Membranes

22 pages, 777 KiB

Open AccessReview

Covalent Organic Framework Membranes for Ion Separation: A Review

by Yutong Lou, Zhanyong Wang, Wanbei Yang, Shuchen Lang, Jiaxing Fan, Qiaomei Ke, Rui Wang, Zhen Zhang, Wentao Chen and Jian Xue

Membranes 2025, 15(7), 211; https://doi.org/10.3390/membranes15070211 - 15 Jul 2025

Abstract

Covalent organic framework (COF) membranes have garnered significant attention in ion separation due to their high surface area, tunable pore size, excellent stability, and diverse functional groups. Over the past decade, various synthesis methods, such as solvothermal synthesis, interfacial synthesis, microwave-assisted solvothermal synthesis, [...] Read more.

Covalent organic framework (COF) membranes have garnered significant attention in ion separation due to their high surface area, tunable pore size, excellent stability, and diverse functional groups. Over the past decade, various synthesis methods, such as solvothermal synthesis, interfacial synthesis, microwave-assisted solvothermal synthesis, and in situ growth, have been developed to fabricate COF membranes. COF membranes have demonstrated remarkable ion separation performance in different separation processes driven by pressure, electric field, and vapor pressure difference, showing great potential in a wide range of applications. Nevertheless, challenges in the synthesis and application of COF membranes still remain, requiring further research to fully realize their potential in ion separation. This review critically examines the development of COF membranes, from synthesis methods to ion separation applications. We evaluate the advantages and limitations of various synthesis techniques and systematically summarize COF membrane performance based on separation driving forces. Finally, we present a critical analysis of current challenges and offer perspectives on promising future research directions for advancing COF membrane technology in separation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Membrane Applications for Water Treatment)

31 pages, 1834 KiB

Open AccessReview

A Review of Polylactic Acid (PLA) and Poly(3-hydroxybutyrate) (PHB) as Bio-Sourced Polymers for Membrane Production Applications

by Lacrimioara Senila, Eniko Kovacs and Marin Senila

Membranes 2025, 15(7), 210; https://doi.org/10.3390/membranes15070210 - 14 Jul 2025

Abstract

In recent years, membranes have found extensive applications, primarily in wastewater purification and food packaging. However, petroleum-based membranes can be detrimental to the environment. For this reason, extensive studies are being conducted to identify environmentally friendly substitutes for the materials used in membrane [...] Read more.

In recent years, membranes have found extensive applications, primarily in wastewater purification and food packaging. However, petroleum-based membranes can be detrimental to the environment. For this reason, extensive studies are being conducted to identify environmentally friendly substitutes for the materials used in membrane composition. Among these materials, polylactic acid (PLA) and poly(3-hydroxybutyrate) (PHB) are two bio-sourced and biodegradable polymers that can be derived from lignocellulosic waste. These polymers also possess suitable characteristics, such as thermal resistance and mechanical strength, which make them potential candidates for replacing conventional plastics. This study provides an overview of recent advances in the production of PLA and PHB, with a focus on their extraction from lignocellulosic biomass, as well as the recent applications of these two biodegradable polymers as sustainable materials in membrane manufacturing. The advantages and limitations of membranes produced from these materials are also summarized. Lastly, an analysis of future trends is provided concerning new sources, production possibilities, and potential applications in water treatment (mainly for metal ions separation), gas separation, oil–water separation, medical applications, drug release control, and food packaging. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Membrane Applications for Water Treatment)

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26 pages, 38900 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Set of Fluorescent Protein-Based Markers for Major Vesicle Coat Proteins in Yeast

by Xue-Fei Cui, Zheng-Tan Zhang, Jing Zhu, Li Cui and Zhiping Xie

Membranes 2025, 15(7), 209; https://doi.org/10.3390/membranes15070209 - 13 Jul 2025

Abstract

In eukaryotic cells, vesicle-mediated transport interconnects the endomembrane system. These vesicles are formed by coat proteins via deformation of donor membranes. Here, we constructed a set of fluorescent protein-based markers for major coat protein complexes in the yeast model system, and examined their [...] Read more.

In eukaryotic cells, vesicle-mediated transport interconnects the endomembrane system. These vesicles are formed by coat proteins via deformation of donor membranes. Here, we constructed a set of fluorescent protein-based markers for major coat protein complexes in the yeast model system, and examined their subcellular localization patterns. Our markers covered COPII, COPI, AP-1, AP-2, AP-3, and retromer complexes. Our live cell imaging demonstrates that COPII puncta were primarily associated with the endoplasmic reticulum (ER), and occasionally with early Golgi. COPI was present on both early Golgi and late Golgi/early endosomes. AP-1 puncta were present on late Golgi/early endosomes. AP-2 was present on plasma membrane (PM)-associated puncta, and around the bud neck. AP-3 puncta were present on late Golgi/early endosomes and on the surface of vacuoles. Retromer was present on the surface of vacuoles, late endosomes, and other perivacuolar puncta. Notably, more than half of AP-1 puncta and AP-3 puncta were not associated with the donor compartments where they are thought to be generated, implying that these were coated transport vesicles. This work provides a convenient tool set for the investigation of vesicular transport in yeast and live cell imaging evidence for the presence of certain coated transport vesicles. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Biological Membranes)

