Trends, Challenges, and Opportunities of Cañihua (Chenopodium pallidicaule) for Functional Food Development and Sustainable Agriculture: A Bibliometric and Systematic Approach

Abstract

Cañihua (Chenopodium pallidicaule) is an underutilized Andean pseudocereal of strategic interest for sustainable agriculture in high-altitude, climate-constrained environments, where its tolerance to frost, drought, and saline soils positions it as a potential climate-resilient crop. Despite its high nutritional value and potential for functional food applications, its research landscape remains fragmented and unevenly developed across agronomic, nutritional, and technological dimensions. This study aimed to systematically and bibliometrically analyze the scientific literature on cañihua published between 1995 and 2025. A total of 104 documents indexed in the Scopus database were evaluated following the PRISMA 2020 approach, including analyses of publication trends, geographic distribution, collaboration networks, and thematic structures, together with a qualitative critical appraisal of the included evidence. Results indicate a marked increase in scientific output since 2006, with research predominantly concentrated in food science and technology and limited development in agronomy, clinical nutrition, and socio-economic domains. Thematic analysis reveals a strong focus on bioactive compounds, nutritional composition, and processing technologies, while clinical, socio-economic, and large-scale agricultural studies remain limited. Processing strategies such as germination, malting, and fermentation enhance nutrient bioavailability, reduce antinutritional factors, and improve sensory properties, supporting the incorporation of cañihua into functional and gluten-free foods at levels of up to 25%. Significant gaps persist in clinical validation, agronomic standardization, production scalability, genetic improvement, and integration across research domains. Overall, cañihua shows strong potential to contribute to sustainable Andean agriculture, food security, and functional food innovation, although further interdisciplinary and translational research linking agricultural production with nutritional and technological outcomes is required to realize its full applied potential.

1. Introduction

The United Nations 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development highlights the urgent need to promote sustainable food systems capable of ensuring healthy diets for a growing global population [1]. In this context, underutilized crops have gained increasing attention due to their potential to contribute to nutritional security and dietary diversification.

Cañihua (Chenopodium pallidicaule), an ancestral Andean pseudocereal, has emerged as a promising candidate within this framework. Recognized by the Food and Agriculture Organization and the World Health Organization as a nutritionally valuable food source [1,2], cañihua is characterized by its high-quality protein content and well-balanced amino acid profile, comparable to milk casein and exceeding FAO recommendations [3,4]. Additionally, it contains significant levels of unsaturated fatty acids and bioactive compounds, including phenolic compounds and antioxidants, which have been associated with potential health benefits [5,6]. These attributes support its potential application as a functional ingredient in the development of nutritionally enhanced food products.

Despite these advantages, the production and consumption of cañihua remain limited, primarily due to its restricted geographical cultivation and low level of industrial promotion compared to widely distributed cereals [7,8]. This underutilization is further compounded by insufficient dissemination of scientific knowledge and limited integration into global food markets.

Previous review studies have explored cañihua from various perspectives. For instance, Zapana [9] analyzed the effects of extrusion on its macromolecular structure and technological properties, while Moscoso-Mujica [6] and Choque Delgado [10] examined its botanical, genetic, and functional characteristics. Similarly, Jiménez [11] and Yoshiura [12] focused on the changes induced by germination and their implications for food applications. However, these studies tend to address specific aspects in isolation.

Despite the growing body of literature, a critical gap remains in the comprehensive understanding of cañihua research. The existing evidence is highly fragmented and largely discipline-specific, with studies focusing separately on composition, processing, or functional properties, without an integrated perspective across these domains. This fragmentation limits the ability to obtain a holistic understanding of the crop’s scientific development and applied potential.

In addition, the current literature is predominantly concentrated in food science and laboratory-based investigations, while important dimensions such as agronomic performance, clinical validation, and socio-economic implications remain underexplored. As a result, there is still limited understanding of how experimental findings translate into real-world nutritional, agricultural, and market applications.

Furthermore, no previous study has integrated bibliometric mapping with systematic analysis to simultaneously evaluate research trends, thematic structures, and knowledge gaps in cañihua research. This methodological gap restricts the ability to critically assess the evolution and direction of the field.

