Religions

16 pages, 2287 KB

Open AccessArticle

“Man Resides in the Center”: A Daoist Fengshui Rectification Practice Recorded on a Second-Century Pottery Basin from Shanxi

by Sheng Jiang

Religions 2025, 16(12), 1594; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16121594 - 18 Dec 2025

Viewed by 473

Abstract

In traditional China, when confronting real-world problems, people might invite masters to perform rites of residential fengshui rectification for a healthy and prosperous life. However, no concrete cases have previously emerged to demonstrate what exorcism scriptures and ritual implements were actually employed during [...] Read more.

In traditional China, when confronting real-world problems, people might invite masters to perform rites of residential fengshui rectification for a healthy and prosperous life. However, no concrete cases have previously emerged to demonstrate what exorcism scriptures and ritual implements were actually employed during the adjustment process. A recently unearthed pottery basin from Linyi County, Shanxi, bearing a vermilion inscription on proper fengshui restoration, offers new insight into how Daoist masters played a practical role in maintaining everyday life. For the first time, we demonstrate what religious implements and texts were employed and the proper timing of their use. Identifying specific details of the entangled status of the Han Daoist ideology and fengshui adjustment rituals for the living broadens our observational and conceptual understanding of early Daoist involvement in family and community life. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Diversity and Harmony of Taoism: Ideas, Behaviors and Influences)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

14 pages, 211 KB

Open AccessArticle

Towards an Historical Sociology of the Purāṇas: Are the Purāṇas Really Concerned About Society?

by Greg Bailey

Religions 2025, 16(12), 1593; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16121593 - 18 Dec 2025

Viewed by 217

Abstract

The aim of this paper is to canvass the possibility of what a sociological study of the Purāṇas might be. That is, whether this be the view(s) of society presented in the Purāṇas or the social conditions which may have produced the genre [...] Read more.

The aim of this paper is to canvass the possibility of what a sociological study of the Purāṇas might be. That is, whether this be the view(s) of society presented in the Purāṇas or the social conditions which may have produced the genre and individual texts within it. I argue that there is a very clear intertextual relationship between the Purāṇas and the Mahābhārata, even where there are considerable narrative differences. On the one hand, I see the Purāṇas as partly being conservative and adaptive texts fully accepting the brahmanical view of society developed in the Mahābhārata. On the other hand, they seem to have also accepted the existence of a wide variety of social groups arising in the early centuries of the Common Era and their corresponding occupations. I also raise the question of the sociological implications of devotional practices, which are so dominant in the Purāṇas. Finally, I study a few chapters from the Mārkaṇḍeya Purāṇa, which, in the manvantara section, raises the possibility of varṇasaṃkara, gender relations, and the treatment of brahmins by members of other varṇas. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue A Sociological Approach to the Study of the Sanskrit Purānas)

16 pages, 356 KB

Open AccessArticle

A Miracle for Whom? Al-Sharīf Al-Murtaḍā’s Theory of Audience-Relative Miracles

by MohammadReza Moini

Religions 2025, 16(12), 1592; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16121592 - 18 Dec 2025

Viewed by 622

Abstract

This article examines the theory of miracles formulated by the distinguished Shī’ī-Mu’tazilī theologian, al-Sharīf al-Murtaḍā (965–1044 CE), specifically to contextualize his controversial doctrine of Qurʾānic iʿjāz, known as ṣarfah. The study reconstructs al-Murtaḍā’s general theory of miracles by analyzing his primary [...] Read more.

This article examines the theory of miracles formulated by the distinguished Shī’ī-Mu’tazilī theologian, al-Sharīf al-Murtaḍā (965–1044 CE), specifically to contextualize his controversial doctrine of Qurʾānic iʿjāz, known as ṣarfah. The study reconstructs al-Murtaḍā’s general theory of miracles by analyzing his primary works and comparing his positions with standard Muʿtazilī theology. The investigation focused on how his metaphysical and moral frameworks interact to define the nature of miracles. I argue that al-Murtaḍā articulated a “minimal theory of miracles,” wherein miracles function as restricted, localized, and audience-relative “breaches of norms” (khawāriq al-ʿādāt) rather than violations of universal laws. In his view, miracles are morally necessary but temporally restricted acts of God, designed solely to authenticate a prophet to their immediate community. Al-Murtaḍā’s theory shifts the evidential burden of prophetic proof—including the Qur’ān—from continuing intrinsic supernatural qualities to discrete historical testimony. Finally, this study suggests that al-Murtaḍā appears to offer a rationally coherent alternative notion of miracles, that may well succeed from some of the most pressing contemporary intellectual challenges. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Islamic Colloquia of Edinburgh (ICE) Conference (7–9 July 2025): Miracles in Islam)

12 pages, 272 KB

Open AccessArticle

The Roman Rule Testis Unus Testis Nullus in the Canonical Codified Sources Regulating Ordinary Proceedings

by Karol Krystian Adamczewski

Religions 2025, 16(12), 1591; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16121591 - 18 Dec 2025

Viewed by 319

Abstract

This article presents the issue of the Roman procedural rule testis unus testis nullus in the canonical sources regulating ordinary proceedings. The rule on witnesses found its place in the 1917 Code of Canon Law, and was later repeated in the 1983 Code [...] Read more.

This article presents the issue of the Roman procedural rule testis unus testis nullus in the canonical sources regulating ordinary proceedings. The rule on witnesses found its place in the 1917 Code of Canon Law, and was later repeated in the 1983 Code of Canon Law and in the 1990 Code of Canons of the Eastern Churches. It was included in the section of the code containing canons regulating contentious proceedings and has been applicable as a general norm. It was pointed out that the Roman principle of witnesses had been a very important reference in the legal tradition of canon law for centuries, but it was not applied in a formalistic manner and deviations in its application were allowed. However, this practice was not entirely in line with the biblical tradition, nor with the Roman tradition, especially since the issuance of the imperial constitution by Constantine the Great in 334. This article attempts to answer the question why the canonical tradition, which has adhered to the requirement of testis unus testis nullus for centuries, does not do so in an absolute manner, allowing for the possibility of exceptions. In this regard, selected fragments of two imperial constitutions of Constantine the Great are presented and analysed. They regulated the issue of the universal requirement of double testimony in imperial law and the admissibility of a single testimony delivered by a bishop. Full article

14 pages, 271 KB

Open AccessArticle

Rebuilding the Fallen Tent of David: Re-Evaluating a Pentecostal Interpretation from an Australian Context

by Jon K. Newton

Religions 2025, 16(12), 1590; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16121590 - 18 Dec 2025

Viewed by 242

Abstract

“After this I will return, and I will rebuild the dwelling of David, which has fallen; from its ruins I will rebuild it, and I will set it up” (Acts 15:16 NRSV). This verse, quoting Amos 9:11, is part of James’ speech to [...] Read more.

