] Read more.

In this work, HNTs@ZIF-67 composites were synthesized using the in situ growth method and incorporated into 6FDA-TFMB to prepare mixed-matrix membranes (MMMs). Scanning electron microscope (SEM) and transmission electron microscope (TEM) proved that the HNTs@ZIF-67 composite not only retained the hollow structure of HNTs, but also formed a continuous ZIF-67 transport layer on the surface of HNTs. The results of gas permeability experiments showed that with the increase in HNTs@ZIF-67 incorporation, the He permeability and He/CH₄ selectivity of MMMs showed a trend of increasing first and then decreasing. When the loading is 5 wt%, the He permeability and He/CH₄ selectivity of MMMs reach 116 Barrer and 305, which are 22.11% and 79.41% higher than the pure 6FDA-TFMB membrane. The results of density functional theory (DFT) and Monte Carlo (MC) calculations reveal that He diffuses more easily inside ZIF-67, HNTs and 6FDA-TFMB than CH₄, and ZIF-67 shows larger adsorption energy with He than HNTs and 6FDA-TFMB, indicating that He is easily adsorbed by ZIF-67 in MMMs. Based on experimental and molecular simulation results, the mechanism of HNTs@ZIF-67 improving the He/CH₄ separation performance of MMMs was summarized. With the advantage of a smaller molecular kinetic diameter, He can diffuse through ZIF-67 on the tube orifice of HNTs@ZIF-67 and enter the HNTs’ hollow tube for rapid transmission. At the same time, He can also be rapidly transferred in the continuous ZIF-67 transport channel layer, which improves the He permeability and the He/CH₄ selectivity of MMMs. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue High-Performance Composite Membrane for Gas Separation and Capture)

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19 pages, 3826 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Highly Conductive PEO/PAN-Based SN-Containing Electrospun Membranes as Solid Polymer Electrolytes

by Anna Maria Kirchberger, Patrick Walke, Janio Venturini, Leo van Wüllen and Tom Nilges

Membranes 2025, 15(7), 196; https://doi.org/10.3390/membranes15070196 - 30 Jun 2025

Solid polymer electrolytes (SPEs) have garnered significant attention due to their potential in all-solid-state batteries (ASSBs). However, adoption remains constrained by challenges such as low thermal stability and limited ionic conductivity. Here, we report on an electrospun (PAN/PEO)- conductive salt (LiBF₄) [...] Read more.

Solid polymer electrolytes (SPEs) have garnered significant attention due to their potential in all-solid-state batteries (ASSBs). However, adoption remains constrained by challenges such as low thermal stability and limited ionic conductivity. Here, we report on an electrospun (PAN/PEO)- conductive salt (LiBF₄) system, where the influence of varying polyacrylonitrile (PAN) and polyethylene oxide (PEO) ratios, along with different plasticizer concentrations, is evaluated. Notably, the 50:50 PAN/PEO sample exhibited the highest ionic conductivity, reaching 1∙10⁻² S/cm at 55 °C. This system also balanced conductivity and processability. Succinonitrile (SN) significantly influenced the morphology and conductivity. Samples with increased SN content showed enhanced capacity in symmetrical cells, achieving ~140 mAs/cm² for an 18:9:1 polymer (PAN/PEO):SN:conductive salt (LiBF₄) composition. The enhanced lithium-ion conductivity of the electrospun blend is attributed to the deliberate use of an unmixable PAN–PEO system. Their immiscibility creates well-defined interfacial regions within fibers, acting as efficient lithium-ion pathways. These findings support electrospun polymer blends as promising candidates for high-performance SPEs for ASSB development. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Ion Conducting Membranes and Energy Storage)

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19 pages, 4963 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Fouling Mitigation of Silicon Carbide Membranes by Pre-Deposited Dynamic Membranes for the Separation of Oil-in-Water Emulsions

by Xin Wu, Minfeng Fang and Guanghui Li

Membranes 2025, 15(7), 195; https://doi.org/10.3390/membranes15070195 - 30 Jun 2025

Membrane fouling poses a significant challenge in the widespread adoption and cost-effective operation of membrane technology. Among different strategies to mitigate fouling, dynamic membrane (DM) technology has emerged as a promising one for effective control and mitigation of membrane fouling. Silicon carbide (SiC) [...] Read more.