Therefore, this study addresses these limitations by providing, for the first time, an integrated bibliometric and systematic review of cañihua research over the past three decades. Previous review efforts on cañihua have been narrative in nature and thematically narrow: for example, Zapana focused on extrusion, Jiménez and Yoshiura on germination, and Moscoso-Mujica and Choque Delgado on botanical, genetic, and general functional characteristics of the crop. None of these reviews applied a reproducible protocol to map the field as a whole, quantified publication dynamics, collaboration networks, or thematic structures, or systematically identified research gaps across nutritional, technological, agronomic, and socio-economic dimensions. The present work advances the field by combining a PRISMA-based systematic protocol with quantitative bibliometric mapping and a qualitative critical appraisal of the included evidence. This approach enables a comprehensive assessment of research dynamics, identification of structural biases, and a clearer definition of future interdisciplinary priorities for cañihua as a functional food and a climate-resilient Andean crop.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Search Strategy and Information Sources

The literature search was conducted on 15 February 2026 in the Scopus database. The full search string applied in the TITLE-ABS-KEY field was: TITLE-ABS-KEY (“cañihua” OR “kañiwa” OR “cañahua” OR “canihua” OR “Chenopodium pallidicaule”). The following filters and limits were applied during retrieval: publication years 1995 to 2025, document type restricted to journal articles, reviews, book chapters and conference papers, and language restricted to English. Scopus was selected as the sole database because its coverage of peer-reviewed literature in food science, nutrition and agricultural research—the three fields relevant to cañihua—is broader than that of comparable platforms, and because its standardized metadata is a prerequisite for reproducible bibliometric processing. A pilot retrieval in Web of Science and PubMed returned records that were almost entirely already indexed in Scopus for cañihua-specific literature, which confirmed that a single-database design would not compromise the representativeness of the dataset. This limitation is also stated explicitly in Section 3.1. together with other methodological limitations of the bibliometric analysis.

2.2. Article Selection Process

The study selection process was conducted following the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines [13]. A total of 109 records were initially identified through the Scopus database search.

All 109 records retrieved from the Scopus search were subjected to title and abstract screening using the Rayyan software (Qatar Computing Research Institute, Doha, Qatar, https://www.rayyan.ai/, accessed 15 March 2026) [14], which allowed blinded and independent evaluation. Two authors performed the screening independently, and discrepancies were resolved by discussion with a third author until consensus was reached. Agreement between the two primary reviewers at the title and abstract stage was high, and the few disagreements that arose were resolved without difficulty, supporting the reliability of the selection process. During this phase, studies were excluded based on predefined criteria, including: (i) lack of relevance to cañihua, (ii) focus on unrelated topics such as dermatology or chemical toxicology, (iii) studies centered exclusively on plant genetics without nutritional or food application relevance, and (iv) studies addressing bioactive compounds in other species.

Following the screening process, 104 articles were considered eligible for full-text assessment. As all selected studies met the inclusion criteria, no further exclusions were made at the eligibility stage. Therefore, a total of 104 studies were included in the final analysis. The complete selection process is presented in the PRISMA flow diagram (Figure 1), ensuring consistency between the methodological description and the visual representation.

Figure 1. Flowchart used to select papers for review, adapted from the PRISMA [13].

2.3. Data Analysis

For data analysis and visualization, the Bibliometrix R-package (v4.2.1, R Foundation for Statistical Computing, Vienna, Austria) [15] and VOSviewer (v1.6.19, Leiden University, Leiden, The Netherlands) [16] were used. VOSviewer was employed to create co-occurrence networks of keywords related to cañihua. To ensure accurate grouping of terms with similar meanings, thesauri were used to calculate aggregated frequencies and semantic relationships among keywords, thereby clarifying thematic relationships and their temporal evolution. Some overlap between clusters might occur because certain keywords are semantically connected to different research areas. This overlap naturally results from VOSviewer’s clustering algorithm, which arranges terms according to their frequency and co-occurrence patterns.

VOSviewer was employed to construct and visualize keyword co-occurrence networks. A thesaurus file was applied to standardize terminology and merge synonyms, ensuring consistency in keyword grouping and improving the accuracy of network construction. Networks were generated based on keyword co-occurrence strength to support the identification of thematic structures within the literature.