“After this I will return, and I will rebuild the dwelling of David, which has fallen; from its ruins I will rebuild it, and I will set it up” (Acts 15:16 NRSV). This verse, quoting Amos 9:11, is part of James’ speech to the Jerusalem “council” considering the issue of Gentile believers and their relationship to the Law. In some Pentecostal circles, especially those influenced by the “Latter Rain” revival of 1948, this verse has taken on a different force based on the Greek skēnē, literally a tent or traditionally “tabernacle.” This teaching is based on the “tabernacle of David” as described in 1 Chron. 16:1–6 and other places and likely the venue in which some of the original psalms were performed. Their argument is that this is part of a model for experiencing the dynamic presence of God in worship and the restoration of the NT church. It forms a theological basis or rationale for contemporary praise and worship with the use of musical instruments, lifted hands, dance, clapping, etc., following the Psalms. However, this interpretation of “David’s fallen tent” seems to fail interpretive tests such as context, authorial intention and audience understanding. This article discusses the interpretive challenges raised by Acts 15:16, how skilled interpreters have understood the “tent of David,” and some weaknesses in these readings. The argument of “Latter Rain” authors on the “Tabernacle of David” is explained and evaluated in the light of some other contemporary research and hermeneutical principles associated with typology. The Latter Rain position is found to have considerable strengths but overreaches in some key points especially by making structure too central. Full article

47 pages, 5361 KB

Open AccessArticle

Are Humans Alone in the Cosmos?

by Hugh Norman Ross

Religions 2025, 16(12), 1589; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16121589 - 17 Dec 2025

Viewed by 2969

Abstract

For millennia, theologians and philosophers debated whether extraterrestrial intelligent life (ETI) exists in the universe. Some theologians concluded God enjoys creating so much he would not stop at one planet. Others argue God limits his miracles to those needed to achieve his purposes, [...] Read more.

For millennia, theologians and philosophers debated whether extraterrestrial intelligent life (ETI) exists in the universe. Some theologians concluded God enjoys creating so much he would not stop at one planet. Others argue God limits his miracles to those needed to achieve his purposes, which require only one planet with intelligent life. Thanks to exponential advances in observational astrophysics, scientists now are weighing in on the “are we alone in the cosmos” debate. Though far from resolving all the debate’s components, they now are able to provide definitive answers or steps towards definitive answers to several of the theological/philosophical issues. These answers arise from the following research endeavors: (1) search for ETI (SETI) efforts, results, and determined odds; (2) interplanetary panspermia; (3) ETI planetary habitability requirements; (4) ETI stellar habitability requirements; (5) ETI galactic habitability requirements; (6) “hard steps” in the evolution of life from non-life; (7); “hard steps” in ETI evolution from simple life; (8) interstellar space travel and exploration limitations; (9) nature of UAPs lacking natural or human-made explanations; and (10) nature of non-physical reality. The resultant answers increasingly are creating arenas of common agreement plus opening up avenues of dialog among theologians and scientists. This dialog on ‘are we alone in the cosmos’ is shedding additional light on humanity’s role and purposes in the cosmos. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Humans, Science, and Faith)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

22 pages, 281 KB

Open AccessArticle

Formation Experiences of First-Year Students at a Progressive Christian Seminary: A Longitudinal Qualitative Study

by Kristen R. Hydinger, Starla J. Gooch, Steven J. Sandage and Sarah A. Crabtree

Religions 2025, 16(12), 1588; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16121588 - 17 Dec 2025

Viewed by 420

Abstract

This study explored the question, “How are seminary students’ formation experiences shaped over their first year in seminary?” Research questions and goals were formulated through a collaborative practical theology approach with seminary leaders. First-year seminary students (n = 35) from a northeastern [...] Read more.

This study explored the question, “How are seminary students’ formation experiences shaped over their first year in seminary?” Research questions and goals were formulated through a collaborative practical theology approach with seminary leaders. First-year seminary students (n = 35) from a northeastern U.S. progressive Protestant seminary completed qualitative surveys across three time points during their first year of study. The qualitative questions asked about students’ conceptualizations of God, what influenced their formation, and what effects resulted from those formative experiences. Thematic analysis was used to analyze the data. Three themes emerged revealing formation factors internal and external to the seminary. These formation factors resulted in multifaceted formation effects on the students which also likely reflect the multifaceted formation goals needed at a pluralistic seminary. Inviting student self-reports allowed us to focus on what actually influences student formation and how those influential experiences translate into beliefs and practices. Full article

36 pages, 897 KB

Open AccessArticle

The Tripitaka and the Multilateral Interactions of Political Powers in East Asia from the 10th to the 13th Century

by Yifeng Xie

Religions 2025, 16(12), 1587; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16121587 - 17 Dec 2025

Viewed by 441

Abstract

In the mid to late Tang Dynasty, the compilation and reproduction of the tripiṭaka (Tripitaka) was directly intervened and controlled by the authorities, surpassing its own religious function and becoming an important political expression form with Buddhist elements. In the 10th century, with [...] Read more.