Membrane fouling poses a significant challenge in the widespread adoption and cost-effective operation of membrane technology. Among different strategies to mitigate fouling, dynamic membrane (DM) technology has emerged as a promising one for effective control and mitigation of membrane fouling. Silicon carbide (SiC) membranes have attracted considerable attention as membrane materials due to their remarkable advantages, yet membrane fouling is still inevitable in challenging separation tasks, such as oil-in-water (O/W) emulsion separation, and thus effective mitigation of membrane fouling is essential to maximize their economic viability. This study investigates the use of pre-deposited oxide DMs to mitigate the fouling of SiC membranes during the separation of O/W emulsions. Among five screened oxides (Fe₂O₃, SiO₂, TiO₂, ZrO₂, Al₂O₃), SiO₂ emerged as the most effective DM material due to its favorable combination of particle size, negative surface charge, hydrophilicity, and underwater oleophobicity, leading to minimized oil droplet adhesion via electrostatic repulsion to DM surfaces and enhanced antifouling performance. Parameter optimization in dead-end mode revealed a DM deposition amount of 300 g/m², a transmembrane pressure (TMP) of 0.25 bar, and a backwashing pressure of 2 bar as ideal conditions, achieving stable oil rejection (~93%) and high pure water flux recovery ratios (FRR, >90%). Cross-flow filtration outperformed dead-end mode, maintaining normalized permeate fluxes of ~0.4–0.5 (cf. ~0.2 in dead-end) and slower FRR decline, attributed to reduced concentration polarization and enhanced DM stability under tangential flow. Optimal cross-flow conditions included a DM preparation time of 20 min, a TMP of 0.25 bar, and a flow velocity of 0.34 m/s. The results establish SiO₂-based DMs as a cost-effective strategy to enhance SiC membrane longevity and efficiency in O/W emulsion separation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Membrane Applications for Water Treatment)

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14 pages, 2980 KiB

Open AccessCommunication

Simultaneously Promoting Proton Conductivity and Mechanical Stability of SPEEK Membrane by Incorporating Porous g–C₃N₄

by Xiaoyao Wang and Benbing Shi

Membranes 2025, 15(7), 194; https://doi.org/10.3390/membranes15070194 - 29 Jun 2025

Proton exchange membranes are widely used in environmentally friendly applications such as fuel cells and electrochemical hydrogen compression. In these applications, an ideal proton exchange membrane should have both excellent proton conductivity and mechanical strength. Polymer proton exchange membranes, such as sulfonated poly(ether [...] Read more.

Proton exchange membranes are widely used in environmentally friendly applications such as fuel cells and electrochemical hydrogen compression. In these applications, an ideal proton exchange membrane should have both excellent proton conductivity and mechanical strength. Polymer proton exchange membranes, such as sulfonated poly(ether ether ketone) (SPEEK) membranes with high ion exchange capacity, can lead to higher proton conductivity. However, the ionic groups may reduce the interaction between polymer segments, lower the membrane’s mechanical strength, and even cause it to dissolve in water as the temperature exceeds 55 °C. The porous graphitic C₃N₄ (Pg–C₃N₄) nanosheet is an important two–dimensional polymeric carbon–based material and has a high content of –NH₂ and –NH– groups, which can interact with the sulfonic acid groups in the sulfonated SPEEK polymer, form a more continuous proton transfer channel, and inhibit the movement of the polymer segment, leading to higher proton conductivity and mechanical strength. In this study, we found that a SPEEK membrane containing 3% Pg–C₃N₄ nanosheets achieves the optimized proton conductivity of 138 mS/cm (80 °C and 100% RH) and a mechanical strength of 74.1 MPa, improving both proton conductivity and mechanical strength by over 50% compared to the SPEEK membrane. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Membranes for Fuel Cells and Redox Flow Batteries)

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36 pages, 6029 KiB

Open AccessReview

Research Progress of Computational Fluid Dynamics in Mixed Ionic–Electronic Conducting Oxygen-Permeable Membranes

by Jun Liu, Jing Zhao, Yulu Liu, Yongfan Zhu, Wanglin Zhou, Zhenbin Gu, Guangru Zhang and Zhengkun Liu

Membranes 2025, 15(7), 193; https://doi.org/10.3390/membranes15070193 - 27 Jun 2025

Mixed ionic–electronic conducting (MIEC) oxygen-permeable membranes have emerged as a frontier in oxygen separation technology due to their high efficiency, low energy consumption, and broad application potential. In recent years, computational fluid dynamics (CFD) has become a pivotal tool in advancing MIEC membrane [...] Read more.