Thematic analysis was conducted using Bibliometrix based on co-occurrence data. The thematic mapping procedure is implemented within the software to position clusters in a two-dimensional space defined by centrality and density, which are used to classify themes according to their structural role in the research field.

All bibliometric indicators and visualizations were generated using standardized and reproducible algorithms embedded in the software packages. No generative AI tools were used for the bibliometric analysis, data extraction, thematic classification, or critical appraisal of the included studies. All analytical procedures were performed by the authors using the software packages reported above.

2.4. Data Extraction and Critical Appraisal of Included Studies

Data from each of the 104 included studies were extracted into a standardized spreadsheet. The extracted variables included bibliographic metadata (authors, year, journal, country of affiliation, citation count), study type (in vitro, in vivo animal model, human clinical, bibliometric or narrative review, agronomic field study, food product development or processing), sample characteristics, analytical methods, and main outcomes. Data extraction was performed independently by two authors, and inconsistencies were resolved by consensus with a third author.

Given the methodological heterogeneity of the included literature, which spans experimental food science studies, compositional analyses, agronomic evaluations, in vitro bioactivity assays, animal studies, and technological product development, no single standardized risk-of-bias tool (such as RoB 2 or ROBINS-I) was applicable across the dataset. Instead, a structured qualitative critical appraisal was performed in which each study was assessed against five criteria adapted from general appraisal frameworks for heterogeneous evidence: (i) clarity of aim and study design, (ii) adequacy of the analytical methods for the stated objective, (iii) reporting completeness (sample size, replication, statistical treatment), (iv) appropriateness of the conclusions to the evidence presented, and (v) level of evidence in the in vitro/in vivo/human hierarchy. The appraisal supported the analytical synthesis reported in Section 3, particularly in identifying methodological heterogeneity, the predominance of preclinical evidence, and the limited availability of human clinical studies. A summary of the distribution of included studies by type and appraisal outcome is provided in the Supplementary Materials.

3. Results and Discussion

3.1. Bibliometric Analysis

3.1.1. Annual Publication Trends

Figure 2A shows the temporal evolution of scientific publications on cañihua (Chenopodium pallidicaule). From 1955 to approximately 2005, research output remained minimal and sporadic, reflecting the limited global scientific attention given to underutilized Andean crops during this period. This early stage is consistent with a phase in which studies were mostly exploratory and focused on basic nutritional characterization rather than structured research programs.

Figure 2. (A) Annual evolution of the number of scientific articles on cañihua published between 1955 and 2025, showing a marked increase in publication output after 2000 and a clear acceleration during the last decade. (B) Distribution of articles by scientific journal over the same period, indicating that publications are concentrated in a limited number of journals, reflecting the emergence of specialized outlets for cañihua research.

A marked shift is observed after 2006, when publication activity begins to increase steadily, reaching clear peaks in 2018 (10 publications), 2021 (11 publications), and 2022 (11 publications). This growth is not merely a temporal coincidence but likely reflects broader scientific and policy-driven trends, including the global expansion of interest in functional foods, plant-based nutrition, and sustainable agriculture. In addition, increasing awareness of climate change adaptation and the search for resilient crops in marginal environments may have contributed to renewed attention toward Andean pseudocereals such as cañihua. The dotted regression trend confirms this sustained upward trajectory, suggesting that research on this crop is still in an expansion phase rather than saturation.

However, despite this increase in publication volume, the nature of the evidence remains uneven. A substantial proportion of studies are still based on in vitro assays and laboratory-scale experiments, with comparatively fewer studies progressing to animal models and very limited evidence derived from human clinical trials. This indicates that the quantitative growth of the field has not been matched by a proportional increase in higher levels of evidence, which constrains the strength of conclusions regarding health benefits and real-world applicability.