In the mid to late Tang Dynasty, the compilation and reproduction of the tripiṭaka (Tripitaka) was directly intervened and controlled by the authorities, surpassing its own religious function and becoming an important political expression form with Buddhist elements. In the 10th century, with the collapse of the Tang Empire, the Liao, Song, and Western Xia coexisted within its original territory. At the same time, the political situation in the Korean Peninsula and Vietnam has undergone drastic changes. Within this period, the Song and Liao empires formed a dual core pattern, and the printing and issuing of the Tripitaka with strong political attributes became an important means of competition between the two sides. From the end of the 10th century to the early 11th century, the Song was the first to complete the Kaibao Canon, maintaining the monopoly of the printed Tripitaka during this period and taking it as an important way to establish the world order dominated by the Song and consolidate its relationship with neighboring political powers. Japan, which was not part of the tribute system dominated by the Song, became a target that Emperor Taizong of Song vigorously sought. Under the guidance of this political logic, the Song court, which advocated Daoism, also wanted to voluntarily issue the newly printed Daoist Canon to Vietnam, to exert its religious and political influence. After the mid-11th century, with the establishment of the Khitan Canon, the competition began between the Liao and Song dynasties over the printing and distribution of the Tripitaka. As one of the dual core patterns, the Liao attempted to challenge the monopoly position of the Song’s Kaibao Canon and the cultural hegemony behind it. In this situation, Goryeo, which was wavering between the Liao and Song, became the battlefield of competition between the two empires, presenting complex changes in terms of whether to accept the Tripitaka and their reception standards. In the late 11th century, the Goryeo and the Western Xia almost coincidentally embarked on the so-called “third path”—the construction of their own independent Tripitaka. Due to their limited positions in the political landscape of East Asia at that time, these Tripitakas were not granted to neighboring regimes outside their borders after completion, and therefore did not have international significance. It should be noted that although the positioning of the Goryeo Canon was different from that of the Song and Liao editions, it still belonged to the competition among the same language; the emergence of the Tangut Canon marked a new possibility and opened the way for future Tibetan and Manchu Canons. Briefly, the printed Tripitaka was deeply involved in the multilateral interactions of political powers in East Asia from the 10th to the 13th Century. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Shaping Sacred Knowledge: The Transmission and Legacy of the Chinese Buddhist Canon)

12 pages, 260 KB

Open AccessEditorial

The Medicalization of the Sacred and the Sacralization of Care: Contemporary Perspectives on Religion, Spirituality and Medicine

by Matteo Di Placido and Stefania Palmisano

Religions 2025, 16(12), 1586; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16121586 - 17 Dec 2025

Viewed by 403

Abstract

The study of the relationships among religion, spirituality and medicine is an important and expanding field of study, especially in the light of the recent COVID-19 pandemic, which stressed the need to support health care professionals, patients and their families in a time [...] Read more.

The study of the relationships among religion, spirituality and medicine is an important and expanding field of study, especially in the light of the recent COVID-19 pandemic, which stressed the need to support health care professionals, patients and their families in a time of exceptional social, healthcare and psychological disruption [...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Religion, Spirituality and Medicine: Insights into Contemporary Perspectives)

17 pages, 1038 KB

Open AccessArticle

Shared Sounds: Using Borrowed Melodies to Create Shared Contexts in Late Medieval Saints’ Offices

by Rhianydd Hallas

Religions 2025, 16(12), 1585; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16121585 - 17 Dec 2025

Viewed by 302

Abstract

This article explores the use of borrowed chants and melodies to create and affirm sanctity in late medieval martyr saints’ liturgies, with a focus on Jan Hus, St Adalbert, and St Demetrius within the Bohemian and Hungarian liturgical traditions. Common, Semi-Common, and Proper [...] Read more.

This article explores the use of borrowed chants and melodies to create and affirm sanctity in late medieval martyr saints’ liturgies, with a focus on Jan Hus, St Adalbert, and St Demetrius within the Bohemian and Hungarian liturgical traditions. Common, Semi-Common, and Proper chants with contrafacted melodies played an important role in providing intertextual nuance and establishing a shared sound with earlier repertories. This shared context then imbued both familiarity and authority on the new chants, and therefore the celebration, legitimising a new feast from its inception and adding a layer of sonic complexity reaching beyond the words. The borrowed sounds thus underpinned the sanctity of the new feasts and anchored new liturgical practices within established musical traditions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Saintly Voices: Sounding the Supernatural in Medieval Hagiography)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

23 pages, 418 KB

Open AccessArticle

Defending the Gate of Inimitability: Abū Rashīd al-Naysābūrī (d. After 415/1024) and the Freethinker Critiques

by Omar Aladwani

Religions 2025, 16(12), 1584; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16121584 - 17 Dec 2025

Viewed by 444

Abstract

The intellectual legacy of the Baṣrān Muʿtazila has had a profound and lasting impact on the development of discussions on Qurʾānic inimitability. Numerous writings have been composed by Baṣrān Muʿtazila on the topic; among them is Iʿjāz al-Qurʾān by Abū Rashīd al-Naysābūrī, an [...] Read more.

The intellectual legacy of the Baṣrān Muʿtazila has had a profound and lasting impact on the development of discussions on Qurʾānic inimitability. Numerous writings have been composed by Baṣrān Muʿtazila on the topic; among them is Iʿjāz al-Qurʾān by Abū Rashīd al-Naysābūrī, an unpublished manuscript preserved in the King Saud University Library under the number 7752. This paper focuses on the development of al-Naysābūrī’s understanding of Qurʾānic inimitability in the context of this manuscript, especially analysing his reception of early Muʿtazilī (specifically Bahshamī) thoughts on Qurʾānic inimitability. Moreover, it pays particular attention to al-Naysābūrī’s engagement with the critiques directed against the Bahshamī theory of Qurʾānic inimitability. This paper adopts a source-criticism approach to studying the manuscript and evaluating the historical development of its contents. It argues that the theoretical foundation underlying the theory of miraculous eloquence developed by ʿAbd al-Jabbār drew al-Naysābūrī’s attention towards a deep engagement with hypothetical dialogues inspired by the refutations of questions concerning Qurʾānic inimitability posed by the freethinkers’ movement. This engagement prompted al-Naysābūrī to adopt and assess numerous hypothetical frameworks and conditional views, including the ṣarfa theory, in his defence of Qurʾānic inimitability. This approach of addressing the freethinker critiques aligns greatly with the dynamic and responsive nature of Baṣrān Muʿtazila’s thoughts against freethinkers’ movement. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Islamic Colloquia of Edinburgh (ICE) Conference (7–9 July 2025): Miracles in Islam)