Mixed ionic–electronic conducting (MIEC) oxygen-permeable membranes have emerged as a frontier in oxygen separation technology due to their high efficiency, low energy consumption, and broad application potential. In recent years, computational fluid dynamics (CFD) has become a pivotal tool in advancing MIEC membrane technology, offering precise insights into the intricate mechanisms of oxygen permeation, heat transfer, and mass transfer through numerical simulations of coupled multiphysics phenomena. In this review, we comprehensively explore the application of CFD in MIEC membrane research, heat and mass transfer analysis, reactor design optimization, and the enhancement of membrane module performance. Additionally, we delve into how CFD, through multiscale modeling and parameter optimization, improves separation efficiency and facilitates practical engineering applications. We also highlight the challenges in current CFD research, such as high computational costs, parameter uncertainties, and model complexities, while discussing the potential of emerging technologies, such as machine learning, to enhance CFD modeling capabilities. This study underscores CFD’s critical role in bridging the fundamental research and industrial applications of MIEC membranes, providing theoretical guidance and practical insights for innovation in clean energy and sustainable technologies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Membrane Applications for Energy)

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14 pages, 4047 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Impact of Long-Term Alkaline Cleaning on Ultrafiltration Tubular PVDF Membrane Performances

by Marek Gryta and Piotr Woźniak

Membranes 2025, 15(7), 192; https://doi.org/10.3390/membranes15070192 - 27 Jun 2025

The application of an ultrafiltration (UF) process with periodic membrane cleaning with the use of alkaline detergent solutions was proposed for the recovery of wash water from car wash effluent. In order to test the resistance of the membranes to the degradation caused [...] Read more.

The application of an ultrafiltration (UF) process with periodic membrane cleaning with the use of alkaline detergent solutions was proposed for the recovery of wash water from car wash effluent. In order to test the resistance of the membranes to the degradation caused by the cleaning solutions, a pilot plant study was carried out for almost two years. The installation included an industrial module with FP100 tubular membranes made of polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF). The module was fed with synthetic effluent obtained by mixing foaming agents and hydrowax. To limit the fouling phenomenon, the membranes were cleaned cyclically with P3 Ultrasil 11 solution (pH = 11.7) or Insect solution (pH = 11.5). During plant shutdowns, the membrane module was maintained with a sodium metabisulphite solution. Changes in the permeate flux, turbidity, COD, and surfactant rejection were analysed during the study. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM), atomic force microscopy (AFM), differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), and Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) analysis were used to determine the changes in the membrane structure. As a result of the repeated chemical cleaning, the pore size increased, resulting in a more than 50% increase in permeate flux. However, the quality of the recovered wash water did not deteriorate, as an additional separation layer was formed on the membrane surface due to the fouling phenomenon. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Advances in Polymeric Membranes—Preparation and Applications)

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22 pages, 3169 KiB

Open AccessReview

A Mini-Review on Electrocatalytic Self-Cleaning Membrane Materials for Sustainable Fouling Control

by Honghuan Yin and Zhonglong Yin

Membranes 2025, 15(7), 191; https://doi.org/10.3390/membranes15070191 - 25 Jun 2025

Although membrane technology has been widely applied in water treatment, membrane fouling is an inevitable issue that has largely limited its application. Benefiting from the advantages of green power, easy integration and low chemical consumption, electrocatalytic membrane (ECM) technology received attention, using it [...] Read more.

Although membrane technology has been widely applied in water treatment, membrane fouling is an inevitable issue that has largely limited its application. Benefiting from the advantages of green power, easy integration and low chemical consumption, electrocatalytic membrane (ECM) technology received attention, using it to enable electrically driven self-cleaning performance recently, making it highly desirable for sustainable fouling control. In this work, we comprehensively summarized the conventional (e.g., carbonaceous materials, metal and metal oxide) and emerging (e.g., metal–organic framework and MXene) materials for the fabrication of an ECM. Then the fabrication methods and operating modes of an ECM were emphasized. Afterwards, the application of different ECM materials in membrane fouling control was highlighted and the corresponding mechanism was revealed. Based on existing research findings, we proposed the challenges and future prospects of ECM materials for practical application. This study provides enlightening knowledge into the development of ECM materials for sustainable fouling control. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Advances in Membrane Separation Technology for Water Pollution Control and Membrane Fouling Mitigation)