Figure 2B shows the distribution of publications across scientific journals. Research is mainly concentrated in food science and technology journals, particularly Foods and the Journal of Cereal Science, followed by journals such as Food Chemistry, Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture, and LWT. This distribution indicates that cañihua research is predominantly framed within food functionality, processing, and bioactive compound characterization rather than agronomy, clinical nutrition, or socio-economic disciplines. This journal concentration also reveals a disciplinary and methodological bias. Journals in these areas tend to prioritize compositional analysis, physicochemical characterization, and process optimization, which partly explains the predominance of preclinical evidence, especially in vitro studies. Consequently, fewer investigations address clinical validation, long-term nutritional effects in humans, or population-level outcomes, and there is limited attention to agricultural scalability, value chains, and socio-economic adoption.

Taken together, Figure 2A,B suggest that while cañihua research is expanding and gaining international visibility, it remains structurally concentrated within specific scientific domains. This concentration has facilitated advances in technological and functional understanding but has also limited the integration of agronomic, clinical, and socio-economic perspectives. As a result, a gap persists between laboratory-based findings and their translation into dietary recommendations, public health strategies, and sustainable food systems.

3.1.2. Most Cited Documents and Authors

Table 1 presents the ten most-cited publications in cañihua (Chenopodium pallidicaule) research. Overall, these studies reveal a field predominantly shaped by food chemistry, functional food development, and technological processing. This pattern indicates that cañihua research has mainly evolved within food science and experimental nutrition frameworks, with comparatively limited development in clinical or socio-economic domains.

Table 1. The ten articles with the highest number of citations on cañihua (Chenopodium pallidicaule) research.

Title	Journals	Country	Citations	References
Flavonoids and other phenolic compounds in Andean indigenous grains: Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa), kañiwa (Chenopodium pallidicaule) and kiwicha (Amaranthus caudatus)	Food Chemistry	Peru	374	[17]
Fermentation of pseudocereals quinoa, canihua, and amaranth to improve mineral accessibility through degradation of phytate	Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture	Sweden, Bolivia	97	[18]
Study of the physicochemical and functional characterization of quinoa and kañiwa starches	Bioscience, Nutrition and Biomedical	Argentina	96	[19]
Use of amaranth, quinoa and kañiwa in extruded corn-based snacks	Journal of Cereal Science	Finland	95	[20]
Evaluation of indigenous grains from the peruvian andean region for antidiabetes and antihypertension potential using in Vitro methods	Journal of Medicinal Food	Brazil	87	[21]
Total antioxidant capacity and content of flavonoids and other phenolic compounds in canihua (Chenopodium pallidicaule): An Andean pseudocereal	Molecular Nutrition & Food Research	Bolivia, Sweden	78	[22]
Breadmaking use of andean crops quinoa, Kañiwa, Kiwicha, and Tarwi	Cereal Chemistry	Spain, Peru	72	[23]
Effects of roasting and boiling of quinoa, kiwicha and kañiwa on composition and availability of minerals in vitro	Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture	Peru, Argentina	71	[24]
Chemical and functional characterization of kañiwa (Chenopodium pallidicaule) grain, extrudate and bran	Plant Foods for Human Nutrition	Peru	67	[25]
Genetic relationship among 19 accessions of six species of Chenopodium L., by Random Amplified Polymorphic DNA fragments (RAPD)	Euphytica	United States, Brazil, Argentina	67	[26]

The most cited article (374 citations) focuses on flavonoids and phenolic compounds in Andean grains, including cañihua, establishing their relevance as sources of natural antioxidants. This study played a foundational role in shaping subsequent research by positioning cañihua within the framework of functional foods and bioactive-rich crops. However, its impact is primarily based on compositional analysis and antioxidant capacity assays, which, while informative, do not directly demonstrate physiological effects in humans.

A second cluster of highly cited studies addresses processing technologies aimed at improving nutritional quality and mineral bioaccessibility, particularly fermentation and thermal treatments. These studies consistently report reductions in phytate content and improvements in mineral availability. Nevertheless, most of this evidence is derived from in vitro models or simulated digestion systems, which limits direct extrapolation to human physiological responses and nutrient absorption under real dietary conditions.

Another important group of studies focuses on the physicochemical and functional properties of cañihua, including starch composition, amylose content, and rheological behavior. These works demonstrate distinctive functional characteristics compared with other pseudocereals such as quinoa, supporting its application in bread, pasta, and extruded products. However, the emphasis remains largely on technological performance and processing suitability, with limited assessment of nutritional outcomes or health implications beyond laboratory conditions.