6 pages, 166 KB

Open AccessEditorial

Introduction to the Special Issue ‘Spirituality, Resilience, and Posttraumatic Growth’

by Jo-Ann Vis and Heather Marie Boynton

Religions 2025, 16(12), 1583; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16121583 - 16 Dec 2025

Viewed by 309

Abstract

Spirituality is increasingly recognized as a vital aspect of human experience across the lifespan, contributing to positive development, well-being, resilience, and strength, and uniquely facilitating posttraumatic growth (PTG) [...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Spirituality, Resilience and Posttraumatic Growth)

31 pages, 452 KB

Open AccessArticle

The Second Stage of the “Religious Revival” in Russia: How to Evaluate It from the Perspective of the Secularization Debate

by Dmitry Uzlaner

Religions 2025, 16(12), 1582; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16121582 - 16 Dec 2025

Viewed by 667

Abstract

This article focuses on the religious processes in Russia over the last fifteen years. The author has two objectives: on the one hand, to describe processes that can be called the second stage of the “religious revival” in contemporary Russia, and on the [...] Read more.

This article focuses on the religious processes in Russia over the last fifteen years. The author has two objectives: on the one hand, to describe processes that can be called the second stage of the “religious revival” in contemporary Russia, and on the other hand, to place them within the context of theoretical discussions on secularization/desecularization. To achieve this goal, this article first examines the question of what secularization and, accordingly, desecularization are. Next, it describes the main trends in Russia’s religious life since 2012 at the macro-, meso-, and micro-levels. Then, the author examines numerous academic strategies aimed at “explaining religion away,” that is, proving that there has been no increase in the social significance of religion. Among these strategies, the following are considered in detail: (a) mixing empirical statements and value judgments; (b) instrumentalization of religion; and (c) religion finding “other work” to do. Finally, this article offers both a general evaluation of the Russian case from the perspective of secularization theory and broader reflections on the theory itself—for instance, it examines whether the theory is, in principle, falsifiable. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Europe, Religion and Secularization: Trends, Paradoxes and Dilemmas)

34 pages, 431 KB

Open AccessArticle

Religious Affiliation Is Not Enough: Considering the Religious Practices and Self-Identification of Seniors in Switzerland When Measuring the Links Between Religiosity and Well-Being

by Pierre-Yves Brandt, Yuji Z. Hashimoto, Zhargalma Dandarova-Robert, Grégory Dessart and Laeticia Stauffer

Religions 2025, 16(12), 1581; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16121581 - 16 Dec 2025

Viewed by 448

Abstract

Previous studies have shown that religion and spirituality can provide resources to cope with aging and impact the well-being of older adults. However, whether religiosity and well-being are linked depends on how they are measured. Moreover, the size of statistically significant effects often [...] Read more.

Previous studies have shown that religion and spirituality can provide resources to cope with aging and impact the well-being of older adults. However, whether religiosity and well-being are linked depends on how they are measured. Moreover, the size of statistically significant effects often remains small or even negligible. In Switzerland, two historical religious communities—Catholic and Protestant—have coexisted for centuries, providing an opportunity for exploring potential differences in religious practices of members of these two communities and their effects on well-being. Two populations were targeted: elderly people engaged in organized volunteering and elderly people receiving home care services. A total of 617 volunteers and 614 home care clients returned complete and valid questionnaires. In addition, semi-structured interviews were conducted with 43 volunteers and 35 home care clients to gain deeper insights into their experiences. Since the data were collected during the COVID-19 pandemic, we also explored how participants experienced the semi-lockdown restrictions. The results show that knowing religious affiliation is not sufficient to predict well-being. The degree of identification with the declared affiliation must also be taken into account. Differences between Protestants and Catholics can be highlighted, especially when considering religious practices in more detail. The impact of the pandemic on well-being is only moderately associated with religiosity. Full article

2 pages, 126 KB

Open AccessEditorial

Theology ‘In Exit’ for a Better World: An Introduction

by Francis-Vincent Anthony and Gnana Patrick

Religions 2025, 16(12), 1580; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16121580 - 16 Dec 2025

Viewed by 200

Abstract

Pope Francis articulated the dynamic of an Ecclesiae in exitu, translated as Church that “goes forth”, in the Apostolic Constitution Veritatis Gaudium (Pope Francis 2017, no [...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Theology ‘In Exit’ for a Better World: Consolidating the Intersecting Features of Public Theology)

22 pages, 370 KB

Open AccessArticle

Miracles Between Modern Science and Classical Thought: A Contemporary Perspective

by Suleyman Sertkaya

Religions 2025, 16(12), 1579; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16121579 - 16 Dec 2025

Viewed by 459

Abstract

This paper explores the function of miracles in classical and modern Islamic theology, focusing particularly on Fethullah Gülen’s interpretation and its relevance to contemporary discussions on revelation, rationality, and science. Traditionally, miracles are viewed as divine signs confirming prophethood by surpassing natural laws [...] Read more.

This paper explores the function of miracles in classical and modern Islamic theology, focusing particularly on Fethullah Gülen’s interpretation and its relevance to contemporary discussions on revelation, rationality, and science. Traditionally, miracles are viewed as divine signs confirming prophethood by surpassing natural laws and serving as challenges to disbelievers. While classical scholars upheld their evidentiary role, modern thinkers—under the influence of positivism and rationalism—have sought to reinterpret or dismiss their validity, particularly sensory or physical miracles. In this context, Gülen presents a distinctive perspective that reframes miracles not merely as supernatural phenomena, but as signs pointing to both spiritual truths and technological inspiration. Drawing from the insights of Said Nursi, Gülen highlights how prophetic miracles have anticipated and guided scientific advancements, thereby integrating material progress with spiritual wisdom. Gülen’s holistic understanding of human nature and prophetic guidance, rooted in the concept of human beings as the most refined creation (ahsani taqwīm), positions prophets as leaders of both spiritual and intellectual advancement. This dual role challenges the perceived conflict between revelation and reason, asserting that rationality reaches its full potential only when informed by prophetic insight. The paper also situates Gülen’s thought within broader modern theological discourses, particularly in response to critiques that Islam is incompatible with science. Gülen affirms the necessity of revelation not as a hindrance to rational inquiry but as its essential guide, likening prophets to expert physicians who administer the elixir of revelation to protect and elevate the human mind. By analysing Gülen’s approach to miracles and prophetic intellect (fatānah), this paper argues that his theology offers a balanced framework for reconciling religion and science, and contributes a meaningful response to contemporary debates surrounding the rationality of faith and the enduring relevance of prophethood. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Religions and Theologies)

41 pages, 3959 KB

Open AccessArticle

Turkish Religious Music in the Funeral Ceremonies of Sufi Orders

by Mustafa DEMİRCİ

Religions 2025, 16(12), 1578; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16121578 - 15 Dec 2025

Viewed by 865

Abstract

In the history of Turkish-Islamic culture, every stage of human life—from birth to death—has been ritualized with profound symbolic and spiritual meanings. Turkish religious music has functioned as a fundamental element in these transitional phases, possessing both aesthetic and devotional dimensions. In individual [...] Read more.

