Human Impact on Groundwater Environment

Journal Name	Impact Factor	CiteScore	Launched Year	First Decision (median)	APC
Energies energies	3.0	6.2	2008	16.8 Days	CHF 2600
Hydrology hydrology	3.1	4.9	2014	15.3 Days	CHF 1800
Sustainability sustainability	3.3	6.8	2009	19.7 Days	CHF 2400
Water water	3.0	5.8	2009	17.5 Days	CHF 2600
Earth earth	2.1	3.3	2020	23.7 Days	CHF 1200

26 pages, 9214 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Evaluation of Agricultural Measures to Safeguard the Vulnerable Karst Groundwater Habitat of the Black Olm (Proteus anguinus parkelj) from Nitrate Pollution

by Matjaž Glavan and Rozalija Cvejić

Sustainability 2024, 16(24), 11309; https://doi.org/10.3390/su162411309 - 23 Dec 2024

Viewed by 836

Abstract

The black olm (Proteus anguinus parkelj Sket & Arntzen) is an endemic species found exclusively in the Dobličica River subterranean water systems of the Dinaric karst in southern Slovenia. These unique habitats are vulnerable to contamination due to rapid water flow, primarily [...] Read more.

The black olm (Proteus anguinus parkelj Sket & Arntzen) is an endemic species found exclusively in the Dobličica River subterranean water systems of the Dinaric karst in southern Slovenia. These unique habitats are vulnerable to contamination due to rapid water flow, primarily from nitrates from agricultural fertilisers and untreated urban wastewater. The safe limit of nitrate concentration for olms is 9.2 mg NO₃⁻/L, yet measurements in karst springs have shown levels ranging from 3 mg to over 20 mg NO₃⁻/L. The SWAT modelling tool assessed agri-environmental and land use scenarios for their impact on nitrate leaching. Using the model, we identified hotspots with high nitrogen leaching potential that require immediate attention and implementation of better agricultural practices for fertiliser use. For these hotspots, the most effective approach combines scenarios of cover crops (R2), reduced fertilisation (R3), crop rotation (R4), and conversion of cropland to grassland (E2, E4, E5), potentially decreasing nitrate leaching by up to 60%. Implementing the best scenarios is expected to reduce nitrogen levels below the limit value of 9.2 mg NO₃⁻/L, essential for maintaining the black olm habitat. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Human Impact on Groundwater Environment)

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15 pages, 4643 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Comparing Recovery Volumes of Steady and Unsteady Injections into an Aquifer Storage and Recovery Well

by Saeid Masoudiashtiani and Richard C. Peralta

Earth 2024, 5(4), 990-1004; https://doi.org/10.3390/earth5040051 - 9 Dec 2024

Viewed by 1054

Abstract

Aquifer Storage and Recovery (ASR) can involve injecting available surface water into an unconfined aquifer and then extracting it to provide secondary water for irrigation. This study demonstrates a method for evaluating the appropriateness of steady injection versus unsteady injection for an assumed [...] Read more.

Aquifer Storage and Recovery (ASR) can involve injecting available surface water into an unconfined aquifer and then extracting it to provide secondary water for irrigation. This study demonstrates a method for evaluating the appropriateness of steady injection versus unsteady injection for an assumed situation. In design, it can be important to affect the transient: the proportion of the injected water that would be subsequently extracted (versus that remaining in the aquifer) and the proportion within the extracted water that would be an injectate (versus ambient groundwater). These proportions can be predicted from the predicted value of an ASR well’s Recovery Effectiveness (REN)—the time-varying proportion of injectate that is extracted subsequently from the same fully penetrating well. Applying the demonstrated procedure with appropriately detailed data and simulation models can predict the REN values resulting from steady versus unsteady injection, followed by steady extraction. For convenience in displaying and computing REN, the injectate was assumed to have a 100 ppm conservative solute concentration. For this demonstration, a homogenous isotropic unconfined one-layer aquifer was assumed. The scenarios involved steady or unsteady injection for 61 days via a fully penetrating ASR well. Then, 91 days of steady pumping led to the extraction of a total volume equal to that injected. For the assumed hydrogeologic data—31 years of Salt Lake City, Utah, rainfall data and estimated captured runoff—the results show that steady injection is more likely to cause a predictable REN but might not cause a higher REN than daily varying injection of the same total volume. Assuming different runoff or hydrogeologic flows would lead to different REN values. Steady injection causes a predictable groundwater mound and can assure a sufficient vadose zone thickness for overlying plants. Augmentation and storage of captured rainwater can help to provide a steady injection rate. For a situation that requires REN management, appropriate simulations can help water managers design ASR systems that will achieve REN goals and increase sustainable groundwater availability. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Human Impact on Groundwater Environment)

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14 pages, 8044 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Assessing the Origin and Mapping the Extension of Salinity Around Shrimp Culture Ponds in Rio Grande Do Norte (Brazil)

by José A. Beltrão-Sabadía, Albert Casas-Ponsatí, Evanimek Bernardo Sabino da Silva, Alex Sendrós, Josefina C. Tapias and Francisco Pinheiro Lima-Filho

Hydrology 2024, 11(11), 188; https://doi.org/10.3390/hydrology11110188 - 6 Nov 2024

Viewed by 1118

Abstract

The increasing installation of shrimp farms in vulnerable coastal areas around the world generates an environmental impact and makes it urgent to develop methodologies and studies for assessing and scaling the potential risks and sustainability of these activities. One of the main hazards [...] Read more.

The increasing installation of shrimp farms in vulnerable coastal areas around the world generates an environmental impact and makes it urgent to develop methodologies and studies for assessing and scaling the potential risks and sustainability of these activities. One of the main hazards of these activities is that the prolonged inundation of excavated ponds for shrimp farming allows the percolation of saltwater in the surroundings, resulting in increasing groundwater salinity. Saltwater intrusion in coastal aquifers, accompanied by salinization of soils, causes a decrease in available freshwater resources, a decline in crop productivity and the deterioration of the natural ecosystem. The coastal aquifer of Rio Grande do Norte State (Brazil) where, for years, several shrimp farm factories have been operating, reported some issues related to aquifer and soil salinization. The present study aims to assess the origin of and delineate groundwater salinization in a sector of this coastal aquifer using a low-budget procedure. The integration of hydrogeological and hydrogeochemical characterization by drilling shallow piezometers, measuring the hydrostatic level and analyzing the major ion concentrations of the groundwater has made it possible to establish that the origin of groundwater pollution in the studied area is caused by saltwater percolation from shrimp farms. The joint use of both characterization techniques has been shown to have an efficient cost–benefit ratio and less-intrusive methodology, which can be applied in other areas with similar environmental concerns. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Human Impact on Groundwater Environment)

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16 pages, 6605 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Longitudinal Investigation of Groundwater and Surface Water Interaction of Two Gravel Pit Lakes in Central Texas: Chemical and Flow Implications

by William A. Brewer, Claudia R. Dawson and Joe C. Yelderman, Jr.

