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Earth, Volume 5, Issue 4 (December 2024) – 12 articles

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23 pages, 2150 KiB  
Article
Natural Hazards and Climate Change Impacts on Food Security and Rural–Urban Livelihoods in Mozambique—A Bibliometric Analysis and Framework
by Alexander Fekete
Earth 2024, 5(4), 761-783; https://doi.org/10.3390/earth5040040 (registering DOI) - 2 Nov 2024
Viewed by 460
Abstract
Mozambique is confronted with numerous risks related to food security and natural disasters. The study conducted a literature review on natural hazards and food security. This can help to identify gaps and further areas of research. A bibliometric analysis was conducted using standardized [...] Read more.
Mozambique is confronted with numerous risks related to food security and natural disasters. The study conducted a literature review on natural hazards and food security. This can help to identify gaps and further areas of research. A bibliometric analysis was conducted using standardized text search terms, and the VOSviewer tool was used to analyze over 7000 scientific articles and cluster over 60,000 keyword co-occurrences. The results show that research on natural hazards for food security needs to be integrated. The priority topic of disasters focuses on specific hazards such as climate change, floods, and hurricanes, which are also linked to demographic and other social variables. More studies on food security, such as droughts, sustainable development, and other human and social conditions, are being conducted. Resilience as an emerging research paradigm needs to be addressed in comparison. One result is an analytical framework on impacts on food security in the context of disaster risk, based on the empirical findings of the literature review. It shows how everyday risks such as disease or food security can be conceptually better linked to natural hazards and resilience. It shows that further research is needed on the interlinkages of multiple risks, of which Mozambique is an outstanding example. The methodology presented is also applied to provide a framework for linking multiple risks to food security and natural hazards. The innovative dimension of the research is that this inquiry constitutes one of the pioneering attempts to conduct a bibliometric analysis of the linkages between natural hazards, food security, and resilience in Mozambique. Another noteworthy contribution is introducing a novel analytical framework that integrates food security and disaster risks. Full article
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18 pages, 1822 KiB  
Article
Assessment of Potentially Toxic Elements and Their Risks in Water and Sediments of Kitengure Stream, Buhweju Plateau, Uganda
by Andrew Kaggwa, Denis Byamugisha, Timothy Omara and Emmanuel Ntambi
Earth 2024, 5(4), 743-760; https://doi.org/10.3390/earth5040039 (registering DOI) - 1 Nov 2024
Viewed by 282
Abstract
Artisanal and small-scale gold mining (ASCGM) provides a livelihood for many communities worldwide, but it has profound environmental impacts, especially on the quality of nearby water resources. This study assessed the impacts of ASCGM on the physicochemical quality of water and sediments from [...] Read more.
Artisanal and small-scale gold mining (ASCGM) provides a livelihood for many communities worldwide, but it has profound environmental impacts, especially on the quality of nearby water resources. This study assessed the impacts of ASCGM on the physicochemical quality of water and sediments from Kitengure stream, Buhweju Plateau, Western Uganda. Surface water (n = 94) and superficial sediments (n = 36) were sampled between October 2021 and January 2022 from three different sections of Kitengure stream (upstream, midstream around the ASCGM area, and downstream). The samples were analyzed for various physicochemical parameters and selected potentially toxic elements (PTXEs), namely: zinc (Zn), cadmium (Cd), lead (Pb), copper (Cu), and arsenic (As). A health risk assessment was performed using the hazard index and incremental life cancer risk methods. Pearson’s bivariate correlation, geoaccumulation, and pollution indices were