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15 pages, 1466 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of Tau Fragment and Membrane Interactions on Membrane Permeabilization and Peptide Aggregation

by Majedul Islam, Md Raza Ul Karim, Emily Argueta, Mohammed N. Selim, Ewa P. Wojcikiewicz and Deguo Du

Membranes 2025, 15(7), 208; https://doi.org/10.3390/membranes15070208 - 13 Jul 2025

Abstract

Aggregation of tau protein is a hallmark feature of tauopathies such as Alzheimer’s disease. The microtubule-binding domain of tau plays a crucial role in the tau aggregation process. In this study, we investigated the dual effects of membrane interactions of tau_298–317, [...] Read more.

Aggregation of tau protein is a hallmark feature of tauopathies such as Alzheimer’s disease. The microtubule-binding domain of tau plays a crucial role in the tau aggregation process. In this study, we investigated the dual effects of membrane interactions of tau_298–317, a fragment peptide from the microtubule-binding domain, on peptide-induced membrane disruption and membrane-mediated peptide self-assembly. Our results show that neither wild-type tau_298–317 nor its P301L or Ser305-phosphorylated mutants aggregate in the presence of zwitterionic POPC vesicles or cause lipid vesicle leakage, indicating weak peptide–membrane interactions. In contrast, tau_298–317 strongly interacts with negatively charged POPG liposomes, leading to a rapid transition of the peptide conformation from random coils to α-helical intermediate conformation upon membrane adsorption, which may further promote peptide self-association to form oligomers and β-sheet-rich fibrillar structures. Tau_298–317-induced rapid POPG membrane leakage indicates a synergistic process of the peptide self-assembly at the membrane interface and the aggregation-induced membrane disruption. Notably, phosphorylation at Ser305 disrupts favorable electrostatic interactions between the peptide and POPG membrane surface, thus preventing peptide aggregation and membrane leakage. In contrast, the P301L mutation significantly enhances membrane-mediated peptide aggregation and peptide-induced membrane disruption, likely due to alleviation of local conformational constraints and enhancement of local hydrophobicity, which facilitates fast conformational conversion to β-sheet structures. These findings provide mechanistic insights into the molecular mechanisms underlying membrane-mediated aggregation of crucial regions of tau and peptide-induced membrane damage, indicating potential strategies to prevent tau aggregation and membrane rupture by targeting critical electrostatic interactions between membranes and key local regions of tau. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Biological Membranes)

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20 pages, 8459 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Membrane Processes for Remediating Water from Sugar Production By-Product Stream

by Amal El Gohary Ahmed, Christian Jordan, Eva Walcher, Selma Kuloglija, Reinhard Turetschek, Antonie Lozar, Daniela Tomasetig and Michael Harasek

Membranes 2025, 15(7), 207; https://doi.org/10.3390/membranes15070207 - 12 Jul 2025

Abstract

Sugar production generates wastewater rich in dissolved solids and organic matter, and improper disposal poses severe environmental risks, exacerbates water scarcity, and creates regulatory challenges. Conventional treatment methods, such as evaporation and chemical precipitation, are energy-intensive and often ineffective at removing fine particulates [...] Read more.

Sugar production generates wastewater rich in dissolved solids and organic matter, and improper disposal poses severe environmental risks, exacerbates water scarcity, and creates regulatory challenges. Conventional treatment methods, such as evaporation and chemical precipitation, are energy-intensive and often ineffective at removing fine particulates and dissolved impurities. This study evaluates membrane-based separation as a sustainable alternative for water reclamation and sugar recovery from sugar industry effluents, focusing on replacing evaporation with membrane processes, ensuring high permeate quality, and mitigating membrane fouling. Cross-flow filtration experiments were conducted on a lab-scale membrane system at 70 °C to suppress microbial growth, comparing direct reverse osmosis (RO) of the raw effluent to an integrated ultrafiltration (UF)–RO process. Direct RO resulted in rapid membrane fouling. A tight UF (5 kDa) pre-treatment before RO significantly mitigated fouling and improved performance, enabling 28% water recovery and 79% sugar recovery, maintaining permeate conductivity below 0.5 mS/cm, sustaining stable flux, and reducing membrane blocking. Additionally, the UF and RO membranes were tested via SEM, EDS, and FTIR to elucidate the fouling mechanisms. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Emerging Superwetting Membranes: New Advances in Water Treatment)

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8 pages, 4309 KiB

Open AccessCommunication

A Conceptual Approach to Reduce the Product Gas Crossover in Alkaline Electrolyzers

by Diogo Loureiro Martinho and Torsten Berning

Membranes 2025, 15(7), 206; https://doi.org/10.3390/membranes15070206 - 12 Jul 2025

Abstract

The crossover of the product gases hydrogen and oxygen in alkaline electrolyzer operation is a critical factor, severely limiting the operational window in terms of current density and pressure. In prior experiments, it was found that a large degree of oversaturation of the [...] Read more.