Water 2024, 16(21), 3068; https://doi.org/10.3390/w16213068 - 26 Oct 2024

Viewed by 1000

Abstract

Two gravel pit lakes in central Texas were examined over the course of two years with upgradient and downgradient piezometer installations. Groundwater and lake water were sampled bimonthly for nutrients, water levels, and groundwater chemistry, and in addition, rain and lake gauges and [...] Read more.

Two gravel pit lakes in central Texas were examined over the course of two years with upgradient and downgradient piezometer installations. Groundwater and lake water were sampled bimonthly for nutrients, water levels, and groundwater chemistry, and in addition, rain and lake gauges and mini-piezometers were installed, depth surveys were conducted, and a simple 2D flow model was constructed. The project goal was evaluating and examining flow dynamics and chemical effects as groundwater flows to surface water and back to groundwater with the intent to understand the effects that gravel pit lake systems have on connected shallow groundwater. Both lake systems were shown to be flow-through systems that influence the water quality by decreasing the dissolved nutrients in the groundwater in their vicinity while oxygenating the water and altering the pH. However, the lakes are also prone to high levels of evaporation, meaning that minor improvements to water quality come at the cost of decreasing the quantity of water in storage within the aquifer. Similar groundwater and mine lake systems may show comparable tendencies, providing new information for water managers, regulators, and stake-holders about the potential roles that non-remediated gravel pit lakes may play in local ecosystems and aquifer dynamics. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Human Impact on Groundwater Environment)

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27 pages, 13763 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Spatial-Temporal Evaluation and Prediction of Water Resources Carrying Capacity in the Xiangjiang River Basin Using County Units and Entropy Weight TOPSIS-BP Neural Network

by Jiacheng Wang, Zhixiang Wang, Zeding Fu, Yingchun Fang, Xuhong Zhao, Xiang Ding, Jing Huang, Zhiming Liu, Xiaohua Fu and Junwu Liu

Sustainability 2024, 16(18), 8184; https://doi.org/10.3390/su16188184 - 19 Sep 2024

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1589

Abstract

To improve the water resources carrying capacity of the Xiangjiang River Basin and achieve sustainable development, this article evaluates and predicts the Xiangjiang River Basin’s water resources carrying capacity level based on county-level units. This article takes 44 county-level units in the Xiangjiang [...] Read more.

To improve the water resources carrying capacity of the Xiangjiang River Basin and achieve sustainable development, this article evaluates and predicts the Xiangjiang River Basin’s water resources carrying capacity level based on county-level units. This article takes 44 county-level units in the Xiangjiang River Basin as the evaluation target, selects TOPSIS and the entropy weight method to determine weights, calculates the water resources carrying capacity level of the evaluation sample, uses a BP neural network model to calculate the predicted water resources carrying capacity level for the next 5 years, and adds the GIS method for spatiotemporal analysis.(1) The water resources carrying capacity of the Xiangjiang River Basin has remained relatively stable for a long period, with overloaded areas being the majority. (2) There are relatively significant spatial differences in the carrying capacity of water resources: Zixing City, located upstream of the tributary, is far ahead due to its possession of the Dongjiang Reservoir; the water resources carrying capacity in the middle and lower reaches (northern region) is generally higher than that in the upper reaches (southern region). (3) According to the BP neural network model prediction, the water resources carrying capacity of the Xiangjiang River Basin will maintain a stable development trend in 2022, while areas such as Changsha and Zixing City will be in a critical state, and other counties and cities will be in an overloaded state.This study has important references value for the evaluation and early warning work of the Xiangjiang River Basin and related research, providing a scientific and systematic evaluation method and providing strong support for water resource management and planning in Hunan Province and other regions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Human Impact on Groundwater Environment)

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15 pages, 5274 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Optimization of Advance Drainage Borehole Layout Based on Visual Modflow

by Yue Li, Yunpeng Zhang, Yajie Ma and Fangang Meng

Water 2024, 16(18), 2613; https://doi.org/10.3390/w16182613 - 14 Sep 2024

Viewed by 992

Abstract

It is an effective measure to prevent water damage in coal mines in order to construct drainage boreholes in water-filled aquifers of a working face roof. The hydrogeological parameters of the roof water-filled aquifer and the parameters of the drainage borehole are closely [...] Read more.

It is an effective measure to prevent water damage in coal mines in order to construct drainage boreholes in water-filled aquifers of a working face roof. The hydrogeological parameters of the roof water-filled aquifer and the parameters of the drainage borehole are closely related to the underground drainage effect. Taking the 3085 working face of the Donghuantuo Mine in Kailuan as an example, the influence degree of hydrogeological parameters and hydrophobic borehole parameters on the amount of drainage water was analyzed using the generalized gray correlation degree. Based on Visual Modflow, the 3D groundwater visualization model was established and the dredging borehole was generalized into the pumping borehole. By changing the main influencing factors, the design optimization of the advanced hydrophobic borehole was discussed. The results showed that the aquifer thickness had a great influence on the amount of water discharged, and the influence degree of the sharp angle between the formation and the direction of drilling, the depth of the final hole, the azimuth angle of drilling, the dip angle of drilling, the elevation of the final hole and the elevation of the borehole on the amount of water discharged decreased successively. Based on the simulation calculation, it could be observed that the hydrophobic borehole should be placed in a position with a larger accumulated thickness of the aquifer to have a better effect of hydrophobic depressurization. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Human Impact on Groundwater Environment)

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15 pages, 8589 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Characterization of Groundwater Hydrochemistry and Temporal Dynamics of Water Quality in the Northern Baiquan Spring Basin

by Di Wu, Bo Li, Yuxing Li, Qingbin Li, Chen Sheng, Jiutan Liu, Min Wang, Yangyang Min, Jianguo Feng, Yuqi Zhang and Jieqing Yu

Water 2024, 16(17), 2519; https://doi.org/10.3390/w16172519 - 5 Sep 2024

Viewed by 983

Abstract

Groundwater represents a critical resource for sustaining the livelihoods of both urban and rural populations, facilitating economic and social development, and preserving ecological equilibrium. This study leverages groundwater quality monitoring data from the northern Baiquan spring basin (NBSB) to elucidate groundwater hydrochemical characteristics [...] Read more.