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27 pages, 9897 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Bi-Objective Optimization of Techno-Economic and Environmental Performance of CO₂ Capture Strategy Involving Two-Stage Membrane-Based Separation with Recycling

by Nobuo Hara, Satoshi Taniguchi, Takehiro Yamaki, Thuy T.H. Nguyen and Sho Kataoka

Membranes 2025, 15(7), 190; https://doi.org/10.3390/membranes15070190 - 24 Jun 2025

To effectively implement complex CO₂ capture, utilization, and storage (CCUS) processes, it is essential to optimize their design by considering various factors. This research bi-objectively optimized a two-stage membrane-based separation process that includes recycling, concentrating on minimizing both costs and CO₂ [...] Read more.

To effectively implement complex CO₂ capture, utilization, and storage (CCUS) processes, it is essential to optimize their design by considering various factors. This research bi-objectively optimized a two-stage membrane-based separation process that includes recycling, concentrating on minimizing both costs and CO₂ emissions. The implemented algorithm combined experimental design, machine learning, genetic algorithms, and Bayesian optimization. Under the constraints of a recovery rate of 0.9 and a produced CO₂ purity of 0.95, six case studies were conducted on two types of membrane performance: the Robeson upper bound and a tenfold increase in permeability. The maximum value of α*(CO₂/N₂), used as a constraint, was adjusted to three levels: 50, 100, and 200. The analysis of the Pareto solutions and the relationship between each design variable and the final evaluation index indicates that electricity consumption significantly impacts operating costs and CO₂ emissions. The results of the case studies quantitatively clarify that improving the α*(CO₂/N₂) results in a greater enhancement of process performance than increasing the membrane’s performance by increasing its permeability. Our bi-objective optimization analysis allowed us to effectively evaluate the membrane’s CO₂ separation and individual CCUS processes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Novel Membranes for Carbon Capture and Conversion)

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28 pages, 6673 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Valorization of Anaerobic Liquid Digestates Through Membrane Processing and Struvite Recovery—The Case of Dairy Effluents

by Anthoula C. Karanasiou, Charikleia K. Tsaridou, Dimitrios C. Sioutopoulos, Christos Tzioumaklis, Nikolaos Patsikas, Sotiris I. Patsios, Konstantinos V. Plakas and Anastasios J. Karabelas

Membranes 2025, 15(7), 189; https://doi.org/10.3390/membranes15070189 - 24 Jun 2025

An integrated process scheme is developed for valorizing filtered liquid digestates (FLD) from an industrial anaerobic digestion (AD) plant treating dairy-processing effluents with relatively low nutrient concentrations. The process scheme involves FLD treatment by nanofiltration (NF) membranes, followed by struvite recovery from the [...] Read more.

An integrated process scheme is developed for valorizing filtered liquid digestates (FLD) from an industrial anaerobic digestion (AD) plant treating dairy-processing effluents with relatively low nutrient concentrations. The process scheme involves FLD treatment by nanofiltration (NF) membranes, followed by struvite recovery from the NF-retentate. An NF pilot unit (designed for this purpose) is combined with a state-of-the-art NF/RO process simulator. Validation of simulator results with pilot data enables reliable predictions required for scaling up NF systems. The NF permeate meets the standards for restricted irrigation and/or reuse. Considering the significant nutrient concentrations in the NF retentate (i.e., ~500 mg/L NH4-N, ~230 mg/L PO4-P), struvite recovery/precipitation is investigated, including determination of near-optimal processing conditions. Maximum removal of nutrients, through production of struvite-rich precipitate, is obtained at a molar ratio of NH₄:Mg:PO₄ = 1:1.5:1.5 and pH = 10 in the treated stream, attained through the addition of Κ₂HPO₄, ΜgCl₂·6H₂O, and NaOH. Furthermore, almost complete struvite precipitation is achieved within ~30 min, whereas precipitate/solid drying at modest/ambient temperature is appropriate to avoid struvite degradation. Under the aforementioned conditions, a significant amount of dry precipitate is obtained, i.e., ~12 g dry mass per L of treated retentate, including crystalline struvite. The approach taken and the obtained positive results provide a firm basis for further development of this integrated process scheme towards sustainable large-scale applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Membrane and Other Innovative Technologies for Water Purification: Design, Development, and Application)