The crossover of the product gases hydrogen and oxygen in alkaline electrolyzer operation is a critical factor, severely limiting the operational window in terms of current density and pressure. In prior experiments, it was found that a large degree of oversaturation of the reaction products in the liquid electrolyte phase leads to high amounts of crossover. We are proposing to reduce this amount of oversaturation by introducing micro-cracks in the Zirfon diaphragm. These cracks are meant to induce the formation of hydrogen and oxygen bubbles on the respective sides, and thereby reduce the oversaturation and amount of crossover. In theory, the size of the bubble corresponds to the size of the cracks, and from our computational fluid dynamics simulations, we conclude that the bubbles should be as large as possible to minimize the ohmic resistance in the electrolyte phase. The results suggest that an increase in bubble diameter from 50 microns to 150 microns results in a 10% higher current density at a cell voltage of 2.1 V. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Membrane Applications for Energy)

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22 pages, 892 KiB

Open AccessReview

Membrane Technologies for Bioengineering Microalgae: Sustainable Applications in Biomass Production, Carbon Capture, and Industrial Wastewater Valorization

by Michele Greque Morais, Gabriel Martins Rosa, Luiza Moraes, Larissa Chivanski Lopes and Jorge Alberto Vieira Costa

Membranes 2025, 15(7), 205; https://doi.org/10.3390/membranes15070205 - 11 Jul 2025

Abstract

In accordance with growing environmental pressures and the demand for sustainable industrial practices, membrane technologies have emerged as key enablers for increasing efficiency, reducing emissions, and supporting circular processes across multiple sectors. This review focuses on the integration among microalgae-based systems, offering innovative [...] Read more.

In accordance with growing environmental pressures and the demand for sustainable industrial practices, membrane technologies have emerged as key enablers for increasing efficiency, reducing emissions, and supporting circular processes across multiple sectors. This review focuses on the integration among microalgae-based systems, offering innovative and sustainable solutions for biomass production, carbon capture, and industrial wastewater treatment. In cultivation, membrane photobioreactors (MPBRs) have demonstrated biomass productivity up to nine times greater than that of conventional systems and significant reductions in water (above 75%) and energy (approximately 0.75 kWh/m³) footprints. For carbon capture, hollow fiber membranes and hybrid configurations increase CO₂ transfer rates by up to 300%, achieving utilization efficiencies above 85%. Coupling membrane systems with industrial effluents has enabled nutrient removal efficiencies of up to 97% for nitrogen and 93% for phosphorus, contributing to environmental remediation and resource recovery. This review also highlights recent innovations, such as self-forming dynamic membranes, magnetically induced vibration systems, antifouling surface modifications, and advanced control strategies that optimize process performance and energy use. These advancements position membrane-based microalgae systems as promising platforms for carbon-neutral biorefineries and sustainable industrial operations, particularly in the oil and gas, mining, and environmental technology sectors, which are aligned with global climate goals and the UN Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Advances in Oil & Gas, Mining, and Environmental Technologies: Innovations in Membrane and Porous Material Technologies)

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13 pages, 1936 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Amyloid β 1-42 Can Form Ion Channels as Small as Gramicidin in Model Lipid Membranes

by Yue Xu, Irina Bukhteeva, Yurii Potsiluienko and Zoya Leonenko

Membranes 2025, 15(7), 204; https://doi.org/10.3390/membranes15070204 - 8 Jul 2025

Abstract

The amyloid-beta 1-42 (Aβ1-42) oligomers are the most cytotoxic species of the amyloid family and play a key role in the pathology of Alzheimer’s Disease (AD). They have been shown to damage cellular membranes, but the exact mechanism is complex and not well [...] Read more.

The amyloid-beta 1-42 (Aβ1-42) oligomers are the most cytotoxic species of the amyloid family and play a key role in the pathology of Alzheimer’s Disease (AD). They have been shown to damage cellular membranes, but the exact mechanism is complex and not well understood. Multiple routes of membrane damage have been proposed, including the formation of pores and ion channels. In this work, we study the membrane damage induced by Aβ1-42 oligomers using black lipid membrane (BLM) electrophysiology and compare their action with gramicidin, known to form ion channels. Our data show that Aβ1-42 oligomers can induce a variety of damage in the lipid membranes composed of 1,2-dipalmitoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine (DPPC), 1-palmitoyl-2-oleoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine (POPC), and cholesterol (CHOL), including small ion channels, similar to the gramicidin channels, with an average inner diameter smaller than 5 Å. These channels have a short retaining time in lipid membranes, suggesting that they are highly dynamic. Our studies provide new insights into the mechanism of membrane damage caused by Aβ1-42 oligomers and extend the current perception of the Aβ channelopathy hypothesis. It provides a more in-depth understanding of the molecular mechanism by which small Aβ oligomers induce cytotoxicity by interacting with lipid membranes in AD. Full article