In the history of Turkish-Islamic culture, every stage of human life—from birth to death—has been ritualized with profound symbolic and spiritual meanings. Turkish religious music has functioned as a fundamental element in these transitional phases, possessing both aesthetic and devotional dimensions. In individual rites of passage such as naming, circumcision, beginning school, and marriage, as well as in collective rituals such as bidding farewell to and welcoming Hajj pilgrims or observing religious days and nights, Turkish religious music has held a significant place. Confronting death—an inevitable and sorrowful reality of life—Turkish society has employed religious music as a consolatory and spiritually guiding medium, transforming it into a ritual mode of expression intended to soften the disruptive impact of death and to give meaning to the mourning process. Sufi order funerals represent one of the manifestations of this aesthetic depth. In this context, (Janāza) funeral ceremonies are not merely occasions of farewell but also rites of metaphysical acceptance and surrender. Since death is considered not an end but “wuṣlat,” that is, reunion with the Absolute Truth (al-Ḥaqq), within Sufi thought, the funeral rites of Sufi orders have been shaped accordingly. In Mawlawī, Bektāshī, Jarrahī, and Rifāʿī orders, not only the canonical funeral prayer (ṣalāt al-janāza) but also various forms of religious music are performed, imparting both aesthetic and spiritual depth to the ceremony. This study aims to examine the religious musical practices present in the funeral ceremonies of these four major Sufi orders, all of which have historically maintained a close relationship with music. A qualitative ritual-musicological approach has been adopted; semi-structured interviews were conducted with the Shaykh of the Rifāʿī order, the Zakirbaşı of the Jarrahī branch of the Khalwatī order, and a Dede of the Bektāshī order. The data sources of the study consist of interview materials, archival-based works, literature on the history of Sufism, sources on Turkish religious music, and digital recordings of Sufi orders’ funeral rituals. The limited number of interviews were analyzed through thematic analysis, while textual analysis and contextual interpretation were employed to examine in detail “the musical forms, thematic structures, performance contexts, and symbolic functions” present in these rituals. Preliminary findings indicate that the music unique to Sufi order funerals fulfills multiple functions, including “spiritual consolation, strengthening social solidarity, doctrinal expression of belief in the afterlife, and transforming mourning into a sacred experience.” The funeral traditions of the four orders examined possess distinctive musical structures, and these structures constitute an identifiable aesthetic form within the Ottoman and Turkish religious-musical tradition. It has also been determined that the repertory performed in Sufi orders’ funeral ceremonies is largely rooted in the tekke (Sufi lodge) musical tradition and that various forms of Turkish religious music are prominently represented in these rituals. This study has brought to light the religious musical repertory performed within the funeral rituals of Sufi orders—an area that has remained insufficiently explored to date—and has demonstrated that this repertory exerts positive psychosocial effects on both Sufi adherents and other participants in their approach to death. In this respect, the study sheds light on the repertory of Turkish religious music and offers an original contribution to the scholarly literature. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sacred Harmony: Music and Spiritual Transformation)

17 pages, 316 KB

Open AccessArticle

Heiric of Auxerre Reads Suetonius with Lupus of Ferrières: Carolingian Monks and the Classics

by John J. Contreni

Religions 2025, 16(12), 1577; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16121577 - 15 Dec 2025

Viewed by 440

Abstract

This essay examines a ninth-century collection of excerpts from Suetonius’s Lives of the Caesars compiled by Heiric of Auxerre (841–c.880), a monk, when he was a student of Abbot Lupus of Ferrières (c.805–c.862). Heiric later in his life presented the notes to Bishop [...] Read more.

This essay examines a ninth-century collection of excerpts from Suetonius’s Lives of the Caesars compiled by Heiric of Auxerre (841–c.880), a monk, when he was a student of Abbot Lupus of Ferrières (c.805–c.862). Heiric later in his life presented the notes to Bishop Hildebold of Soissons (871–884). After reviewing the relationship between Christian learning and the pagan classics, the essay analyzes the Suetonian excerpts to determine why they were important to their monastic compilers and readers. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Tracing Early Monastic Culture: Books and Authority in New Textual Communities)

17 pages, 477 KB

Open AccessArticle

“I Fear Coming Out as an Atheist More than as Queer”: Exploring the Presence and Nature of Non-Religious Microaggressions in U.S. Mental Health Therapy

by Christopher R. Dabbs, Camryn H. Hutchins and Seth E. Kosanovich

Religions 2025, 16(12), 1576; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16121576 - 15 Dec 2025

Viewed by 337

Abstract

While extant research has centered religious microaggressions in therapeutic contexts, there has been little research on non-religious populations in psychotherapy, although evidence suggests the presence of negative therapeutic encounters for this minoritized population. The purpose of the current study was to both quantify [...] Read more.