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21 pages, 1887 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Third-Phase Formation in Rare Earth Element Extraction with D2EHPA: Key Factors and Impact on Liquid Membrane Extraction Performance

by Raquel Rodríguez Varela, Alexandre Chagnes and Kerstin Forsberg

Membranes 2025, 15(7), 188; https://doi.org/10.3390/membranes15070188 - 23 Jun 2025

Hollow fibre renewal liquid membranes (HFRLMs) are susceptible to third-phase formation during rare earth element (REE) extraction using D2EHPA (bis(2-ethylhexyl phosphoric acid)), potentially leading to membrane fouling and decreased mass transfer efficiency. This study investigated the effects of various parameters, such as the [...] Read more.

Hollow fibre renewal liquid membranes (HFRLMs) are susceptible to third-phase formation during rare earth element (REE) extraction using D2EHPA (bis(2-ethylhexyl phosphoric acid)), potentially leading to membrane fouling and decreased mass transfer efficiency. This study investigated the effects of various parameters, such as the composition of the aqueous feed and organic phases, on the third-phase formation and limiting organic concentration (LOC) of REE(III) in D2EHPA. Higher concentrations of REEs and a higher pH in the feed phase correlated with decreased mass transfer, while yttrium showed a greater propensity to induce third-phase formation compared to other REEs. Conditions favouring the use of linear aliphatic diluents, low extractant concentrations (5–10 v/v% D2EHPA) and the absence of modifiers also contributed to third-phase formation. The addition of tri-n-butyl phosphate (TBP) mitigated third-phase formation without evidence of synergy with D2EHPA. These findings provide key insights into formulating extraction systems that prevent third-phase formation in HFRLM processes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Membrane Application: Separation, Purification and Recovery of Metals in Industrial Wastes)

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12 pages, 3509 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Binding and Activating of Analgesic Crotalphine with Human TRPA1

by Mingmin Kang, Yanming Zhang, Xiufang Ding, Jianfu Xu and Xiaoyun Pang

Membranes 2025, 15(6), 187; https://doi.org/10.3390/membranes15060187 - 19 Jun 2025

TRPA1 (Transient Receptor Potential Ankyrin 1), a cation channel predominantly expressed in sensory neurons, plays a critical role in detecting noxious stimuli and mediating pain signal transmission. As a key player in nociceptive signaling pathways, TRPA1 has emerged as a promising therapeutic target [...] Read more.

TRPA1 (Transient Receptor Potential Ankyrin 1), a cation channel predominantly expressed in sensory neurons, plays a critical role in detecting noxious stimuli and mediating pain signal transmission. As a key player in nociceptive signaling pathways, TRPA1 has emerged as a promising therapeutic target for the development of novel analgesics. Crotalphine (CRP), a 14-amino acid peptide, has been demonstrated to specifically activate TRPA1 and elicit potent analgesic effects. Previous cryo-EM (cryo-electron microscopy) studies have elucidated the structural mechanisms of TRPA1 activation by small-molecule agonists, such as iodoacetamide (IA), through covalent modification of N-terminal cysteine residues. However, the molecular interactions between TRPA1 and peptide ligands, including crotalphine, remain unclear. Here, we present the cryo-EM structure of ligand-free human TRPA1 consistent with the literature, as well as TRPA1 complexed with crotalphine, with resolutions of 3.1 Å and 3.8 Å, respectively. Through a combination of single-particle cryo-EM studies, patch-clamp electrophysiology, and microscale thermophoresis (MST), we have identified the cysteine residue at position 621 (Cys621) within the TRPA1 ion channel as the primary binding site for crotalphine. Upon binding to the reactive pocket containing C621, crotalphine induces rotational and translational movements of the transmembrane domain. This allosteric modulation coordinately dilates both the upper and lower gates, facilitating ion permeation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Biological Membranes)

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11 pages, 1035 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Electrodialysis Using Zero-Gap Electrodes Producing Concentrated Product Without Significant Solution Resistance Losses

by W. Henry Freer, Charles Perks, Charles Codner and Paul A. Kohl

Membranes 2025, 15(6), 186; https://doi.org/10.3390/membranes15060186 - 19 Jun 2025

Electrochemical separations use an ionic current to drive the flow of ions across an ion exchange membrane to produce dilute and concentrated streams. The economics of these systems is challenging because passing an ionic current through a dilute solution often requires a small [...] Read more.