Groundwater represents a critical resource for sustaining the livelihoods of both urban and rural populations, facilitating economic and social development, and preserving ecological equilibrium. This study leverages groundwater quality monitoring data from the northern Baiquan spring basin (NBSB) to elucidate groundwater hydrochemical characteristics and decipher the temporal variability in water quality. Findings suggest that groundwater within the NBSB is predominantly weakly alkaline and characterized as hard-fresh, with HCO₃⁻ and Ca²⁺ as the predominant ions, which collectively demarcate the hydrochemical type as predominantly HCO₃-Ca. The principal constituents of NBSB groundwater are influenced predominantly by the weathering of carbonates and silicates alongside the dissolution of gypsum and halite. Moreover, agricultural operations and similar human activities have exerted an impact on the hydrochemical attributes of NBSB’s groundwater. Generally, fluctuations in groundwater anion concentrations over time are more pronounced than those of cations, exemplified by a significant upward trend in the major ion concentrations at the BQ03 monitoring site in the later stages. While the general groundwater quality within the NBSB is deemed satisfactory, most monitoring sites have experienced an escalation in water quality indices over time, notably at BQ03, which warrants serious attention. The findings of this research contribute to the efficient management and sustainable utilization of groundwater resources in the NBSB. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Human Impact on Groundwater Environment)

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18 pages, 3957 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Predicting Arsenic Contamination in Groundwater: A Comparative Analysis of Machine Learning Models in Coastal Floodplains and Inland Basins

by Zhenjie Zhao, Amit Kumar and Hongyan Wang

Water 2024, 16(16), 2291; https://doi.org/10.3390/w16162291 - 14 Aug 2024

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2046

Abstract

Arsenic (As) contamination in groundwater represents a major global health threat, potentially impacting billions of individuals. Elevated As concentrations are found in river floodplains across south and southeast Asia, as well as in the inland basins of China, despite varying sedimentological and hydrogeochemical [...] Read more.

Arsenic (As) contamination in groundwater represents a major global health threat, potentially impacting billions of individuals. Elevated As concentrations are found in river floodplains across south and southeast Asia, as well as in the inland basins of China, despite varying sedimentological and hydrogeochemical conditions. The specific mechanisms responsible for these high As levels remain poorly understood, complicating efforts to predict and manage the contamination. Applying hydro-chemical, geological, and soil parameters as explanatory variables, this study employs multiple linear regression (MLIR) and random forest regression (RFR) models to estimate groundwater As concentrations in these regions. Additionally, random forest classification (RFC) and multivariate logistic regression (MLOR) models are applied to predict the probability of As levels exceeding 10 μg/L in the Hetao Basin (China) and Bangladesh. Model validation reveals that RFR explains 80% and 70% of spatial variability of As concentration in the Hetao Basin and Bangladesh, respectively, outperforming MLIR, which accounts for only 35% and 32%. Similarly, RFC outperforms MLOR in predicting high As probability, achieving correct classification rates of 98.70% (Hetao Basin) and 98.25% (Bangladesh) on training datasets, and 82.76% (Hetao Basin) and 91.20% (Bangladesh) on validation datasets. The performance of the MLOR model on the validation set yields accuracy rates of 81.60% and 72.18%, respectively. In the Hetao Basin, Ca²⁺, redox potential (Eh), Fe, pH, SO₄²⁻, and Cl⁻ are key predictors of As contamination, while in Bangladesh, soil organic carbon (SOC), pH, and SO₄²⁻ are significant predictors. This study underscores the potential of random forest (RF) models as robust tools for predicting groundwater As contamination. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Human Impact on Groundwater Environment)

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20 pages, 13040 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Influence of Structural Symmetry of Fault Zones on Fluid-Induced Fault Slips and Earthquakes

by Zhiyong Niu and Bing Bai

Water 2024, 16(8), 1118; https://doi.org/10.3390/w16081118 - 15 Apr 2024

Viewed by 1357

Abstract

Subsurface fluid injection and extraction can reactivate faults and induce earthquakes. In current research, faults are typically described as symmetrical structures and the presence of asymmetric structures is often overlooked. The reality is that numerous asymmetric faults exist within the Earth’s crust. The [...] Read more.

Subsurface fluid injection and extraction can reactivate faults and induce earthquakes. In current research, faults are typically described as symmetrical structures and the presence of asymmetric structures is often overlooked. The reality is that numerous asymmetric faults exist within the Earth’s crust. The architectural and permeability characteristics of fault zones differ significantly between symmetrical and asymmetrical faults. These differences may have a great influence on fault stability during fluid injection or extraction. In this study, the impact of fault zone structures on fluid-induced slips and seismic activity were investigated through numerical analysis. The findings indicated that symmetrical faults were more likely to induce larger slips and earthquakes during various subsurface fluid operations. For asymmetric faults, larger induced slips occurred when fluid was operated in a hanging wall reservoir than in a footwall reservoir. In symmetrical faults, the opposite was true. When evaluating the stability of a fault in subsurface fluid engineering, the fault structure and fluid pattern and their combined effects must be considered comprehensively. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Human Impact on Groundwater Environment)

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14 pages, 3404 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Challenge Posed by Emerging Environmental Contaminants: An Assessment of the Effectiveness of Phenoxyethanol Biological Removal from Groundwater through Mesocosm Experiments

by Laura Ducci, Pietro Rizzo, Antonio Bucci, Riccardo Pinardi, Pamela Monaco and Fulvio Celico

Sustainability 2024, 16(5), 2183; https://doi.org/10.3390/su16052183 - 6 Mar 2024

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2114

Abstract

The occurrence of emerging pollutants (EPs) such as pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) has raised serious concerns about the possible adverse effects on ecosystem integrity and human health. Wastewater treatment facilities appear to be the main sources of PPCPs released in aquatic [...] Read more.