While extant research has centered religious microaggressions in therapeutic contexts, there has been little research on non-religious populations in psychotherapy, although evidence suggests the presence of negative therapeutic encounters for this minoritized population. The purpose of the current study was to both quantify and explore the prevalence of non-religious microaggressions in therapy and to identify their impact on the therapeutic working alliance and therapeutic continuity. Utilizing a mixed-methods approach, participants (N = 120) were asked to report on religious/spiritual (R/S) conversational contexts and behaviors in their most recent therapeutic relationships. Quantitative analyses revealed that almost half of our participants experienced non-religious microaggressions from their counselor (e.g., assumptions about client religiosity, endorsing stereotypes, etc.)—which significantly impacted the continuation of therapy as mediated by therapeutic working alliance. Qualitative conceptual analyses showed a significant presence of counselor avoidance of R/S topics and, when discussed, negative client experiences. Suggestions for the importance of standardizing R/S clinical training are discussed alongside the unique nature of being non-religious within a predominantly religious country. Full article

► Show Figures

Figure 1

14 pages, 198 KB

Open AccessArticle

Ethics and Theism

by Bruce A. Russell

Religions 2025, 16(12), 1575; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16121575 - 14 Dec 2025

Viewed by 277

Abstract

In this essay I argue that there are necessarily true synthetic a priori moral propositions whose truth does not depend on the existence of God. To make my case, I appeal to an analogy with arithmetic truths such as 2 + 2 = [...] Read more.

In this essay I argue that there are necessarily true synthetic a priori moral propositions whose truth does not depend on the existence of God. To make my case, I appeal to an analogy with arithmetic truths such as 2 + 2 = 4 whose truth does not depend on the existence of God. I criticize views like Peter Railton’s that hold that moral truths are like truths about natural kinds such as water and heat, and non-cognitivists who hold that there are no robust moral truths. The point of my criticisms is to answer challenges to my view that there are necessarily true synthetic a priori moral propositions and, in the case of Railton, to block an argument by Robert Adams for a Divine Command Theory of ethics. Second, I argue by example that there can be conflicts between what is best for me and those for whom I care and what is morally required that cannot be reconciled by a theistic ethics. It can be rational to violate moral requirements that have the same contents as the commands of a loving God even if there would be most reason to adhere to those requirements IF God exists, just as it can be rational to leave your umbrella at home even if there would be most reason to take it IF it rained. This will be true regardless of whether the reason to adhere to God’s commands, IF God exists, is because our greatest good is the love of God (and that requires adhering to his commands) or because God will punish you if you do not and reward you if you do. The problem of evil is the primary reason to believe that God does not exist, and so to believe that there are no divine commands that there would be most reason to follow if God did exist. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Is an Ethics without God Possible?)

14 pages, 353 KB

Open AccessArticle

John Cassian, Rhetoric and Education: Reading the Conferences as Elaborated Chreias

by Britt Dahlman

Religions 2025, 16(12), 1574; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16121574 - 14 Dec 2025

Viewed by 337

Abstract

John Cassian’s writings reveal an extensive education. In his works, he reflects on his own education, such as a case of mnemotechnical distraction, and also provides education for his readers. But it is also clear that he employs his own rhetorical education by [...] Read more.

John Cassian’s writings reveal an extensive education. In his works, he reflects on his own education, such as a case of mnemotechnical distraction, and also provides education for his readers. But it is also clear that he employs his own rhetorical education by using conscious rhetorical strategies. This third aspect is the focus of this article. In Late Antique higher education, the chreia was one of the basic rhetorical progymnasmata exercises. It could be elaborated through the so-called ergasia exercise. By providing examples from the first conference, it is shown how Cassian employs elaborated chreias presenting his own patterns of ergasia elements. In connection with this, Cassian’s view on the origin of thoughts as drawn from Origen and Evagrius is discussed. Reading model texts, especially the Bible, is seen as a transformative practice that shapes the reader’s heart. Though Cassian rejects classical content, replacing it with spiritual writings, he retains classical form. As a collection of Christian chreic texts, the Conferences could have functioned as model texts for monks and monastic students wanting not only to read, but also to compose their own monastic texts according to the rhetorical structures taught in traditional schools of rhetoric. Cassian thus emerges as a new kind of monastic rhetorician. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Tracing Early Monastic Culture: Books and Authority in New Textual Communities)

17 pages, 321 KB

Open AccessArticle

Religious Institutions and Educational Policies in Combating Violence Against Women: The Case of Türkiye

by Hüseyin Okur, Mehmet Bahçekapılı and Muhammet Fatih Genç

Religions 2025, 16(12), 1573; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16121573 - 14 Dec 2025

Viewed by 834

Abstract

Violence against women remains one of the most persistent social problems in Türkiye, often reinforced by patriarchal interpretations of religion and cultural traditions. This study investigates the role of religious institutions and values-based education in preventing such violence by analyzing national curricula, mosque [...] Read more.

Violence against women remains one of the most persistent social problems in Türkiye, often reinforced by patriarchal interpretations of religion and cultural traditions. This study investigates the role of religious institutions and values-based education in preventing such violence by analyzing national curricula, mosque sermons, policy documents, and reports of the Presidency of Religious Affairs. Using a qualitative design based on document analysis and literature review, it examines how religious education reflects or omits gender-related themes and how institutional practices shape public awareness. The findings reveal that while formal and non-formal types of religious education promote moral values such as compassion, justice, and respect, they rarely address gender-based violence explicitly. Religious discourse tends to emphasize general moral development rather than specific strategies for preventing violence against women. The study concludes that integrating gender-sensitive content into religious curricula, promoting authentic Qur’anic teachings on equality and mercy, and providing professional training for religious personnel are essential to transforming societal attitudes. Strengthening cooperation between educational institutions, religious authorities, and policymakers will ensure that religion functions as a constructive moral resource rather than a tool for legitimizing inequality. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Religion, Theology, and Bioethical Discourses on Marriage and Family)

22 pages, 468 KB

Open AccessArticle

Charting the “Geography of the Heart”: The Diyanet’s Civilizational Vision and Its European Frontiers

by Tuğberk Yakarlar and Efe Peker

Religions 2025, 16(12), 1572; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16121572 - 14 Dec 2025

Viewed by 797

Abstract

Recent scholarship has studied the extensive transformation of Turkey’s Directorate of Religious Affairs (Diyanet) over the past two decades as embodying a form of religious populism that mobilizes civilizational antagonisms. Based on a directed qualitative content analysis of Friday sermons, official publications, online [...] Read more.