(This article belongs to the Collection Feature Papers in Membranes in Life Sciences)

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26 pages, 10819 KiB

Open AccessReview

Recent Advances in Thermochemical Water Splitting for Hydrogen Production Using Mixed Ionic-Electronic Conducting Membrane Reactors

by Jingjun Li, Qing Yang, Jie Liu, Qiangchao Sun and Hongwei Cheng

Membranes 2025, 15(7), 203; https://doi.org/10.3390/membranes15070203 - 4 Jul 2025

Abstract

Under the accelerating global energy restructuring and the deepening carbon neutrality strategy, hydrogen energy has emerged with increasing strategic value as a zero-carbon secondary energy carrier. Water electrolysis technology based on renewable energy is regarded as an ideal pathway for large-scale green hydrogen [...] Read more.

Under the accelerating global energy restructuring and the deepening carbon neutrality strategy, hydrogen energy has emerged with increasing strategic value as a zero-carbon secondary energy carrier. Water electrolysis technology based on renewable energy is regarded as an ideal pathway for large-scale green hydrogen production. However, polymer electrolyte membrane (PEM) conventional water electrolysis faces dual constraints in economic feasibility and scalability due to its high electrical energy consumption and reliance on noble metal catalysts. The mixed ionic-electronic conducting oxygen transport membrane (MIEC–OTM) reactor technology offers an innovative solution to this energy efficiency-cost paradox due to its thermo-electrochemical synergistic energy conversion mechanism and process integration. This not only overcomes the thermodynamic equilibrium limitations in traditional electrolysis but also reduces electrical energy demand by effectively coupling with medium- to high-temperature heat sources such as industrial waste heat and solar thermal energy. Therefore, this review, grounded in the physicochemical mechanisms of oxygen transport membrane reactors, systematically examines the influence of key factors, including membrane material design, catalytic interface optimization, and parameter synergy, on hydrogen production efficiency. Furthermore, it proposes a roadmap and breakthrough directions for industrial applications, focusing on enhancing intrinsic material stability, designing multi-field coupled reactors, and optimizing system energy efficiency. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Membrane Applications for Energy)

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16 pages, 9013 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Hybrid Membranes Based on Track-Etched Membranes and Nanofiber Layer for Water–Oil Separation and Membrane Distillation of Low-Level Liquid Radioactive Wastes and Salt Solutions

by Arman B. Yeszhanov, Aigerim Kh. Shakayeva, Maxim V. Zdorovets, Daryn B. Borgekov, Artem L. Kozlovskiy, Pavel V. Kharkin, Dmitriy A. Zheltov, Marina V. Krasnopyorova, Olgun Güven and Ilya V. Korolkov

Membranes 2025, 15(7), 202; https://doi.org/10.3390/membranes15070202 - 4 Jul 2025

Abstract

In this work, hybrid membranes were fabricated by depositing polyvinyl chloride (PVC) fibers onto PET track-etched membranes (TeMs) using the electrospinning technique. The resulting structures exhibited enhanced hydrophobicity, with contact angles reaching 155°, making them suitable for applications in both water–oil mixture separation [...] Read more.

In this work, hybrid membranes were fabricated by depositing polyvinyl chloride (PVC) fibers onto PET track-etched membranes (TeMs) using the electrospinning technique. The resulting structures exhibited enhanced hydrophobicity, with contact angles reaching 155°, making them suitable for applications in both water–oil mixture separation and membrane distillation processes involving low-level liquid radioactive waste (LLLRW), saline solutions, and natural water sources. The use of hybrids of TeMs and nanofiber membranes has significantly increased productivity compared to TeMs only, while maintaining a high degree of purification. Permeate obtained after MD of LLLRW and river water was analyzed by conductometry and the atomic emission spectroscopy (for Sr, Cs, Al, Mo, Co, Sb, Ca, Fe, Mg, K, and Na). The activity of radioisotopes (for ¹²⁴Sb, ⁶⁵Zn, ⁶⁰Co, ⁵⁷Co, ¹³⁷Cs, and ¹³⁴Cs) was evaluated by gamma-ray spectroscopy. In most cases, the degree of rejection was between 95 and 100% with a water flux of up to 17.3 kg/m²·h. These membranes were also tested in the separation of cetane–water emulsion with productivity up to 47.3 L/m²·min at vacuum pressure of 700 mbar and 15.2 L/m²·min at vacuum pressure of 900 mbar. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Membrane Applications for Water Treatment)

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17 pages, 5613 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Hierarchical Affinity Engineering in Amine-Functionalized Silica Membranes for Enhanced CO₂ Separation: A Combined Experimental and Theoretical Study

by Zhenghua Guo, Qian Li, Kaidi Guo and Liang Yu

Membranes 2025, 15(7), 201; https://doi.org/10.3390/membranes15070201 - 2 Jul 2025

Abstract

Excessive carbon dioxide (CO₂) emissions represent a critical challenge in mitigating global warming, necessitating advanced separation technologies for efficient carbon capture. Silica-based membranes have attracted significant attention due to their exceptional chemical, thermal, and mechanical stability under harsh operating conditions. In [...] Read more.