Electrochemical separations use an ionic current to drive the flow of ions across an ion exchange membrane to produce dilute and concentrated streams. The economics of these systems is challenging because passing an ionic current through a dilute solution often requires a small cell gap to lower the ionic resistance and the use of a low current density to minimize the voltage drop across the dilute product stream. Lower salt concentration in the product stream improves the fraction of the salt recovered but increases the electricity cost due to high ohmic losses. The electricity cost is managed by lowering the current density which greatly increases the balance of the plant. The cell configuration demonstrated in this study eliminates the need to pass an ionic current through the diluted product stream. Ionic current passes only through the concentrated product stream, which allows use of high current density and smaller balance of the plant. The cell has three chambers with an anion and cation membrane separating the cathode and anode, respectively, from the concentrated product solution. The device uses zero-gap membrane electrode assemblies to improve the cell voltage and system performance. As ions concentrate in the center compartment, the solution resistance decreases, and the product is recovered with a lower voltage penalty compared to traditional electrodialysis. This lower voltage drop allows for faster feed flow rates and higher current density. Additionally, the larger cell gap for the product provides opportunities for systems with solids suspended in solution. It was found that the ion collection efficiency increased with current due to enhanced convective mass transfer in the feed streams. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Membrane Applications for Energy)

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14 pages, 1095 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Experimental Investigation of Temperature Polarization near Membrane Surface During Air Gap Membrane Distillation Processes

by Lianqi Jing, Jiaqi Sun, Yaoling Zhang, Jiaming Chen and Fei Guo

Membranes 2025, 15(6), 185; https://doi.org/10.3390/membranes15060185 - 18 Jun 2025

Temperature polarization is a critical factor influencing the performance of membrane distillation. The presence of temperature polarization causes the temperature of the fluid near the membrane surface to be different from that in the bulk region, reducing the effective temperature difference across the [...] Read more.

Temperature polarization is a critical factor influencing the performance of membrane distillation. The presence of temperature polarization causes the temperature of the fluid near the membrane surface to be different from that in the bulk region, reducing the effective temperature difference across the membrane and thus diminishing the transmembrane mass transfer driving force. This study investigates the monitoring of temperature polarization and its effects on the transmembrane mass transfer performance in a typical air gap membrane distillation system. A set of thermocouples within a feed module were employed to monitor and capture the development of the temperature polarization profile. The test results reveal that temperature polarization reduces the effective temperature difference across the membrane, leading to a certain difference between the theoretical estimation and experimental values of the mass transfer coefficient across the porous membrane. To address this issue, the temperature polarization factor was further analyzed as a metric to quantify the impact of temperature polarization on the transmembrane flux in membrane distillation, with a detailed discussion of its range and implications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Near-Membrane-Surface Effects During Membrane Distillation)

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35 pages, 16650 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Membrane Charge Effects on Solute Transport in Nanofiltration: Experiments and Molecular Dynamics Simulations

by Suwei Liu, Zihao Foo, John H. Lienhard, Sinan Keten and Richard M. Lueptow

Membranes 2025, 15(6), 184; https://doi.org/10.3390/membranes15060184 - 18 Jun 2025

Polyamide membranes, such as nanofiltration (NF) membranes, are widely used for water purification. However, the mechanisms of solute transport and solute rejection due to solute charge interactions with the membrane remain unclear at the molecular level. Here, we use molecular dynamics simulations to [...] Read more.

Polyamide membranes, such as nanofiltration (NF) membranes, are widely used for water purification. However, the mechanisms of solute transport and solute rejection due to solute charge interactions with the membrane remain unclear at the molecular level. Here, we use molecular dynamics simulations to examine the transport of single-solute feeds through charged nanofiltration membranes with different membrane charge concentrations of

{COO}^{-}

and NH

{}_{2}^{+}

resulting from the deprotonation or protonation of polymeric end groups according to the pH level that the membrane experiences. The results show that

{Na}^{+}

and

{Cl}^{-}

solute ions are better rejected when the membrane has a higher concentration of negatively charged groups, corresponding to a higher pH, whereas

{CaCl}_{2}

is well rejected at all pH levels studied. These results are consistent with those of experiments performed at the same pH conditions as the simulation setup. Moreover, solute transport behavior depends on the membrane functional group distribution. When