In addition, several studies explore potential antidiabetic, antihypertensive, antioxidant, and metabolic effects using in vitro assays and animal models. While these approaches provide preliminary and mechanistic insights, they represent intermediate levels of evidence. The absence of well-designed human clinical trials constitutes a critical limitation, restricting the ability to substantiate health claims and translate findings into dietary recommendations or public health interventions.

From a geographical perspective, research output is strongly led by Peru and Bolivia, consistent with the origin and traditional cultivation of cañihua. However, significant contributions from Europe (e.g., Finland, Spain, and Sweden) and North America indicate a growing internationalization of research activity. This pattern suggests that scientific interest is driven not only by crop availability but also by global trends such as the demand for functional foods, gluten-free ingredients, and sustainable dietary alternatives. At the same time, it may reflect an imbalance in research focus, where technological innovation in non-producing regions is not always aligned with local agricultural practices or socio-economic realities in producing countries.

Overall, the citation structure summarized in Table 1 indicates that cañihua research is still largely positioned within preclinical and technological domains, with substantial advances in compositional and functional understanding. However, there is limited progression toward clinical validation, long-term human studies, and socio-economic impact assessment. This gap highlights the need for more integrative and interdisciplinary research approaches that connect laboratory findings with real-world applications, including nutrition, public health, and sustainable food systems.

3.1.3. Countries with the Highest Scientific Output

Figure 3 illustrates the global distribution of scientific production on cañihua based on author affiliations. The results show a marked geographic concentration, with Peru (215 affiliations) and Bolivia (55 affiliations) as the main contributors. This predominance is consistent with the fact that cañihua is an underutilized Andean crop traditionally cultivated in high-altitude agroecosystems, where local research institutions have played a central role in its agronomic characterization, genetic conservation, and nutritional evaluation.

Figure 3. Geographic distribution of scientific publications on cañihua (Chenopodium pallidicaule) by country, based on author affiliations. The results show a strong concentration of publications in Andean countries, particularly Peru and Bolivia, with limited contributions from other regions, highlighting the geographically localized focus of cañihua research.

Beyond the Andean region, a secondary cluster of scientific activity is observed in Europe, particularly in Finland (30), Sweden (22), Spain (15), France (17), Italy (25), Denmark (11), and Bulgaria (10). This pattern likely reflects the growing interest of European research groups in functional foods, pseudocereals, and ingredient innovation, driven by increasing demand for gluten-free products and plant-based protein sources. Similarly, countries in North and South America, including the United States (28), Brazil (19), Argentina (13), and Chile (10), contribute significantly, indicating broader engagement in food science, nutrition, and agricultural diversification.

However, this geographic distribution is not only descriptive but also indicative of structural differences in research focus and capacity. Andean countries tend to concentrate on primary production, agronomic characterization, and compositional analysis, often under resource-constrained conditions. In contrast, non-producing regions are more frequently associated with advanced food processing, functional characterization, and product development, benefiting from stronger technological infrastructure and funding availability.

This division suggests a form of complementarity, but also reveals a potential fragmentation of the research field. While knowledge generation is geographically diverse, it is not always fully integrated. For instance, technological innovations developed in non-producing regions may not adequately consider local agronomic conditions, cultural practices, or supply chain limitations in Andean countries. Conversely, research conducted in producing regions may face challenges in scaling up or translating findings into high-value products for global markets.

Furthermore, despite the apparent internationalization of cañihua research, the extent of cross-regional collaboration remains limited, as also suggested by the collaboration network (Figure 4). This weak integration may hinder the development of a cohesive research agenda that connects agricultural production, technological innovation, and socio-economic impact.

Figure 4. Collaboration network among authors in cañihua (Chenopodium pallidicaule) research. Nodes represent authors and links indicate co-authorship relationships, highlighting the organization of research groups and collaboration patterns in the scientific literature.

Overall, the geographic distribution of scientific output highlights both opportunities and gaps. While it reflects growing global interest in cañihua as a functional and sustainable crop, it also underscores the need for more interdisciplinary and transnational research efforts that bridge the divide between producing and non-producing regions. Strengthening these connections will be essential to fully realize the potential of cañihua in terms of food innovation, nutritional security, and sustainable agricultural systems.