The occurrence of emerging pollutants (EPs) such as pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) has raised serious concerns about the possible adverse effects on ecosystem integrity and human health. Wastewater treatment facilities appear to be the main sources of PPCPs released in aquatic environments. This research examines the effectiveness of groundwater microbial community activities to remove phenoxyethanol (Phy-Et), currently exploited as a preservative in many cosmetic formulations at a maximum concentration of 1% but which has shown, at higher levels of exposure, adverse systemic effects on animals. Mesocosm experiments were carried out for 28 days using two different concentrations of the substance (5.2 mg/L and 27.4 mg/L). The main results obtained through chemical and microbiological investigations revealed a significant Phy-Et reduction (≈100% when added at a concentration of 5.2 mg/L and ≈84% when added at a concentration of 27.4 mg/L), demonstrating that some autochthonous microorganisms in the analyzed samples played a “key role” in removing this compound, despite its proven antimicrobial activity. Nevertheless, the decrease in the “natural attenuation” efficacy (≈16%) when using higher concentrations of the chemical suggests the existence of a “dose-dependent effect” of Phy-Et on the process of biodegradation. Biomolecular investigations carried out through next-generation sequencing (NGS) revealed (i) the presence of a significant fraction of hidden microbial diversity to unravel, (ii) variations of the composition and species abundance of the groundwater microbial communities induced by Phy-Et, and (iii) a biodiversity reduction trend correlated to the increase of Phy-Et concentrations. Overall, the preliminary information obtained from the experiments carried out at the laboratory scale appears encouraging, although it reflects only partially the complexity of the phenomena that occur in natural environments and influences their “auto-purification capability”. Accordingly, this research paves the way for more in-depth investigations to develop appropriate tools and protocols to evaluate the occurrence and fate of Phy-Et in nature and assess the impact of its release and the effects of long-term exposure (even at low concentrations) on ecosystems and health. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Human Impact on Groundwater Environment)

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17 pages, 3030 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Source Apportionment and Health Risk Assessment of Groundwater Potentially Toxic Elements (PTEs) Pollution Characteristics in an Accident Site in Zhangqiu, China

by Min Wang, Xiaoyu Song, Yu Han, Guantao Ding, Ruilin Zhang, Shanming Wei, Shuai Gao and Yuxiang Liu

Water 2024, 16(5), 768; https://doi.org/10.3390/w16050768 - 4 Mar 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1584

Abstract

In order to understand the pollution degree and source of potentially toxic elements (PTEs) in groundwater around the accident site and evaluate their harm to human health, 22 groundwater samples were collected around the accident well, and the contents of As, Cd, Cr, [...] Read more.

In order to understand the pollution degree and source of potentially toxic elements (PTEs) in groundwater around the accident site and evaluate their harm to human health, 22 groundwater samples were collected around the accident well, and the contents of As, Cd, Cr, Cu, Hg, Ni, Pb, Zn, CH₂Cl₂ and C₂H₄Cl₂ were determined. On the basis of water quality evaluation, the source apportionment method combining qualitative and quantitative analysis was used to determine the main sources of PTEs in the region, and the health risk assessment model was used to evaluate the health risk of PTEs to the human body. The results show that pH, TDS, Th and COD all exceed the standard to varying degrees, among which TH is the index with the largest number exceeding the standard. The quality of the groundwater environment in the study area is at a very poor level, and the F value is between 7.25 and 8.49. The exposure results model showed that there was no non-carcinogenic risk of PTEs in the study area, and the health risk of oral intake in the exposed population was greater than that of skin contact. Compared with adults, children were more vulnerable to the health risk stress of PTEs in groundwater. The total carcinogenic risk is higher than the total non-carcinogenic risk. As, Cd and Cr are the primary factors causing carcinogenic health risks in this area. Principal component analysis (PCA) was used to analyze the sources of PTEs in groundwater, and three principal components were extracted. It was preliminarily determined that PTE pollution was mainly related to agricultural sources, anthropogenic industrial sources and industrial sedimentation sources. The results of positive definite factor matrix analysis (PMF) were basically similar to those of PCA, but PMF further clarified the contribution rate of three pollution sources, among which agricultural sources contributed the most to the accumulation of PTEs. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Human Impact on Groundwater Environment)

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15 pages, 1104 KiB

Open AccessReview

Influencing Factors and Evaluation of Groundwater Ecological Function in Arid/Semiarid Regions of China: A Review

by Haohao Cui, Mingjiang Yan, Qian Wang, Guanghui Zhang, Huimin Feng and Xujuan Lang

Sustainability 2024, 16(4), 1631; https://doi.org/10.3390/su16041631 - 16 Feb 2024

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 1538

Abstract

In arid and semi-arid areas, due to drought climate and shortage of water resources, groundwater is crucial for natural ecological protection and economic development. It serves a dual role as a resource function and an ecological function. However, with the continuous improvement of [...] Read more.

In arid and semi-arid areas, due to drought climate and shortage of water resources, groundwater is crucial for natural ecological protection and economic development. It serves a dual role as a resource function and an ecological function. However, with the continuous improvement of the exploitation and utilization of groundwater by human activities during rapid economic development, the phenomenon of groundwater overexploitation is becoming more and more serious, which has destroyed the natural balance of groundwater recharge and discharge. As a result, natural vegetation has lost the maintenance of the ecological function of groundwater, and a series of ecological and environmental problems have occurred, such as natural vegetation degradation, land desertification, sandstorms, and so on. In recent years, scholars have carried out research on groundwater resource management and optimization of water resource allocation, trying to solve the problem of water balance in arid regions. However, there is still a lack of comprehensive understanding and systematization regarding influencing factors and degeneration mechanisms related to groundwater’s ecological function. By summarizing and analyzing the previous research results, this paper summarizes the influencing factors, evaluation methods, existing problems and future directions of groundwater ecological function research in China to provide a reference for rational exploitation and utilization of groundwater and ecological protection. This paper is divided into four main contents. The first part introduces the definition of groundwater ecological function (GEF); the second part summarizes the research status of influencing factors of GEF, including the groundwater table depth, vegetation root system and lithologic structure of vadose zone, etc.; the third part analyzes the evaluation of groundwater ecological function; the fourth part discusses the existing problems in the study of groundwater ecological functions, and based on the above research the evaluation framework of GEF is proposed with the Shiyang River basin as a case study; and finally, it highlights the future research directions about GEF. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Human Impact on Groundwater Environment)

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17 pages, 17349 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Hydrochemical Characteristics, Controlling Factors and Strontium Enrichment Sources of Groundwater in the Northwest Plain of Shandong Province, China

by Jingpeng Chen, Xiaohua Wu, Jichu Zhao, Shuai Liu, Yuqi Zhang, Jiutan Liu and Zongjun Gao

Water 2024, 16(4), 550; https://doi.org/10.3390/w16040550 - 10 Feb 2024

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1521

Abstract

To elucidate the hydrochemical characteristics, controlling factors, sources and mechanisms of strontium ion enrichment in groundwater in the northwest plain of Shandong Province, China, 88 groundwater samples were collected, including 51 shallow pore groundwater samples, 29 deep pore groundwater samples and 8 karst [...] Read more.