used to establish the sources and potential risks that PTXEs in sediments could pose to aquatic organisms. The results indicated that water in Kitengure stream draining the ASCGM site was highly colored (1230.00 ± 134.09 Pt-co units; range = 924.00–1576.00 Pt-co units) and turbid (194.75 ± 23.51 NTU; range = 148–257 NTU). Among the five analyzed PTXEs, only Cd (0.082 ± 0.200–0.092 ± 0.001 mg/L) and Cu (0.022 ± 0.004–0.058 ± 0.005 mg/L) were detected in water, and Cd was above the permissible limit of 0.003 mg/L for potable water. Upon calculating the water quality index (WQI), the water samples were categorized as very poor for upstream samples (WQI = 227) and unfit for use (WQI = 965 and 432) for midstream and downstream samples, respectively. In sediments, the mean concentration ranges of Zn, Cd, Pb, Cu, and As were 0.991 ± 0.038–1.161 ± 0.051, 0.121 ± 0.014–0.145 ± 0.025, 0.260 ± 0.027–0.770 ± 0.037, 0.107 ± 0.017–0.422 ± 0.056, and 0.022 ± 0.002–0.073 ± 0.003 mg/kg, respectively, and they were all below their average shale, toxicity reference, and consensus-based sediment quality guidelines. Geoaccumulation indices suggested that there was no enrichment of the elements in the sedimentary phase and the associated ecological risks were low. However, there were potential non-carcinogenic health risks that maybe experienced by children who drink water from Kitengure stream. No discernable health risks were likely due to dermal contact with water and sediments during dredging or panning activities. It is recommended that further studies should determine the total mercury content of water, sediments, and crops grown along the stream as well as the associated ecological and human health risks. Full article
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19 pages, 417 KiB  
Systematic Review
Human Health Adaptation Strategies to Climate-Induced Extreme Weather Events: A Systematic Review
by Teerachai Amnuaylojaroen and Nichapa Parasin
Earth 2024, 5(4), 724-742; https://doi.org/10.3390/earth5040038 - 27 Oct 2024
Viewed by 715
Abstract
This systematic review evaluates the health impacts of climate-induced extreme weather events and the effectiveness of various adaptation strategies. Seventeen studies were analyzed, focusing on adaptation measures such as agricultural adjustments, renewable energy, ecosystem restoration, infrastructure redesign, and public health interventions. Significant health [...] Read more.
This systematic review evaluates the health impacts of climate-induced extreme weather events and the effectiveness of various adaptation strategies. Seventeen studies were analyzed, focusing on adaptation measures such as agricultural adjustments, renewable energy, ecosystem restoration, infrastructure redesign, and public health interventions. Significant health impacts were identified, including increased morbidity and mortality due to heatwaves, floods, and vector-borne diseases. The success of adaptation strategies was found to be highly dependent on local context, implementation capacity, and sustainability. This review underscores gaps in data quality, the generalizability of findings, and the integration of adaptation measures into public health policies. An urgent need exists for interdisciplinary approaches and community engagement to ensure sustainable, equitable health outcomes in the face of climate change. Future research should focus on these areas to strengthen public health resilience. Full article
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17 pages, 7547 KiB  
Article
Optimizing the Migratory Environment of Wildebeests in the Maasai Mara Reserve with a New Ecological Corridor and Customized Buffer Zone Model
by Xinrui Fan, Kuok Ho Daniel Tang, Shoushuo Liu, Yang Liu and Charles Ken Smith
Earth 2024, 5(4), 707-723; https://doi.org/10.3390/earth5040037 - 27 Oct 2024
Viewed by 408
Abstract
Conflicts between wildlife and humans are a major ecological issue. During migration, wildlife, especially wildebeest, often encounter significant environmental pressures from human activities. However, relatively few studies have been conducted to provide a concise, quantitative description of wildebeest migration in the Maasai Mara [...] Read more.