3.1.4. Scientific Collaboration Networks

Figure 4 presents a network diagram illustrating the relationships among authors, reflecting academic collaboration patterns in cañihua (Chenopodium pallidicaule) research. Distinct clusters can be identified based on network structure and color differentiation, indicating the presence of several research groups organized around specific authors.

The red cluster is centered on Simpalo-López, Wilson Daniel, who is connected with Esquivel-Paredes, Lourdes Joss and Martínez-Villalvenga, Cristina, forming a relatively cohesive group. The green cluster, partially associated with the previous one, includes overlapping authors, suggesting some degree of shared research activity and thematic convergence. The blue cluster is led by Jouppila, Kirsi, who collaborates with José Manuel and Juan Gabriel, forming a separate but indirectly connected research group. In addition, smaller clusters are observed, including an isolated node and a small group with limited external connections, indicating localized or less collaborative research efforts.

Overall, the network reveals a structure composed of multiple semi-connected clusters rather than a fully integrated collaboration system. This pattern suggests that cañihua research is still developing as a field, with collaborations primarily concentrated within specific teams or institutions rather than across broader international networks. Such fragmentation may limit the exchange of knowledge, methodologies, and resources, potentially slowing the consolidation of a more cohesive research agenda.

From a thematic perspective, several of the identified authors contribute to studies focused on food applications, including the development of products such as craft beer enriched with cañihua malt and functional bakery formulations. While these contributions demonstrate the technological versatility of cañihua, they are largely aligned with the dominant research focus on food processing and functional properties, reinforcing the disciplinary concentration observed in Figure 2 and Figure 5.

Figure 5. Keyword co-occurrence network of articles published in Scopus-indexed journals between 1995 and 2025. Nodes represent keywords and links indicate co-occurrence relationships, revealing the thematic structure and principal research trends in the literature.

However, the limited connectivity between clusters also reflects a broader gap between different research domains. For instance, collaborations between groups working on agronomy, food technology, and health-related outcomes appear to be weak or indirect. This lack of interdisciplinary integration may contribute to the persistence of key limitations in the field, such as the scarcity of clinical studies and the limited translation of laboratory findings into real-world applications.

In this context, strengthening cross-cluster and cross-regional collaborations particularly between producing and non-producing countries could enhance the integration of knowledge across the value chain, from crop production to food development and nutritional impact. Such integration would be essential to advance cañihua research beyond its current fragmented structure toward a more mature and impactful scientific field.

3.1.5. Keyword Co-Occurrence and Thematic Map

Figure 5 presents a network graph illustrating the interrelations among key concepts related to cañihua and other pseudocereals, organized into thematic clusters differentiated by color. The green cluster groups Chenopodium pallidicaule and Chenopodium quinoa, associated with terms such as cultivar, Peru, crops, agricultural, and nonhuman, reflecting a predominantly agronomic and taxonomic focus. The red cluster integrates quinoa, cañihua, and amaranth with concepts such as bioactive compounds, proteins, pseudocereals, and extrusion, highlighting the strong emphasis on functional properties and food processing. The blue cluster is centered on biochemical and molecular terms, including chemistry, metabolism, starch, and genetic-related descriptors, while the purple and yellow clusters are associated with seed composition, lipids, oxidation processes, and phenolic compounds.

Although this structure reflects the multidisciplinary nature of research on cañihua, encompassing agronomy, chemistry, nutrition, and food technology, the distribution of keywords also reveals an important imbalance. Dominant clusters are largely oriented toward compositional analysis, bioactive compounds, and processing technologies, whereas topics related to clinical nutrition, human health outcomes, socio-economic factors, and large-scale agricultural systems are comparatively underrepresented. This suggests that, despite thematic diversity, the field remains concentrated in laboratory-based and preclinical domains.

Figure 6 complements this analysis by classifying research themes according to their level of development (density) and relevance (centrality). Motor themes located in the upper-right quadrant—such as “antioxidant activity”, “bioactive compounds”, “bread formulation”, and terms related to quinoa and cañihua—indicate areas that are both well-developed and central to the field. These themes reinforce the dominant focus on functional foods and technological applications. In contrast, niche themes in the upper-left quadrant, including “fibers” and “partial least squares regression models”, appear methodologically specialized but less influential in shaping the overall research landscape.