To elucidate the hydrochemical characteristics, controlling factors, sources and mechanisms of strontium ion enrichment in groundwater in the northwest plain of Shandong Province, China, 88 groundwater samples were collected, including 51 shallow pore groundwater samples, 29 deep pore groundwater samples and 8 karst groundwater samples. The hydrochemical characteristics of the different types of groundwater were quite different. The karst groundwater samples were all fresh water with a single hydrochemical type, either HCO₃-Ca or HCO₃-Ca·Mg. The deep pore groundwater samples were mainly brackish water, and the shallow pore groundwater samples were brackish water–salt water, which has complex hydrochemical types. The hydrochemical characteristics of all the types of groundwater were controlled by mineral dissolution and active positive cation exchange. In shallow pore groundwater, deep pore groundwater and karst groundwater, the dissolution of silicate, evaporite and carbonate minerals dominated the hydrogeochemical process. The strontium in groundwater was derived from the dissolution of minerals with strontium isomorphism. The average contents of strontium in shallow, deep and karst groundwater were 1.59 mg/L, 0.58 mg/L and 0.50 mg/L, respectively. The strontium in shallow pore groundwater was mainly derived from the enrichment of groundwater runoff, and its sources are abundant, with silicic rock being the main source. The deep pore groundwater mainly derived from the evaporative minerals containing strontium, and the karst water mainly derived from carbonate rock dissolution with similar characteristics. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Human Impact on Groundwater Environment)

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19 pages, 8060 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Evaluation of Groundwater Vulnerability of Yishu River Basin Based on DRASTIC-GIS Model

by Jiaqi Hu, Peng Yang, Qiang Li, Min Wang, Jianguo Feng, Zongjun Gao and Jiutan Liu

Water 2024, 16(3), 429; https://doi.org/10.3390/w16030429 - 29 Jan 2024

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1692

Abstract

The evaluation of vulnerability is a crucial aspect in the sustainable development, utilization, and preservation of groundwater resources. This study utilizes a comprehensive approach, integrating systematic analysis of hydrogeological conditions and the utilization of observed and collected data. The evaluation of groundwater vulnerability [...] Read more.

The evaluation of vulnerability is a crucial aspect in the sustainable development, utilization, and preservation of groundwater resources. This study utilizes a comprehensive approach, integrating systematic analysis of hydrogeological conditions and the utilization of observed and collected data. The evaluation of groundwater vulnerability in the Yishu River Basin (YRB) was conducted by employing the DRASTIC model, along with the zone overlay function of GIS software. Seven evaluation indicators were considered in this assessment. The findings demonstrate that the groundwater vulnerability in the YRB can be categorized into five divisions: excellent, good, medium, poor, and very poor, accounting for 14.5%, 42.3%, 27.9%, 14.0%, and 1.3% respectively. The areas with low vulnerability are predominantly located in the eastern part of the study area, covering the largest proportion of the total area. Conversely, areas with high vulnerability are found alongside both banks of the Shu River, forming narrow strips. Although these areas have smaller overall coverage, they contain dispersed water sources that require careful attention. These research findings provide valuable scientific insights and serve as a reference for urban planning, land use management, and groundwater resource protection in the YRB. The formulation and adoption of targeted protection measures in accordance with different groundwater vulnerability zoning, the formulation of scientific groundwater resource development and utilization programs, and execution of land resource planning are of great significance from the perspective of groundwater resource protection. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Human Impact on Groundwater Environment)

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13 pages, 2769 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Estimating Thermal Impact on Groundwater Systems from Heat Pump Technologies: A Simplified Method for High Flow Rates

by David Krcmar, Tibor Kovacs, Matej Molnar, Kamila Hodasova and Martin Zatlakovic

Hydrology 2023, 10(12), 225; https://doi.org/10.3390/hydrology10120225 - 29 Nov 2023

Viewed by 2302

Abstract

This research delves into the potential thermal effects on underground water systems caused by the use of thermal technologies involving extraction and injection wells. We developed a unique approach that combines straightforward calculations with computer-based modeling to evaluate thermal impacts when water flow [...] Read more.

This research delves into the potential thermal effects on underground water systems caused by the use of thermal technologies involving extraction and injection wells. We developed a unique approach that combines straightforward calculations with computer-based modeling to evaluate thermal impacts when water flow rates exceed 2 L/s. Our model, based on a system with two wells and a steady water flow, was used to pinpoint the area around the thermal technology where the temperature varied by more than 1 °C. Our findings suggest that the data-based relationships we derived from our model calculations provide a cautious estimate of the size of the affected area, or ‘thermal cloud’. However, it is important to note that our model’s assumptions might not fully account for the complex variables present in real-world underground water systems. This highlights a need for more research and testing. A key contribution of our study is the development of a new method to assess the thermal impact of operations involving heat pumps. In conclusion, while our proposed method needs more fine-tuning, it shows promise in estimating temperature changes within water-bearing rock layers, or aquifers. This is crucial in the effective use of thermal technologies while also ensuring the protection and sustainable management of our underground water resources. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Human Impact on Groundwater Environment)

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12 pages, 967 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Heavy Metal Content Characteristics and Pollution Source Analysis of Shallow Groundwater in Tengzhou Coal Mining Area

by Beibei Yan, Qianqian Wei, Xinfeng Li, Xiaoyu Song, Zongjun Gao, Jiutan Liu, Ruilin Zhang and Min Wang

Water 2023, 15(23), 4091; https://doi.org/10.3390/w15234091 - 25 Nov 2023

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2116

Abstract

This study analyzed the sources of total metal elements using the positive matrix factorization (PMF) model and conducted human health risk assessment for adults and children using the health risk assessment model recommended by the United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA). According to [...] Read more.