Recent scholarship has studied the extensive transformation of Turkey’s Directorate of Religious Affairs (Diyanet) over the past two decades as embodying a form of religious populism that mobilizes civilizational antagonisms. Based on a directed qualitative content analysis of Friday sermons, official publications, online material, broadcasts, and public statements by Diyanet leaders, this article makes three contributions. First, while confirming that the Diyanet promotes the civilizational unity of the ummah and casts Turkey as the spiritual custodian of a transhistorical Islamic world, the analysis shows that anti-elitist framings characteristic of populism are barely present in its rhetoric. Second, the article provides a detailed examination of gönül coğrafyası (geography of the heart), a widely invoked yet understudied concept through which the Diyanet reimagines Ottoman-Islamic heritage as a sacred topography of civilizational belonging and responsibility. Third, it examines how Europe is situated both outside and within this imagined geography: at once a constitutive and menacing “other” marked by Islamophobia and cultural decay yet also a moral frontier inhabited by Muslim diasporas through whom Turkish Islam extends its reach. By drawing such symbolic boundaries, the Diyanet frames Islam as both religious patrimony and ethical alternative to Western modernity, portraying itself as a key actor in the re-sacralization of modern life across borders. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Europe, Religion and Secularization: Trends, Paradoxes and Dilemmas)

16 pages, 281 KB

Open AccessArticle

The Wounding of the Earth: The Presence of the Ontological Rift and Eco-Dissonant Spiritualities

by Ryan Williams LaMothe

Religions 2025, 16(12), 1571; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16121571 - 14 Dec 2025

Viewed by 239

Abstract

In this article, I argue that the climate crisis is a symptom of dissonant eco-subjects and relations that are, in part, produced by Abrahamic religious/spiritual traditions—traditions that function as apparatuses of the ontological rift between human and other-than-human animals. The argument begins by [...] Read more.

In this article, I argue that the climate crisis is a symptom of dissonant eco-subjects and relations that are, in part, produced by Abrahamic religious/spiritual traditions—traditions that function as apparatuses of the ontological rift between human and other-than-human animals. The argument begins by addressing the relation between Abrahamic traditions and apparatuses of the ontological rift. This sets the stage for explicating what is meant by spiritualities of eco-dissonant subjects. To further understand the features of eco-dissonant spiritualities, I turn to the philosophical notion of self-deception and the psychoanalytic notion of weak dissociation, which help explain our resistance to becoming aware of our contributions to the sufferings of other species and the wounding of the Earth, as well as our resistance to change. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Healing the Earth: Spirituality and Planetary Health)

14 pages, 275 KB

Open AccessArticle

From Technological Alienation to Spiritual Homecoming: Zhuangzi’s Affective Philosophy in Conversation with Western Emotion Theories

by Leishu Wang

Religions 2025, 16(12), 1570; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16121570 - 14 Dec 2025

Viewed by 461

Abstract

As emotion becomes increasingly digitized, there is a growing risk that computational systems may overreach, shaping or managing affect in ways that undermine human autonomy. This study builds a cross-cultural dialog between Daoist affective philosophy and Western theories of emotion to address this [...] Read more.

As emotion becomes increasingly digitized, there is a growing risk that computational systems may overreach, shaping or managing affect in ways that undermine human autonomy. This study builds a cross-cultural dialog between Daoist affective philosophy and Western theories of emotion to address this problem. By comparing their assumptions about emotional life—what emotions are, how they should be guided, and what counts as appropriate intervention—the paper develops a set of ethical principles for the design of affective technologies. Through textual analysis and a historical–conceptual review, the study identifies three safeguards drawn from Daoist thought—minimality, autonomy, and reversibility—and translates them into practical guidance for data use, system behavior, and user interaction. A brief case from Finland’s well-being initiatives illustrates how these principles can redirect technological design toward supporting inner balance and self-directed regulation rather than external control. The paper’s contribution lies in offering a clear boundary ethics for affective computing, showing how Daoist ideas of moderation and self-cultivation can help prevent emotional alienation while still allowing technological systems to enhance human well-being. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Modern Reception and Interpretation of Daoism in East Asia and the West: A Comparative Perspective (19th–21st Centuries))

15 pages, 224 KB

Open AccessArticle

A Forgotten Minority: The Christians of India and Religious Persecution

by John Cappucci

Religions 2025, 16(12), 1569; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16121569 - 13 Dec 2025

Viewed by 1352

Abstract

This paper seeks to study the religious persecution faced by Indian Christians. To address the topic, the researcher interviewed 30 members of the Indian Christian community living in Canada. The participants were asked questions about their familiarity with anti-Christian discrimination followed by questions [...] Read more.

This paper seeks to study the religious persecution faced by Indian Christians. To address the topic, the researcher interviewed 30 members of the Indian Christian community living in Canada. The participants were asked questions about their familiarity with anti-Christian discrimination followed by questions on whether they had experienced discrimination, felt pressure to convert away from Christianity, or seen vandalism against churches and other sites. The participants were also asked whether they believe Christians are a forgotten minority. Results showed that while participants were aware of anti-Christian discrimination in the country, few experienced it, witnessed vandalism, or felt pressure to convert. The participants were divided on the question of being a forgotten minority in India. The paper revealed that tensions between Indian Christians and the government appear centred more on political issues rather than religious differences. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Encounter of Colonialism and Indian Religious Traditions)

37 pages, 2235 KB

Open AccessArticle

Computing Mark’s Genre

by Jacob P. B. Mortensen and Yuri Bizzoni

Religions 2025, 16(12), 1568; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16121568 - 12 Dec 2025

Viewed by 420

Abstract

This article combines computational analysis and historical interpretation to reassess the genre of the Gospel of Mark. Drawing on prototype theory and J. Z. Smith’s comparative method, we model Mark’s linguistic and stylistic profile against a large corpus of ancient Greek texts—including tragedies, [...] Read more.