Conflicts between wildlife and humans are a major ecological issue. During migration, wildlife, especially wildebeest, often encounter significant environmental pressures from human activities. However, relatively few studies have been conducted to provide a concise, quantitative description of wildebeest migration in the Maasai Mara National Reserve (MMNR). In this study, we identified changes in the location of the wildebeest population over time in the Maasai Mara National Reserve. We then used a K-means algorithm (R2 = 0.926) to fit coordinates representing the changes in the location of the wildebeests to enable a quantitative representation of their migration routes. Subsequently, we developed an environmental stress model to assess the changes in environmental stresses faced by wildebeests along their migration routes. We proposed a model of “migratory ecological corridors and customized buffer zones” and determined the response coefficient T_res. We used the response coefficients T_res = 0.06, 0.09, and 0.12 as the critical values to categorize the areas along the routes into weak, medium, and strong response regions. Then, we set the width of the buffer zones on both sides of the routes as 5 km, 7 km, and 9 km, respectively, and evaluated the buffer effect. This type of model achieved a good effect of reducing the environmental pressure by 54.06%. The “Migratory Ecological Corridor and Customized Buffer Zone” model demonstrated a high degree of economic feasibility while showing good practicality in mitigating the environmental conflicts between humans and migratory wildlife. The variability in the environmental pressures across the region indicates that the Nairobi and Nakuru districts may be undergoing a particular stage of urbanization that unleashes potential threats to the migration of wildebeests. Further research is essential to assess the feasibility of larger buffer zones. Full article
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17 pages, 786 KiB  
Article
Early Desertification Risk in Advanced Economies: Summarizing Past, Present and Future Trends in Italy
by Marco Maialetti, Rares Halbac-Cotoara-Zamfir, Ioannis Vardopoulos and Luca Salvati
Earth 2024, 5(4), 690-706; https://doi.org/10.3390/earth5040036 (registering DOI) - 26 Oct 2024
Viewed by 451
Abstract
Being located in the middle of Southern Europe, and thus likely representing a particularly dynamic member of Mediterranean Europe, Italy has experienced a sudden increase in early desertification risk because of multiple factors of change. Long-term research initiatives have provided relatively well-known examples [...] Read more.
Being located in the middle of Southern Europe, and thus likely representing a particularly dynamic member of Mediterranean Europe, Italy has experienced a sudden increase in early desertification risk because of multiple factors of change. Long-term research initiatives have provided relatively well-known examples of the continuous assessment of the desertification risk carried out via multiple exercises from different academic and practitioner stakeholders, frequently using the Environmentally Sensitive Area Index (ESAI). This composite index based on a large number of elementary variables and individual indicators—spanning from the climate to soil quality and from vegetation cover to land-use intensity—facilitated the comprehensive, long-term monitoring of the early desertification risk at disaggregated spatial scales, being of some relevance for policy implementation. The present study summarizes the main evidence of environmental monitoring in Italy by analyzing a relatively long time series of ESAI scores using administrative boundaries for a better representation of the biophysical and socioeconomic trends of interest for early desertification monitoring. The descriptive analysis of the ESAI scores offers a refined representation of economic spaces in the country during past (1960–2010 on a decadal basis), present (2020), and future (2030, exploring four different scenarios, S1–S4) times. Taken as a proxy of the early desertification risk in advanced economies, the ESAI scores increased over time as a result of worse climate regimes (namely, drier and warmer conditions), landscape change, and rising human pressure that exacerbated related processes, such as soil erosion, salinization, compaction, sealing, water scarcity, wildfires, and overgrazing. Full article
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20 pages, 5610 KiB  
Article
Susceptibility to Translational Landslides in Ecuador Caused by Changes in Electrical Permittivity of Andepts Soils Using Software-Defined Radar for Detection
by Diego Veloz-Cherrez, Marcelo Ojeda, David Moreno and Johanna Del Pozo
Earth 2024, 5(4), 670-689; https://doi.org/10.3390/earth5040035 - 18 Oct 2024
Viewed by 374
Abstract
Landslides are widespread and global geological disasters, affecting millions of people and causing numerous deaths each year. Despite technological advances, it is still difficult to accurately prevent landslides. Due to its geography and climatic conditions, Ecuador has been significantly affected by landslides, and [...] Read more.