This study analyzed the sources of total metal elements using the positive matrix factorization (PMF) model and conducted human health risk assessment for adults and children using the health risk assessment model recommended by the United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA). According to the health risk assessment, As is the main contributor to the non-carcinogenic risk of groundwater in Tengzhou, with drinking water as the main exposure route. Regarding carcinogenic risks (CR), the values of As and Cr for adults and children were higher than 1 × 10⁻⁴, with drinking water as the main exposure route. Therefore, As is the largest contributor to the CR of groundwater for adults and children and drinking water is the main exposure route in the study area. The primary exposure pathways are oral intake and dermal contact, with oral intake presenting a significant risk. The carcinogenic risks according to principal component analysis (PCA) and PMF analysis showed that the main sources of heavy metals in shallow groundwater in Tengzhou City are agricultural, industrial, natural, and industrial deposition sources, with contribution rates of 21.7%, 27.2%, 31.0%, and 20.1%, respectively. In particular, natural sources are the largest contributor to the accumulation of heavy metals. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Human Impact on Groundwater Environment)

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17 pages, 3725 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Comprehensive Study on the Hydrogeochemical and Isotope Characteristics and Genetic Mechanism of Geothermal Water in the Northern Jinan Region

by Zongjun Gao, Mengyuan Hao, Jiutan Liu, Qiang Li, Menghan Tan and Yiru Niu

Energies 2023, 16(22), 7658; https://doi.org/10.3390/en16227658 - 19 Nov 2023

Viewed by 1267

Abstract

Geothermal water (GW) resources are highly valued as clean, renewable energy sources. In this study, a comprehensive analysis of water chemistry and isotope data from 25 GW samples was conducted to gain insights into the hydrochemical characteristics and formation mechanisms of the GW [...] Read more.

Geothermal water (GW) resources are highly valued as clean, renewable energy sources. In this study, a comprehensive analysis of water chemistry and isotope data from 25 GW samples was conducted to gain insights into the hydrochemical characteristics and formation mechanisms of the GW in the northern Jinan region (NJR). Statistical analysis and hydrochemical methods were employed for relevant analysis. The findings reveal that the GW in the NJR exhibits high salinity, with an average total dissolved solids (TDS) concentration of 9009.00 mg/L. The major ions identified are Na⁺ and Cl⁻, with mean concentrations of 2829.73 mg/L and 4425.77 mg/L, respectively, resulting in a hydrochemical type of Cl⁻Na. The analysis of δ²H and δ¹⁸O isotopes indicates that the GW originates from atmospheric precipitation that undergoes deep cycling and interaction with older groundwater. The composition of ³H suggests that the GW in the NJR is a mixture of waters, while radiocarbon dating (¹⁴C) suggests that the recharge of the GW may have occurred in the late Pleistocene era. The GW in the NJR is classified as partially equilibrated waters. The temperature range of geothermal reservoirs is 57.13 to 99.74 °C. The hydrochemical components primarily result from water–rock interactions, including silicate weathering, cation exchange, as well as carbonate weathering and the dissolution of halite and gypsum. Moreover, taking into account the hydrogeological conditions, hydrochemistry, and isotope analysis, a conceptual model of the geothermal reservoir in the NJR was developed. The research findings serve as a valuable reference and foundation for the development and utilization of geothermal resources in the Jinan region. These originate from the Taiyi mountains in the south or the Taihang mountains in the west, and experience deep circulation and long runoff times. This study provides a reference for the sustainable development and utilization of regional geothermal resources. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Human Impact on Groundwater Environment)

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13 pages, 587 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Protecting Cape Town’s Groundwater from Fuel Stations: An In-Depth Analysis of Regulatory Requirements

by Eden Alexandre Nsimba, Ntokozo Malaza and Thandazile Marazula

Sustainability 2023, 15(20), 15135; https://doi.org/10.3390/su152015135 - 22 Oct 2023

Viewed by 2382

Abstract

In the face of mounting water supply challenges, Cape Town has increasingly turned to alternative sources, like groundwater. However, the utilisation of groundwater carries inherent risks, particularly the contamination stemming from land-based activities, such as fuel stations. Leaks from underground tanks at these [...] Read more.

In the face of mounting water supply challenges, Cape Town has increasingly turned to alternative sources, like groundwater. However, the utilisation of groundwater carries inherent risks, particularly the contamination stemming from land-based activities, such as fuel stations. Leaks from underground tanks at these stations represent a major global cause of groundwater pollution, and Cape Town is no exception. To safeguard public health and mitigate potential harm, it is imperative to examine the legal regulations governing fuel station development, assess measures for controlling their environmental impacts and evaluate strategies for managing the associated risks. This study aims to provide an exhaustive review of the regulatory framework concerning the environmental impacts of fuel stations, focusing on groundwater protection in Cape Town. A combination of desk research and interviews was employed to gather and analyse data. The findings show a deficiency in precautionary measures for safeguarding groundwater near fuel stations. Consequently, through this study, the existing legal framework’s effectiveness is called into question, with this study suggesting actions to address these identified shortcomings. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Human Impact on Groundwater Environment)

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18 pages, 13736 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Response Characteristics and Water Inflow Prediction of Complex Groundwater Systems under High-Intensity Coal Seam Mining Conditions

by Zhaolai Hua, Yao Zhang, Shihao Meng, Lu Wang, Xuejun Wang, Yang Lv, Jinming Li, Shaofeng Ren, Han Bao, Zhihao Zhang, Linger Zhao and Yifan Zeng

Water 2023, 15(19), 3376; https://doi.org/10.3390/w15193376 - 26 Sep 2023

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 1924

Abstract

With the gradual improvement in coal mining efficiency, the disturbance of groundwater systems caused by high-intensity mining also increases, leading to challenges in maintaining mine safety and protecting water resources in mining areas. How to accurately describe the dynamic changes in the groundwater [...] Read more.