Excessive carbon dioxide (CO₂) emissions represent a critical challenge in mitigating global warming, necessitating advanced separation technologies for efficient carbon capture. Silica-based membranes have attracted significant attention due to their exceptional chemical, thermal, and mechanical stability under harsh operating conditions. In this study, we introduce a novel layered hybrid membrane designed based on amine-functionalized silica precursors, where a distinct affinity gradient is engineered by incorporating two types of amine-functionalized materials. The top layer was composed of high-affinity amine species to maximize CO₂ sorption, while a sublayer with milder affinity facilitated smooth CO₂ diffusion, thereby establishing a continuous solubility gradient across the membrane. A dual approach, combining comprehensive experimental testing and rigorous theoretical modeling, was employed to elucidate the underlying CO₂ transport mechanisms. Our results reveal that the hierarchical structure significantly enhances the intrinsic driving force for CO₂ permeation, leading to superior separation performance compared to conventional homogeneous facilitated transport membranes. This study not only provides critical insights into the design principles of affinity gradient membranes but also demonstrates their potential for scalable, high-performance CO₂ separation in industrial applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Membrane Applications for Gas Separation)

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24 pages, 1083 KiB

Open AccessReview

Membrane-Based CO₂ Capture Across Industrial Sectors: Process Conditions, Case Studies, and Implementation Insights

by Jin Woo Park, Soyeon Heo, Jeong-Gu Yeo, Sunghoon Lee, Jin-Kuk Kim and Jung Hyun Lee

Membranes 2025, 15(7), 200; https://doi.org/10.3390/membranes15070200 - 2 Jul 2025

Abstract

Membrane-based CO₂ capture has emerged as a promising technology for industrial decarbonization, offering advantages in energy efficiency, modularity, and environmental performance. This review presents a comprehensive assessment of membrane processes applied across major emission-intensive sectors, including power generation, cement, steelmaking, and biogas [...] Read more.

Membrane-based CO₂ capture has emerged as a promising technology for industrial decarbonization, offering advantages in energy efficiency, modularity, and environmental performance. This review presents a comprehensive assessment of membrane processes applied across major emission-intensive sectors, including power generation, cement, steelmaking, and biogas upgrading. Drawing from pilot-scale demonstrations and simulation-based studies, we evaluate how flue gas characteristics, such as CO₂ concentration, pressure, temperature, and impurity composition, govern membrane selection, process design, and operational feasibility. Case studies highlight the technical viability of membrane systems under a wide range of industrial conditions, from low-CO₂ NGCC flue gas to high-pressure syngas and CO₂-rich cement emissions. Despite these advances, this review discusses the key remaining challenges for the commercialization of membrane-based CO₂ capture and includes perspectives on process design and techno-economic evaluation. The insights compiled in this review are intended to support the design of application-specific membrane systems and guide future efforts toward scalable and economically viable CO₂ capture across industrial sectors. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Novel Membranes for Carbon Capture and Conversion)

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28 pages, 3292 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Optimization of the Quality of Reclaimed Water from Urban Wastewater Treatment in Arid Region: A Zero Liquid Discharge Pilot Study Using Membrane and Thermal Technologies

by Maria Avramidi, Constantinos Loizou, Maria Kyriazi, Dimitris Malamis, Katerina Kalli, Angelos Hadjicharalambous and Constantina Kollia

Membranes 2025, 15(7), 199; https://doi.org/10.3390/membranes15070199 - 1 Jul 2025

Abstract

With water availability being one of the world’s major challenges, this study aims to propose a Zero Liquid Discharge (ZLD) system for treating saline effluents from an urban wastewater treatment plant (UWWTP), thereby supplementing into the existing water cycle. The system, which employs [...] Read more.