Landslides are widespread and global geological disasters, affecting millions of people and causing numerous deaths each year. Despite technological advances, it is still difficult to accurately prevent landslides. Due to its geography and climatic conditions, Ecuador has been significantly affected by landslides, and the city of Penipe remains one of the most affected. For this reason, a low-cost SDRadar system was designed to detect translational landslide risk levels by measuring the electrical permittivity of Andepts subtype soils. Controlled laboratory tests were performed with soil samples to relate permittivity values to landslide risk levels, and subsequently field tests were carried out in Penipe to determine the efficiency of the methodology. The results showed that moderate humidity is important for soil compaction, regardless of the degree of sloping. However, with permittivity values lower than 1.5 or higher than 20, the risk of landslides is very high on slopes greater than 45°. These results were compared with records of the serious landslides that occurred in June 2024 in Ecuador, in which rainfall intensity values similar to those obtained in this study were recorded, suggesting that this system can prevent future disasters. Full article
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16 pages, 11944 KiB  
Article
Climate Benefit Assessment of Doubling the Extent of Windbreak Plantations in Hungary
by Éva Király, András Bidló, Zsolt Keserű and Attila Borovics
Earth 2024, 5(4), 654-669; https://doi.org/10.3390/earth5040034 - 15 Oct 2024
Viewed by 389
Abstract
Agroforestry systems are recognized as sustainable land use practices that foster environmental health and promote adaptive responses to global change. By harnessing the synergies between trees and agricultural activities, agroforestry systems provide multiple benefits, including soil conservation, biodiversity enhancement, and carbon sequestration. Windbreaks [...] Read more.
Agroforestry systems are recognized as sustainable land use practices that foster environmental health and promote adaptive responses to global change. By harnessing the synergies between trees and agricultural activities, agroforestry systems provide multiple benefits, including soil conservation, biodiversity enhancement, and carbon sequestration. Windbreaks form integral elements of Hungarian agricultural landscapes, and the enhanced agroforestry subsidy framework might have a favorable impact on their expansion, underscoring the importance of evaluating their potential for carbon sequestration. In the present study, we assess the implications of doubling the extent of windbreak plantations in Hungary by planting an additional 14,256 hectares of windbreaks. We evaluate the total carbon sequestration and the annual climate change mitigation potential of the new plantations up to 2050. For the modeling, we use the recently developed Windbreak module of the Forest Industry Carbon Model, which is a yield table-based model specific to Hungary and allows for the estimation of living biomass, dead organic matter, and soil carbon balance. We project that new windbreak plantations will sequester 913 kt C by 2050, representing an average annual climate change mitigation potential of 144 kt CO2 eq. Our findings reveal that doubling the extent of windbreak plantations could achieve an extra 5% carbon sequestration in forested areas as compared to business-as-usual (BAU) conditions. We conclude that new windbreak plantations on agricultural field boundaries have substantial climate change mitigation potential, underscoring agroforestry’s contribution to agricultural resilience and achieving Hungary’s climate goals set for the land-use (LULUCF) sector. Full article
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14 pages, 6811 KiB  
Article
Coastal Vulnerability Impact Assessment under Climate Change in the Arctic Coasts of Tromsø, Norway
by Polyxeni Toumasi, George P. Petropoulos, Spyridon E. Detsikas, Kleomenis Kalogeropoulos and Nektarios Georgios Tselos
Earth 2024, 5(4), 640-653; https://doi.org/10.3390/earth5040033 - 14 Oct 2024
Viewed by 449
Abstract
Arctic coastlines are the most vulnerable regions of the Earth, and local communities in those areas are being affected by rising sea levels and temperature. Therefore, Earth Observation combined with up-to-date geoinformation tools offers a dependable, cost-effective, and time-efficient approach to understanding the [...] Read more.