{COO}^{-}

functional groups are concentrated at membrane feed surface, ion permeation into the membrane is reduced. Counter-ions tend to associate with charged functional groups while co-ions seem to pass by the charged groups more easily. In addition, steric effects play a role when ions of opposite charge cluster in pores of the membrane. This study reveals solute transport and rejection mechanisms related to membrane charge and provides insights into how membranes might be designed to achieve specific desired solute rejection. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Nanofiltration Membranes: Preparation, Structure and Separation Performance)

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15 pages, 1776 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Selection of Optimal Nanofiltration/Reverse Osmosis (NF/RO) Membranes for the Removal of Organic Micropollutants from Drinking Water

by E. Busra Tasdemir, Marie Pardon, Sareh Rezaei Hosseinabadi, Laurens A. J. Rutgeerts, Deirdre Cabooter and Ivo F. J. Vankelecom

Membranes 2025, 15(6), 183; https://doi.org/10.3390/membranes15060183 - 17 Jun 2025

The growing presence of organic micropollutants (OMPs) in water sources is a major health concern. Successful removal of OMPs from water sources and ensuring the cleanliness of drinking water has become an important topic in recent years. In this study, 15 nanofiltration (NF) [...] Read more.

The growing presence of organic micropollutants (OMPs) in water sources is a major health concern. Successful removal of OMPs from water sources and ensuring the cleanliness of drinking water has become an important topic in recent years. In this study, 15 nanofiltration (NF) and reverse osmosis (RO) commercial membranes were selected and their potential to remove 10 frequently encountered OMPs in drinking water, with systematically different chemical characteristics, was evaluated. To quickly identify the most promising membranes, high throughput dead-end filtrations were initially conducted. Subsequently, the 4 best performing membranes were used in a more relevant high-throughput cross-flow filtration. Membrane performance was evaluated by analyzing OMP concentrations in the feed and retentates of the different membranes using ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (UHPLC-MS). This study identified NF 90 (Dow), NF 270 (Dow), NFX (Synder) and TS80 (Trisep) as membranes with superior performance, with a permeance between 3 and 7 L.

m^{- 2}

.h⁻¹.bar⁻¹ and retentions that were generally around 90%, except for NFX which showed slightly lower retentions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Membrane Processes for Water Recovery in Food Processing Industries)

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17 pages, 698 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Generalized Helfrich Free Energy Framework for Multicomponent Fluid Membranes

by Hao Wu and Zhong-Can Ou-Yang

Membranes 2025, 15(6), 182; https://doi.org/10.3390/membranes15060182 - 17 Jun 2025

Cell membranes contain a variety of biomolecules, especially various kinds of lipids and proteins, which constantly change with fluidity and environmental stimuli. Though Helfrich curvature elastic energy has successfully explained many phenomena for single-component membranes, a new theoretical framework for multicomponent membranes is [...] Read more.

Cell membranes contain a variety of biomolecules, especially various kinds of lipids and proteins, which constantly change with fluidity and environmental stimuli. Though Helfrich curvature elastic energy has successfully explained many phenomena for single-component membranes, a new theoretical framework for multicomponent membranes is still a challenge. In this work, we propose a generalized Helfrich free-energy functional describe equilibrium shapes and phase behaviors related to membrane heterogeneity with via curvature-component coupling in a unified framework. For multicomponent membranes, a new but important Laplace–Beltrami operator is derived from the variational calculation on the integral of Gaussian curvature and applied to explain the spontaneous nanotube formation of an asymmetric glycolipid vesicle. Therefore, our general mathematical framework shows a predictive capabilities beyond the existing multicomponent membrane models. The set of new curvature-component coupling EL equations have been derived for global vesicle shapes associated with the composition redistribution of multicomponent membranes for the first time and specified into several typical geometric shape equations. The equilibrium radii of isotonic vesicles for both spherical and cylindrical geometries are calculated. The analytical solution for isotonic vesicles reveals that membrane stability requires distinct elastic moduli among components (

k_{A} \neq k_{B}

,

{\bar{k}}_{A} \neq {\bar{k}}_{B}

), which is consistent with experimental observations of coexisting lipid domains. Furthermore, we elucidate the biophysical implications of the derived shape equations, linking them to experimentally observed membrane remodeling processes. Our new free-energy framework provides a baseline for more detailed microscopic membrane models. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Design Principles and Biomedical Applications of Multifunctional Biological Membranes)

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