With water availability being one of the world’s major challenges, this study aims to propose a Zero Liquid Discharge (ZLD) system for treating saline effluents from an urban wastewater treatment plant (UWWTP), thereby supplementing into the existing water cycle. The system, which employs membrane (nanofiltration and reverse osmosis) and thermal technologies (multi-effect distillation evaporator and vacuum crystallizer), has been installed and operated in Cyprus at Larnaca’s WWTP, for the desalination of the tertiary treated water, producing high-quality reclaimed water. The nanofiltration (NF) unit at the plant operated with an inflow concentration ranging from 2500 to 3000 ppm. The performance of the installed NF90-4040 membranes was evaluated based on permeability and flux. Among two NF operation series, the second—operating at 75–85% recovery and 2500 mg/L TDS—showed improved membrane performance, with stable permeability (7.32 × 10⁻¹⁰ to 7.77 × 10⁻¹⁰ m·s⁻¹·Pa⁻¹) and flux (6.34 × 10⁻⁴ to 6.67 × 10⁻⁴ m/s). The optimal NF operating rate was 75% recovery, which achieved high divalent ion rejection (more than 99.5%). The reverse osmosis (RO) unit operated in a two-pass configuration, achieving water recoveries of 90–94% in the first pass and 76–84% in the second. This setup resulted in high rejection rates of approximately 99.99% for all major ions (Cl⁻, Na⁺, Ca²⁺, and Mg²⁺), reducing the permeate total dissolved solids (TDS) to below 35 mg/L. The installed multi-effect distillation (MED) unit operated under vacuum and under various inflow and steady-state conditions, achieving over 60% water recovery and producing high-quality distillate water (TDS < 12 mg/L). The vacuum crystallizer (VC) further concentrated the MED concentrate stream (MEDC) and the NF concentrate stream (NFC) flows, resulting in distilled water and recovered salts. The MEDC process produced salts with a purity of up to 81% NaCl., while the NFC stream produced mixed salts containing approximately 46% calcium salts (mainly as sulfates and chlorides), 13% magnesium salts (mainly as sulfates and chlorides), and 38% sodium salts. Overall, the ZLD system consumed 12 kWh/m³, with thermal units accounting for around 86% of this usage. The RO unit proved to be the most energy-efficient component, contributing 71% of the total water recovery. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Applications of Membrane Distillation in Water Treatment and Reuse)

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14 pages, 2508 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Enhancement of Efficiency in an Ex Situ Coprecipitation Method for Superparamagnetic Bacterial Cellulose Hybrid Materials

by Thaís Cavalcante de Souza, Italo José Batista Durval, Hugo Moraes Meira, Andréa Fernanda de Santana Costa, Eduardo Padrón Hernández, Attilio Converti, Glória Maria Vinhas and Leonie Asfora Sarubbo

Membranes 2025, 15(7), 198; https://doi.org/10.3390/membranes15070198 - 1 Jul 2025

Abstract

Superparamagnetic magnetite nanoparticles (Fe₃O₄) have garnered considerable interest due to their unique magnetic properties and potential for integration into multifunctional biomaterials. In particular, their incorporation into bacterial cellulose (BC) matrices offers a promising route for developing sustainable and high-performance [...] Read more.

Superparamagnetic magnetite nanoparticles (Fe₃O₄) have garnered considerable interest due to their unique magnetic properties and potential for integration into multifunctional biomaterials. In particular, their incorporation into bacterial cellulose (BC) matrices offers a promising route for developing sustainable and high-performance magnetic composites. Numerous studies have explored BC-magnetite systems; however, innovations combining ex situ coprecipitation synthesis within BC matrices, tailored reagent molar ratios, stirring protocols, and purification processes remain limited. This study aimed to optimize the ex situ coprecipitation method for synthesizing superparamagnetic magnetite nanoparticles embedded in BC membranes, focusing on enhancing particle stability and crystallinity. BC membranes containing varying concentrations of magnetite (40%, 50%, 60%, and 70%) were characterized using X-ray diffraction (XRD), Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and vibrating sample magnetometry (VSM). The resulting magnetic BC membranes demonstrated homogenous dispersion of nanoparticles, improved crystallite size (6.96 nm), and enhanced magnetic saturation (Ms) (50.4 emu/g), compared to previously reported methods. The adoption and synergistic optimization of synthesis parameters—unique to this study—conferred greater control over the physicochemical and magnetic properties of the composites. These findings position the optimized BC-magnetite nanocomposites as highly promising candidates for advanced applications, including electromagnetic interference (EMI) shielding, electronic devices, gas sensors, MRI contrast agents, and targeted drug delivery systems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Membrane Fabrication and Characterization)

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18 pages, 5149 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Construction of Transport Channels by HNTs@ZIF-67 Composites in a Mixed-Matrix Membrane for He/CH₄ Separation

by Jiale Zhang, Huixin Dong, Fei Guo, Huijun Yi, Xiaobin Jiang, Gaohong He and Wu Xiao

Membranes 2025, 15(7), 197; https://doi.org/10.3390/membranes15070197 - 30 Jun 2025

Abstract

In this work, HNTs@ZIF-67 composites were synthesized using the in situ growth method and incorporated into 6FDA-TFMB to prepare mixed-matrix membranes (MMMs). Scanning electron microscope (SEM) and transmission electron microscope (TEM) proved that the HNTs@ZIF-67 composite not only retained the hollow structure of [...] Read more.