Arctic coastlines are the most vulnerable regions of the Earth, and local communities in those areas are being affected by rising sea levels and temperature. Therefore, Earth Observation combined with up-to-date geoinformation tools offers a dependable, cost-effective, and time-efficient approach to understanding the socioeconomic impact of climate changes in Arctic coastal areas. A promising approach is the Coastal Vulnerability Index (CVI), which takes into account different factors such as geomorphology, sea factors, and shoreline retreat or advance, to estimate the grade of vulnerability of a coastal area. Notwithstanding its potential, its application in the Arctic is still challenging. This study targets to estimate CVI to value the vulnerability of the coastal areas of Norway located in the Arctic. For the application of CVI and specifically for geomorphological and sea factors, data were acquired from international and national institutes. After the collection of all the necessary parameters for CVI was completed, all datasets were imported into a GIS software program (ArcGIS Pro) where the vulnerability classes of CVI were estimated. The results show that most of the coast of Northern Norway is characterized by a low to high degree of vulnerability, while in the island of Tromsø the vulnerability is mainly high and very high. Full article
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17 pages, 7146 KiB  
Article
Agricultural Productivity and Multidimensional Poverty Reduction in Colombia: An Analysis of Coffee, Plantain, and Corn Crops
by Jaime Andrés Betancourt, Gloria Yaneth Florez-Yepes and Yeison Alberto Garcés-Gómez
Earth 2024, 5(4), 623-639; https://doi.org/10.3390/earth5040032 - 11 Oct 2024
Viewed by 571
Abstract
This article presents the correlation between the Multidimensional Poverty Index (MPI) and the area planted, production in tons, and productive yield for various crops in Colombia from 2018 to 2021. The aim of this study is to determine the relationship between agricultural productivity [...] Read more.
This article presents the correlation between the Multidimensional Poverty Index (MPI) and the area planted, production in tons, and productive yield for various crops in Colombia from 2018 to 2021. The aim of this study is to determine the relationship between agricultural productivity and multidimensional poverty in Colombia, focusing on the cultivation of coffee, plantain, and corn. The methodology employed included a literature review through a bibliometric analysis to understand the relationships between the MPI and agricultural production. In the second stage, the agricultural sector statistics for the years 2018 to 2021 and the MPI by regions and departments of Colombia during the same period was systematized. Finally, a quantitative statistical analysis was conducted to establish the correlation of the MPI with the area planted, production in tons, and productive yield for coffee, plantain, and corn crops in Colombia. The MPI identifies those who are deprived in 50% or more of the index’s dimensions as living in extreme poverty. The results show that higher productive yields in the crops analyzed correspond to a lower MPI. Coffee crops have an MPI below 50%; plantain crops have an MPI between 20% and 50%, and for mechanized corn crops, the data show an MPI between 20% and 30%. This demonstrates that coffee, plantain, and corn crops represent an alternative for reducing the MPI in Colombia. Full article
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19 pages, 9898 KiB  
Article
Is Zagreb Green Enough? Influence of Urban Green Spaces on Mitigation of Urban Heat Island: A Satellite-Based Study
by Goran Krsnik
Earth 2024, 5(4), 604-622; https://doi.org/10.3390/earth5040031 - 5 Oct 2024
Viewed by 647
Abstract
The urban heat island phenomenon is a climatic condition in which urbanized areas exhibit higher temperature values than their natural surroundings. This occurs due to an unbalanced energy budget caused by the extensive use of synthetic materials. In such a scenario, urban green [...] Read more.
The urban heat island phenomenon is a climatic condition in which urbanized areas exhibit higher temperature values than their natural surroundings. This occurs due to an unbalanced energy budget caused by the extensive use of synthetic materials. In such a scenario, urban green areas act as stressors to mitigate the intensity of the urban heat island and improve urban well-being. This study analyzes the spatial-temporal characteristics of the urban heat island in Zagreb, Croatia, aiming to examine the role of different types of green infrastructure in mitigating elevated temperature values and facilitating the definition of greener planning strategies. To achieve this, a multitemporal remote sensing- and NDVI-based analysis was conducted for the time series 1984–2014. An urban heat island intensity map was obtained for the selected 30-year period, along with thermal graphs registering land surface temperature values among different city districts. The results reveal significant heterogeneity, displaying variable behavior dependent on the city district. The role of Zagreb’s urban green areas in urban heat island mitigation is evident but largely dependent on urban morphology, construction types, and periods. Urban forests and urban parks play the most significant role in temperature reduction, followed by residential building neighborhoods and extensive neighborhoods consisting of familiar houses with gardens. Continuously built areas, such as the city center and industrial zones, are less prone to registering lower intensity values. Additionally, multitemporal intensity variations based on land use changes are registered in several districts. Full article
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21 pages, 8182 KiB  
Article
Assessment of Active Tectonics Using Geomorphic Indices and Morphometric Parameters in the Setifian Highlands Region
by Riheb Hadji, Hassan Taib, Matteo Gentilucci, Younes Hamed, Rayan Khalil, Basim Asghar, Maurizio Barbieri and Gilberto Pambianchi
Earth 2024, 5(4), 583-603; https://doi.org/10.3390/earth5040030 - 3 Oct 2024
Viewed by 640
Abstract
The present study aims to assess the tectonic activity in the South Setifian allochthonous complex, providing insights into the evolution of the landscape. A morphometric analysis of Jebel Youcef Mountain (JYM) in Eastern Algeria was conducted to assess neotectonic activity. Six quantitative parameters [...] Read more.