With the gradual improvement in coal mining efficiency, the disturbance of groundwater systems caused by high-intensity mining also increases, leading to challenges in maintaining mine safety and protecting water resources in mining areas. How to accurately describe the dynamic changes in the groundwater system under mining and quantitatively predict mine water inflow are currently major problems to be addressed. Based on a full analysis of the response characteristics of a groundwater system to the extraction disturbance, this paper presents a new method to establish a mine hydrogeological conceptual model that can accurately represent the water inrush process. The unstructured-grid package of MODFLOW is used to accurately characterize the formation structure and finally make accurate water inflow predictions. Taking the Caojiatan coal mine in Shaanxi Province, China, as an example, a numerical model of unstructured water inflow is established, and the changes in the water inflow source and intensity are quantitatively evaluated. Compared with the traditional water inflow prediction method, the prediction accuracy of the new model is improved by 12–17%, which is achieved by detailing the response of the complex groundwater system under high-intensity mining conditions. The method presented in this paper has great significance and applicatory value for obtaining a comprehensive understanding of the disturbance characteristics of human underground engineering activities (e.g., coal mining) on groundwater systems, as well as accurately predicting water inflow. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Human Impact on Groundwater Environment)

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15 pages, 5483 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Investigating the Potential Impact on Shallow Groundwater Quality of Oily Wastewater Injection in Deep Petroleum Reservoirs: A Multidisciplinary Evaluation at the Val d’Agri Oilfield (Southern Italy)

by Pietro Rizzo, Antonio Bucci, Pamela Monaco, Anna Maria Sanangelantoni, Gino Naclerio, Mattia Rossi, Paola Iacumin, Federica Bianchi, Claudio Mucchino, Nicolò Riboni, Dario Avagliano, Francesco Coraggio, Antonella Caputi and Fulvio Celico

Sustainability 2023, 15(12), 9161; https://doi.org/10.3390/su15129161 - 6 Jun 2023

Viewed by 2472

Abstract

The increase in oil production from petroleum reservoirs has led to studies examining the effects of these activities on groundwater quality. Oily wastewater associated with oil production is often reinjected through abandoned wells into the unproductive portions of the reservoir to avoid its [...] Read more.

The increase in oil production from petroleum reservoirs has led to studies examining the effects of these activities on groundwater quality. Oily wastewater associated with oil production is often reinjected through abandoned wells into the unproductive portions of the reservoir to avoid its discharge on the surface. The reinjection process is designed to be environmentally friendly and to exclude direct interactions between injected fluids and the surrounding groundwater; nevertheless, the evaluation of the compatibility between this process and the protection of the surrounding environment is of utmost importance when oilfields are located within sensitive and protected areas. The present work aimed to evaluate the impact of the oily wastewater reinjection into a long-term and high-rate disposal well in the Val d’Agri oilfield (Southern Italy). Previous preliminary investigations carried out at the study site led researchers to hypothesize the possible hydrocarbon contamination of the shallower aquifer caused by reinjection well integrity issues. Our strategy is based on an integrated and multidisciplinary approach involving isotopic (stable isotopes ²H and ¹⁸O), chemical, and microbiological (characterization of bacterial and archaeal communities) analyses. After a comprehensive and meticulous examination of the research data, it has been ascertained that significant discrepancies exist between the shallow and reinjection water systems. This allowed us to clarify the area’s complex flow dynamics and exclude hydrocarbon contamination of spring waters caused by the reinjection process. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Human Impact on Groundwater Environment)

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15 pages, 17378 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Estimation of Nitrate Background Value in Groundwater under the Long-Term Human Impact

by Patricia Buškulić, Jelena Parlov, Zoran Kovač and Zoran Nakić

Hydrology 2023, 10(3), 63; https://doi.org/10.3390/hydrology10030063 - 4 Mar 2023

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2488

Abstract

This study demonstrates an approach to estimate the background value of nitrate as a basis for better groundwater management and protection in areas under long-term human impact. The aim was to determine the ambient background value (ABV) of nitrate in the catchment area [...] Read more.

This study demonstrates an approach to estimate the background value of nitrate as a basis for better groundwater management and protection in areas under long-term human impact. The aim was to determine the ambient background value (ABV) of nitrate in the catchment area of the Velika Gorica well field, a hydrogeologically homogeneous area within the Zagreb aquifer. ABVs are determined using four well-known model-based objective methods (the iterative 2-σ technique, IT; the calculated distribution function, CDF; the cumulative frequency curve, CFC; and the probability plot, PP), while simultaneously testing the reliability of the results of each method. If the results are not statistically significant, data selection is performed. The results show that using data without selection can lead to statistically non-significant ABVs, but with the additional selection of data, a statistically non-significant result became a statistically significant one. In summary, all final ABVs must be statistically significant and determined using as large a data set as possible. Reducing the size of the data set is acceptable only in the case of a statistically non-significant result. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Human Impact on Groundwater Environment)

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20 pages, 8031 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Hydrogeochemical Characteristics, Water Quality, and Human Health Risks of Groundwater in Wulian, North China

by Min Wang, Wenxiu Zhang, Peng Yang, Jianguo Feng, Ruilin Zhang, Zongjun Gao, Hongjie Jin, Xiaoyu Song and Xiaobing Gao

Water 2023, 15(2), 359; https://doi.org/10.3390/w15020359 - 15 Jan 2023

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2983

Abstract

Groundwater shortage and pollution are critical issues of global concern. In Wulian County, a typical hilly area, groundwater is the main source of water supply. This study investigates the current situation of groundwater pollution in Wulian City through the analysis of groundwater water [...] Read more.

Groundwater shortage and pollution are critical issues of global concern. In Wulian County, a typical hilly area, groundwater is the main source of water supply. This study investigates the current situation of groundwater pollution in Wulian City through the analysis of groundwater water chemistry characteristics, water quality evaluation, and health risk evaluation. After the analysis of the controlling factors of chemical components in groundwater and the analysis of ion sources, the main ion sources in groundwater were determined. The results showed that the major cations in groundwater were Ca²⁺ and Na⁺ and the major anions were HCO₃⁻ and SO₄²⁻. Nevertheless, NO₃⁻ exceeded the standard to different degrees in pore water (PW), fissure pore water (FPW), and fissure water (FW). The minimum NO₃⁻ concentration exceeded the standard in FW. Under the influence of rock weathering and salt rock dissolution, the main hydrochemical types of groundwater were the HCO₃-Ca, HCO₃-Ca·Mg, and SO₄·Cl-Ca·Mg types. According to the water quality evaluation and health risk assessment, the FW area in the south had the highest water quality, where Class I water appeared and potable water was more widely distributed. The PW and FPW areas in the north had lower water quality, with higher health risks. Category V water gradually appeared in the FPW area, which is not suitable as a water supply source. Factor analysis and ion ratio analysis showed that the study area is strongly affected by anthropogenic factors. These research methods have important reference value to the research of groundwater pollution status. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Human Impact on Groundwater Environment)