Figure 6. Strategic map of research themes on cañihua (Chenopodium pallidicaule). Themes are positioned according to centrality and density, distinguishing motor themes, basic themes, emerging or declining themes, and highly developed but isolated topics, thereby illustrating the conceptual structure of the research field.

More importantly, the lower-right quadrant (basic themes) includes topics such as “antioxidant capacity”, “fatty acid profile”, and iron-related terms, which are central but still underdeveloped. This suggests that even some core nutritional aspects of cañihua require further investigation, particularly in terms of standardization and validation. Meanwhile, the lower-left quadrant identifies emerging or declining themes, such as “climate change”, “South America”, and product optimization strategies. The presence of “climate change” in this quadrant is particularly relevant, as it indicates that, despite the recognized resilience of Andean crops, their role in climate adaptation and sustainable agriculture remains insufficiently explored.

Taken together, Figure 5 and Figure 6 indicate that cañihua research is characterized by thematic expansion but uneven development, with strong consolidation in food science and bioactive compound research, contrasted by limited progress in clinical, environmental, and socio-economic dimensions. Additionally, the persistent prominence of quinoa-related terms compared to cañihua highlights a disparity in scientific attention, suggesting that cañihua remains relatively underexplored despite its nutritional and agronomic potential.

In this context, future research should aim to rebalance the field by strengthening underdeveloped areas, particularly human clinical studies, long-term nutritional assessments, climate resilience research, and value chain analysis. Advancing these dimensions will be essential to move from compositional and technological characterization toward a more comprehensive understanding of cañihua as a functional food within sustainable and equitable food systems.

The strategic distribution of themes shown in Figure 6 provides the basis for identifying the main research areas in cañihua studies. These thematic patterns are further examined in the following section, which classifies the literature into major topic areas and summarizes the principal findings reported in each domain.

3.1.6. Methodological Limitations of the Bibliometric Analysis

The interpretation of the bibliometric findings should consider several methodological limitations that may influence the apparent research trends identified in this study. First, the exclusive use of the Scopus database may introduce selection bias, as relevant studies indexed in regional databases or published in non-indexed journals particularly from Andean countries may not be fully captured. This limitation is especially relevant for cañihua, a crop with strong regional importance.

In addition, restricting the analysis to English-language publications may have led to the underrepresentation of research conducted in Spanish-speaking regions, potentially affecting the observed geographic distribution and thematic emphasis. The search strategy, including the selection of keywords and the exclusion of certain study types, may also have influenced the identification of dominant research areas, potentially underrepresenting alternative domains such as purely genetic or agronomic studies.

Furthermore, bibliometric indicators based on citation counts and keyword co-occurrence reflect patterns of visibility and indexing rather than the intrinsic scientific quality or real-world impact of the studies. Citation-based analyses may also be affected by temporal bias, as more recent publications have had less time to accumulate citations, potentially influencing the identification of highly cited works and emerging research trends.

As a result, the observed predominance of specific topics such as food science and bioactive compounds and the limited representation of clinical or socio-economic research may be partially shaped by these methodological factors. Therefore, the trends identified in this study should be interpreted as indicative rather than definitive, and future research would benefit from integrating multiple databases and complementary analytical approaches.

3.1.7. Topic Areas and Main Findings

The analysis of the scientific literature identified ten main thematic areas representing the core research directions in cañihua studies (Table 2). This classification was established through a detailed review of abstracts, complemented by methodological and result analysis, and full-text consultation when necessary. In contrast to a purely descriptive compilation, the revised table organizes the literature into structured categories that integrate the main research focus, representative findings, and existing knowledge gaps for each topic. This approach provides a more synthetic and interpretative overview of how current research on cañihua is distributed, while also highlighting converging evidence, limitations, and priority areas for future investigation.

Table 2. Thematic classification of cañihua research: main focuses, key findings, and research gaps.