The present study aims to assess the tectonic activity in the South Setifian allochthonous complex, providing insights into the evolution of the landscape. A morphometric analysis of Jebel Youcef Mountain (JYM) in Eastern Algeria was conducted to assess neotectonic activity. Six quantitative parameters were analyzed: stream length-gradient index, asymmetric factor, hypsometric integral, valley floor width-to-valley height ratio, index of drainage basin shape, and index of mountain front sinuosity across the 16 river basins in the region. The geomorphic indices are combined into a single index of relative tectonic activity (IRTA), categorized into four classes: very high, high, moderate, and low. The results identified two major lineament sets. The NE-SW lineament set is the dominant structural feature, playing a key role in driving recent geological processes and deformation in the study area. In contrast, the E-W and NW-SE lineament sets exert a more localized influence, primarily affecting the Jurassic formations at Kef El Ahmar’s central peak in Jebel Youcef, though they exhibit relatively lower tectonic activity compared to the NE-SW lineament set. Based on the relative active tectonic classes, significant neotectonic activity is evident in the study area, as shown by distinctive basement fracturing. The findings contribute to understanding the structural processes in the study area. Furthermore, the study establishes a systematic framework for analyzing tectonic activity and landscape morphology evolution, enhancing our perception of the convergence between the North African Alpine zones and the Atlas range. Full article
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19 pages, 30156 KiB  
Article
Monitoring Gas Emissions in Agricultural Productions through Low-Cost Technologies: The POREM (Poultry-Manure-Based Bio-Activator for Better Soil Management through Bioremediation) Project Experience
by Domenico Suriano and Francis Olawale Abulude
Earth 2024, 5(4), 564-582; https://doi.org/10.3390/earth5040029 - 27 Sep 2024
Viewed by 447
Abstract
Agricultural production or rural activities can involve the emission of unpleasant gases, malodors, or most commonly, greenhouse gases. In any case, the control and monitoring of such emissions in rural, unattended, and remote locations represent an issue in need of addressing. In this [...] Read more.
Agricultural production or rural activities can involve the emission of unpleasant gases, malodors, or most commonly, greenhouse gases. In any case, the control and monitoring of such emissions in rural, unattended, and remote locations represent an issue in need of addressing. In this article, the monitoring of gases produced by a poultry manure depot and performed by devices based on low-cost gas sensors in the context of the POREM (poultry-manure-based bio-activator for better soil management through bioremediation) project is reported. This experience has shown that the continuous and real-time monitoring of gas emissions in an unattended, remote, and rural area, where it is unfeasible to employ expensive, professional instruments, can be successfully performed by low-cost technologies. Two portable monitoring units developed in the laboratory and based on low-cost gas sensors were used to provide indications about the concentrations of NH3, CH4, H2S, and CO2. During this experiment, two monitors were deployed: the first one was placed in the manure storage depot, while the second one was deployed out of the storage site to compare the gas concentrations related to the outdoor environment with the gas emissions coming from the manure. Both devices were wirelessly linked to the Internet, even though the radio signal was weak and unstable in that area. This situation provided us with the opportunity to test a particular protocol based on sending and receiving e-mails containing commands for the remote machines. This experiment proved the effectiveness of the use of low-cost devices for gas emission monitoring in such particular environments. Full article
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