This article combines computational analysis and historical interpretation to reassess the genre of the Gospel of Mark. Drawing on prototype theory and J. Z. Smith’s comparative method, we model Mark’s linguistic and stylistic profile against a large corpus of ancient Greek texts—including tragedies, biographies, historiographies, novels, and Septuagint (LXX) single-person narratives. Using supervised and unsupervised clustering, the study shows that Mark consistently aligns with the LXX corpus rather than with the Greco-Roman genres traditionally proposed. Even when segmented into smaller textual units (prologues, epilogues, or 1000-word chunks), the Gospel remains anchored in the scriptural prototype of divinely commissioned figures such as Moses, Joseph, or Esther. The results suggest that Mark’s genre is best described as a scriptural narrative of divine agency: a continuation of Israel’s storytelling tradition reimagined within the Greek-speaking world of the first century. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Computational Approaches to Ancient Jewish and Christian Texts)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

24 pages, 438 KB

Open AccessArticle

Affective Neuroscience, Moral Psychology, and Emotions in 2 Cor 7:5–16

by Marcin Kowalski, Mariusz G. Karbowski and Julia Gorbaniuk

Religions 2025, 16(12), 1567; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16121567 - 12 Dec 2025

Viewed by 640

Abstract

The authors examine the emotions contained in 2 Cor 7:5–16. They refer to the nativist approach, in particular to Jaak Panksepp’s theory of primary emotions and Jonathan Haidt’s five foundations of morality. The emotions of Paul, Titus, and the Corinthians described in 2 [...] Read more.

The authors examine the emotions contained in 2 Cor 7:5–16. They refer to the nativist approach, in particular to Jaak Panksepp’s theory of primary emotions and Jonathan Haidt’s five foundations of morality. The emotions of Paul, Titus, and the Corinthians described in 2 Cor 7:5–16 can be classified into Panksepp’s categories of FEAR/anxiety, GRIEF/separation distress, CARE/nurturing, and RAGE/anger. They serve as a response to the pain and threat posed by the community’s separation from Paul and aim to repair and strengthen the family/parental relationship with the apostle. Following Haidt’s typology, most of the emotions in 2 Cor 7:5–16 can be located in the care/harm module, related to Paul’s care about his spiritual children in Corinth. In addition, other modules can be engaged to link various emotions in 2 Cor 7:5–15: fairness/reciprocity, focused on reciprocal altruism, in-group/loyalty, reinforcing mutual loyalty, authority/respect, working for Paul’s authority in Corinth, and purity/sanctity serving the holiness of the community and their belonging to Christ. The nativist approach to Pauline emotions smoothly transitions into a socio-cultural approach, pointing to their complementarity. This combination allows for the appreciation for the role of emotions in making moral judgments and helps understand the similarities and differences between ancient and modern views of emotionality. It also aids in grasping the interconnectedness and adaptive functions of emotions, serving the individual and the community. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Testament Studies—Current Trends and Criticisms—2nd Edition)

19 pages, 338 KB

Open AccessArticle

Structural Violence and Religious Freedom: Towards a Legal Principle of Structural Justice in the Chilean Experience

by Alessia Baghino

Religions 2025, 16(12), 1566; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16121566 - 12 Dec 2025

Viewed by 379

Abstract

Recent Chilean jurisprudence on Indigenous religious freedom has revealed a profound dissonance between the legal categories applied by the courts and the spiritual conceptions of Indigenous peoples. This gap between formal recognition and the effective protection of sacred sites generates a form of [...] Read more.

Recent Chilean jurisprudence on Indigenous religious freedom has revealed a profound dissonance between the legal categories applied by the courts and the spiritual conceptions of Indigenous peoples. This gap between formal recognition and the effective protection of sacred sites generates a form of structural violence, understood as the institutional reproduction of inequality under the guise of neutrality. This study proposes to reformulate the notion of structural violence as an operative legal principle capable of activating heightened judicial scrutiny. Through a qualitative approach, it develops a doctrinal and jurisprudential analysis aimed at identifying normative patterns of exclusion and assessing the hermeneutic, normative, and diagnostic functions of the proposed principle. The results show that Chilean law, by translating spiritual practices into liberal categories of property or procedure, neutralizes their religious content and perpetuates relations of subordination. The study concludes that incorporating the principle prohibiting structural violence enables the reinterpretation of legal norms and the correction of historical asymmetries, orienting the law toward a form of structural justice sensitive to the ontological, cultural, and spiritual plurality of Indigenous peoples. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Religious Institutions in the Mediterranean: A Comparative Perspective)

18 pages, 431 KB

Open AccessArticle

The Inculturation of Islamic Rituals Through Confucian-Islamic Synthesis: A Study of Liu Zhi’s The Interpretation of the Five Pillars

by Bin You, Guangyu Su and Timothy D. Knepper

Religions 2025, 16(12), 1565; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16121565 - 12 Dec 2025

Viewed by 428

Abstract

Liu Zhi’s (1664–1734) seminal work The Interpretation of the Five Pillars systematically employs Confucian doctrine to explicate the Five Pillars of Islam. As part of the Ming-Qing cultural movement of “interpreting Islamic scriptures through Confucianism,” Liu assimilated Neo-Confucian philosophical concepts to develop a [...] Read more.

Liu Zhi’s (1664–1734) seminal work The Interpretation of the Five Pillars systematically employs Confucian doctrine to explicate the Five Pillars of Islam. As part of the Ming-Qing cultural movement of “interpreting Islamic scriptures through Confucianism,” Liu assimilated Neo-Confucian philosophical concepts to develop a Sinicized Islamic religious philosophy. Building upon this foundation, he analyzed the Five Pillars through three conceptual lenses: realm theory (境界论), cultivation theory (修养论), and praxis methodology (工夫论). By synthesizing the Confucian cultivation path of “exhausting the mind and knowing human nature” (尽心知性 jin xin zhi xing) with Islamic daily rituals, Liu Zhi developed a distinctive theory of mind-cultivation (心性论 xinxing lun) through ritual practice. This philosophical framework guided Chinese Muslims to transcend external ritual observance towards internal spiritual refinement, as encapsulated in the triad of “self-cultivation, mental purification, and fulfillment of human nature” (修身、清心、尽性). His synthesis of Islamic ritual with Confucian culture maintained fidelity to Islamic teachings while incorporating China’s profound Confucian heritage. Liu Zhi’s efforts in Islamic inculturation provide both a paradigmatic model for the cultural adaptation of religious rituals across traditions and a valuable reference for contemporary construction of Sinicized religious thought. His achievement, an exemplary exercise in interreligious theology, demonstrates how doctrinal fidelity and cultural localization can be harmoniously reconciled through philosophical innovation. Full article

Journal Menu

Journal Browser

Religions, Volume 16, Issue 12 (December 2025) – 122 articles

Further Information

Guidelines

MDPI Initiatives

Follow MDPI