In this work, HNTs@ZIF-67 composites were synthesized using the in situ growth method and incorporated into 6FDA-TFMB to prepare mixed-matrix membranes (MMMs). Scanning electron microscope (SEM) and transmission electron microscope (TEM) proved that the HNTs@ZIF-67 composite not only retained the hollow structure of HNTs, but also formed a continuous ZIF-67 transport layer on the surface of HNTs. The results of gas permeability experiments showed that with the increase in HNTs@ZIF-67 incorporation, the He permeability and He/CH₄ selectivity of MMMs showed a trend of increasing first and then decreasing. When the loading is 5 wt%, the He permeability and He/CH₄ selectivity of MMMs reach 116 Barrer and 305, which are 22.11% and 79.41% higher than the pure 6FDA-TFMB membrane. The results of density functional theory (DFT) and Monte Carlo (MC) calculations reveal that He diffuses more easily inside ZIF-67, HNTs and 6FDA-TFMB than CH₄, and ZIF-67 shows larger adsorption energy with He than HNTs and 6FDA-TFMB, indicating that He is easily adsorbed by ZIF-67 in MMMs. Based on experimental and molecular simulation results, the mechanism of HNTs@ZIF-67 improving the He/CH₄ separation performance of MMMs was summarized. With the advantage of a smaller molecular kinetic diameter, He can diffuse through ZIF-67 on the tube orifice of HNTs@ZIF-67 and enter the HNTs’ hollow tube for rapid transmission. At the same time, He can also be rapidly transferred in the continuous ZIF-67 transport channel layer, which improves the He permeability and the He/CH₄ selectivity of MMMs. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue High-Performance Composite Membrane for Gas Separation and Capture)

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19 pages, 3826 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Highly Conductive PEO/PAN-Based SN-Containing Electrospun Membranes as Solid Polymer Electrolytes

by Anna Maria Kirchberger, Patrick Walke, Janio Venturini, Leo van Wüllen and Tom Nilges

Membranes 2025, 15(7), 196; https://doi.org/10.3390/membranes15070196 - 30 Jun 2025

Abstract

Solid polymer electrolytes (SPEs) have garnered significant attention due to their potential in all-solid-state batteries (ASSBs). However, adoption remains constrained by challenges such as low thermal stability and limited ionic conductivity. Here, we report on an electrospun (PAN/PEO)- conductive salt (LiBF₄) [...] Read more.

Solid polymer electrolytes (SPEs) have garnered significant attention due to their potential in all-solid-state batteries (ASSBs). However, adoption remains constrained by challenges such as low thermal stability and limited ionic conductivity. Here, we report on an electrospun (PAN/PEO)- conductive salt (LiBF₄) system, where the influence of varying polyacrylonitrile (PAN) and polyethylene oxide (PEO) ratios, along with different plasticizer concentrations, is evaluated. Notably, the 50:50 PAN/PEO sample exhibited the highest ionic conductivity, reaching 1∙10⁻² S/cm at 55 °C. This system also balanced conductivity and processability. Succinonitrile (SN) significantly influenced the morphology and conductivity. Samples with increased SN content showed enhanced capacity in symmetrical cells, achieving ~140 mAs/cm² for an 18:9:1 polymer (PAN/PEO):SN:conductive salt (LiBF₄) composition. The enhanced lithium-ion conductivity of the electrospun blend is attributed to the deliberate use of an unmixable PAN–PEO system. Their immiscibility creates well-defined interfacial regions within fibers, acting as efficient lithium-ion pathways. These findings support electrospun polymer blends as promising candidates for high-performance SPEs for ASSB development. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Ion Conducting Membranes and Energy Storage)

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19 pages, 4963 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Fouling Mitigation of Silicon Carbide Membranes by Pre-Deposited Dynamic Membranes for the Separation of Oil-in-Water Emulsions

by Xin Wu, Minfeng Fang and Guanghui Li

Membranes 2025, 15(7), 195; https://doi.org/10.3390/membranes15070195 - 30 Jun 2025

Abstract

Membrane fouling poses a significant challenge in the widespread adoption and cost-effective operation of membrane technology. Among different strategies to mitigate fouling, dynamic membrane (DM) technology has emerged as a promising one for effective control and mitigation of membrane fouling. Silicon carbide (SiC) [...] Read more.