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17 pages, 5860 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Numerical Simulation of the Wormhole Propagation in Fractured Carbonate Rocks during Acidization Using a Thermal-Hydrologic-Mechanics-Chemical Coupled Model

by Piyang Liu, Chaoping Huang, Lijing Jia, Weijing Ji, Zhao Zhang and Kai Zhang

Water 2022, 14(24), 4117; https://doi.org/10.3390/w14244117 - 16 Dec 2022

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 3345

Abstract

Acidizing is a widely adopted approach for stimulating carbonate reservoirs. The two-scale continuum (TSC) model is the most widely used model for simulating the reactive process in a carbonate reservoir during acidizing. In realistic cases, there are overburden pressure and pore pressure at [...] Read more.

Acidizing is a widely adopted approach for stimulating carbonate reservoirs. The two-scale continuum (TSC) model is the most widely used model for simulating the reactive process in a carbonate reservoir during acidizing. In realistic cases, there are overburden pressure and pore pressure at present. When the injected acid reacts with the rock, the dissolution of the rock and the consumption of the acid in the pore will break the mechanical balance of the rock. Many experimental studies show that cores after acidizing have lower strength. However, it is still not clear how the deformation of rocks by the change of ground stress influences the acidizing dynamics. For fractured carbonate reservoirs, fractures play a leading role in the flow of injected acid, which preferentially flows into the fractures and dissolves the fracture walls. The effect of the combined action of rock mechanical balance broken and fracture wall dissolution on the formation of wormholes in fractured carbonate reservoirs remains to be studied. To address the above-mentioned issues, a thermal-hydrologic-mechanical-chemical coupled model is presented based on the TSC model for studying the wormhole propagation in fractured carbonate reservoirs under practical conditions. Linear and radial flow cases are simulated to investigate the influences of fracture distribution, reaction temperature, and effective stress on acidizing dynamics. The simulation results show that more wormhole branches are formed by acidizing if the fractures are perpendicular to the flow direction of acid. Temperature is a key parameter affecting the acidification dissolution patterns, so the influence of temperature cannot be ignored during the acidification design. As the effective stress of the formation increases, the diameter of the wormhole gradually decreases, and the branching decreases. More acid is needed for the same stimulation result under higher effective stress. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Human Impact on Groundwater Environment)

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12 pages, 1776 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Study of Single Fracture Seepage Characteristics of Fault-Filled Materials Based on CT Technology

by Wenbin Sun, Shaoyu Wang, Faxu Dong and Yandong Xue

Water 2022, 14(22), 3679; https://doi.org/10.3390/w14223679 - 14 Nov 2022

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2153

Abstract

In order to study the matrix loss process and skeleton seepage law in the fracture of the fault rock, the three-dimensional model of the skeletal rock sample of the fault rock was obtained by CT scan, and the porous media seepage model was [...] Read more.

In order to study the matrix loss process and skeleton seepage law in the fracture of the fault rock, the three-dimensional model of the skeletal rock sample of the fault rock was obtained by CT scan, and the porous media seepage model was established with different structural types of natural fractures, and the flow rate and pressure distribution law of the seepage in the fracture was obtained by FLUENT software simulation. The results show that: the seepage under different pressure conditions is approximately the same, and the velocity increases continuously with the increase in pressure; The water seepage in different directions of the fracture channels under the same pressure conditions is not exactly the same, which is caused by the different microstructures of the pores. For the pressure distribution, it gradually decreases along the direction of water seepage, and for the speed distribution, it shows the law of changing from large to small and then increasing. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Human Impact on Groundwater Environment)

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19 pages, 5118 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Characteristics and Controlling Factors of Groundwater Hydrochemistry in Dongzhi Tableland Area of the Loess Plateau of Eastern Gansu—A Case Study of Ning County Area, North China

by Mengnan Zhang, Shuangbao Han, Yushan Wang, Zhan Wang, Haixue Li, Xiaoyan Wang, Jiutan Liu, Changsuo Li and Zongjun Gao

Water 2022, 14(22), 3601; https://doi.org/10.3390/w14223601 - 8 Nov 2022

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2257

Abstract

Groundwater plays an irreplaceable role in all aspects of the Loess Plateau. In this study, the loess phreatic water (LPW) and bedrock phreatic water (BPW) in the Ning County area (NCA) were sampled and analyzed, and the characteristics and controlling factors of groundwater [...] Read more.

Groundwater plays an irreplaceable role in all aspects of the Loess Plateau. In this study, the loess phreatic water (LPW) and bedrock phreatic water (BPW) in the Ning County area (NCA) were sampled and analyzed, and the characteristics and controlling factors of groundwater were determined by using statistical analysis, hydrochemical methods, and hydrogeochemical simulation. The results indicated that the groundwater in the NCA was alkaline as a whole, and the average pH values of LPW and BPW were 8.1 and 7.8, respectively. The mean values of TDS concentrations of LPW and BPW were 314.9 mg/L and 675.3 mg/L, and the mean values of TH contents were 194.6 mg/L and 286.6 mg/L, respectively, which were mainly divided into hard fresh water. The Piper diagram illustrated that the hydrochemical type of groundwater in the NCA was mainly the HCO₃·Ca type. The main recharge source of groundwater was atmospheric precipitation, and it was affected by evaporation to a certain extent. The linear relationships of δ¹⁸O and δ²H of LPW and BPW were δ²H = 6.998δ¹⁸O − 3.802 (R² = 0.98) and δ²H = 6.283δ¹⁸O − 10.536 (R² = 0.96), respectively. Hydrochemical analysis indicated that the groundwater in the NCA was mainly controlled by rock weathering and cation exchange. BPW was affected by the dissolution of gypsum. The possible mineral phases were identified on the basis of the main soluble minerals in the aquifer, and hydrogeochemical reverse simulations were performed. The dissolution of calcite, illite, and hornblende, and the precipitation of dolomite, plagioclase, and microcline occurred on both the LPW and BPW pathways. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Human Impact on Groundwater Environment)

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