Membrane fouling poses a significant challenge in the widespread adoption and cost-effective operation of membrane technology. Among different strategies to mitigate fouling, dynamic membrane (DM) technology has emerged as a promising one for effective control and mitigation of membrane fouling. Silicon carbide (SiC) membranes have attracted considerable attention as membrane materials due to their remarkable advantages, yet membrane fouling is still inevitable in challenging separation tasks, such as oil-in-water (O/W) emulsion separation, and thus effective mitigation of membrane fouling is essential to maximize their economic viability. This study investigates the use of pre-deposited oxide DMs to mitigate the fouling of SiC membranes during the separation of O/W emulsions. Among five screened oxides (Fe₂O₃, SiO₂, TiO₂, ZrO₂, Al₂O₃), SiO₂ emerged as the most effective DM material due to its favorable combination of particle size, negative surface charge, hydrophilicity, and underwater oleophobicity, leading to minimized oil droplet adhesion via electrostatic repulsion to DM surfaces and enhanced antifouling performance. Parameter optimization in dead-end mode revealed a DM deposition amount of 300 g/m², a transmembrane pressure (TMP) of 0.25 bar, and a backwashing pressure of 2 bar as ideal conditions, achieving stable oil rejection (~93%) and high pure water flux recovery ratios (FRR, >90%). Cross-flow filtration outperformed dead-end mode, maintaining normalized permeate fluxes of ~0.4–0.5 (cf. ~0.2 in dead-end) and slower FRR decline, attributed to reduced concentration polarization and enhanced DM stability under tangential flow. Optimal cross-flow conditions included a DM preparation time of 20 min, a TMP of 0.25 bar, and a flow velocity of 0.34 m/s. The results establish SiO₂-based DMs as a cost-effective strategy to enhance SiC membrane longevity and efficiency in O/W emulsion separation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Membrane Applications for Water Treatment)

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14 pages, 2980 KiB

Open AccessCommunication

Simultaneously Promoting Proton Conductivity and Mechanical Stability of SPEEK Membrane by Incorporating Porous g–C₃N₄

by Xiaoyao Wang and Benbing Shi

Membranes 2025, 15(7), 194; https://doi.org/10.3390/membranes15070194 - 29 Jun 2025

Abstract

Proton exchange membranes are widely used in environmentally friendly applications such as fuel cells and electrochemical hydrogen compression. In these applications, an ideal proton exchange membrane should have both excellent proton conductivity and mechanical strength. Polymer proton exchange membranes, such as sulfonated poly(ether [...] Read more.

Proton exchange membranes are widely used in environmentally friendly applications such as fuel cells and electrochemical hydrogen compression. In these applications, an ideal proton exchange membrane should have both excellent proton conductivity and mechanical strength. Polymer proton exchange membranes, such as sulfonated poly(ether ether ketone) (SPEEK) membranes with high ion exchange capacity, can lead to higher proton conductivity. However, the ionic groups may reduce the interaction between polymer segments, lower the membrane’s mechanical strength, and even cause it to dissolve in water as the temperature exceeds 55 °C. The porous graphitic C₃N₄ (Pg–C₃N₄) nanosheet is an important two–dimensional polymeric carbon–based material and has a high content of –NH₂ and –NH– groups, which can interact with the sulfonic acid groups in the sulfonated SPEEK polymer, form a more continuous proton transfer channel, and inhibit the movement of the polymer segment, leading to higher proton conductivity and mechanical strength. In this study, we found that a SPEEK membrane containing 3% Pg–C₃N₄ nanosheets achieves the optimized proton conductivity of 138 mS/cm (80 °C and 100% RH) and a mechanical strength of 74.1 MPa, improving both proton conductivity and mechanical strength by over 50% compared to the SPEEK membrane. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Membranes for Fuel Cells and Redox Flow Batteries)

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36 pages, 6029 KiB

Open AccessReview

Research Progress of Computational Fluid Dynamics in Mixed Ionic–Electronic Conducting Oxygen-Permeable Membranes

by Jun Liu, Jing Zhao, Yulu Liu, Yongfan Zhu, Wanglin Zhou, Zhenbin Gu, Guangru Zhang and Zhengkun Liu

Membranes 2025, 15(7), 193; https://doi.org/10.3390/membranes15070193 - 27 Jun 2025

Abstract

Mixed ionic–electronic conducting (MIEC) oxygen-permeable membranes have emerged as a frontier in oxygen separation technology due to their high efficiency, low energy consumption, and broad application potential. In recent years, computational fluid dynamics (CFD) has become a pivotal tool in advancing MIEC membrane [...] Read more.

Mixed ionic–electronic conducting (MIEC) oxygen-permeable membranes have emerged as a frontier in oxygen separation technology due to their high efficiency, low energy consumption, and broad application potential. In recent years, computational fluid dynamics (CFD) has become a pivotal tool in advancing MIEC membrane technology, offering precise insights into the intricate mechanisms of oxygen permeation, heat transfer, and mass transfer through numerical simulations of coupled multiphysics phenomena. In this review, we comprehensively explore the application of CFD in MIEC membrane research, heat and mass transfer analysis, reactor design optimization, and the enhancement of membrane module performance. Additionally, we delve into how CFD, through multiscale modeling and parameter optimization, improves separation efficiency and facilitates practical engineering applications. We also highlight the challenges in current CFD research, such as high computational costs, parameter uncertainties, and model complexities, while discussing the potential of emerging technologies, such as machine learning, to enhance CFD modeling capabilities. This study underscores CFD’s critical role in bridging the fundamental research and industrial applications of MIEC membranes, providing theoretical guidance and practical insights for innovation in clean energy and sustainable technologies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Membrane Applications for Energy)

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