Topic Area	Main Focus	Representative Findings	Research Gaps	Reference
Bioactive compounds and health effects	Identification and characterization of phenolic compounds, flavonoids, peptides, unsaturated fatty acids, GABA, phytoecdysteroids, saponins, and evaluation of biological activities.	Antioxidant, antihypertensive, antidiabetic, antimicrobial, neuroprotective and antianemic effects reported in in vitro and animal studies.	Lack of clinical studies, low evidence on bioavailability, mechanisms of action and dose–response relationships.	[2,5,9,11,17,21,22,24,25,27,28,29,30,31,32,33,34,35,36,37,38,39,40,41,42,43,44,45,46]
Agroindustrial applications of cañihua	Development and technological evaluation of value-added food and non-food products incorporating cañihua flour, malt, protein-rich fractions, or oil. Major applications include bakery products, gluten-free foods, pasta, snacks, extrudates, rice analogues, breakfast cereals, infant foods, craft beers, meat analogues, chocolates, and cosmetic formulations.	Cañihua has shown promising techno-functional properties, contributing to improved nutritional value, gluten-free formulations, protein enrichment, sensory acceptability, and diversification of Andean raw materials. Its incorporation has also supported innovation in extrusion-based products, fermented beverages, and specialty foods. Cañihua oil has additionally demonstrated potential for cosmetic applications.	Most studies remain at laboratory or pilot scale, with limited industrial validation. Further research is needed on process optimization, shelf life, consumer acceptance in broader markets, economic feasibility, regulatory aspects, and sustainable supply chain development for large-scale commercialization.	[10,20,23,47,48,49,50,51,52,53,54,55,56,57,58,59,60,61,62,63]
Agricultural production and sustainability	Studies in this area address germplasm conservation, morpho-agronomic characterization, seed physiology, pest and disease dynamics, climate resilience, farmer adaptation strategies, ethnobotanical knowledge, and the role of cañihua as a neglected crop in sustainable Andean farming systems. Research also includes genetic responses to abiotic stress and the socioeconomic relevance of diversified production systems.	Findings indicate that cañihua possesses strong tolerance to frost, drought, and high-altitude stress, making it a strategic crop under climate change scenarios. Existing germplasm resources reveal important genetic variability for breeding programs, while traditional knowledge highlights its cultural and food-security value in Andean communities. Studies also emphasize its contribution to agrobiodiversity and resilient local agriculture.	Despite its potential, cañihua remains underutilized and under-researched compared with other pseudocereals. More studies are needed on breeding, mechanized production, integrated pest management, seed systems, yield stability, environmental footprint, and policies that support scaling-up sustainable cultivation and market integration.	[64,65,66,67,68,69,70,71,72,73,74]
Physicochemical and functional properties of cañihua	Research in this area focuses on the characterization of cañihua starch, flour, and oil fractions, including structural, thermal, rheological, morphological, emulsifying, and techno-functional properties. Studies have also explored starch modification, nanostarch production, spectroscopy-based authentication, and ingredient performance in food systems.	Findings show that cañihua presents valuable functional attributes such as starch versatility, emulsifying potential, thermal stability, and suitability for gluten-free and plant-based formulations. Modified starches and nanostarch have demonstrated potential for advanced food applications, while spectroscopic tools have proven useful for quality control and authenticity assessment. These properties support the use of cañihua as an innovative ingredient for product development.	Current evidence is still fragmented and often based on small-scale laboratory studies. Further research is required on rheological behavior under industrial processing, interactions with other food components, storage stability, standardization among cultivars, and scale-up of modified starch and ingredient applications.	[8,19,75,76,77,78,79,80,81,82,83]
Characterization of Andean seeds and grains	This thematic area encompasses the physical, chemical, nutritional, proteomic, rheological, and structural characterization of cañihua and other Andean grains. Studies include cultivar differentiation, seed quality assessment, dehulling effects, protein fractionation, thermal behavior, mechanical properties, and analytical methods for authentication and comparative evaluation.	Findings highlight substantial variability among cultivars and processing conditions, influencing nutrient composition, protein profiles, and technological performance. Advanced tools such as LC-MS/MS proteomics, infrared spectroscopy, and mechanical analysis have improved species authentication and grain differentiation. These studies reinforce the nutritional value and technological potential of Andean grains while supporting quality control strategies.	Existing research is still limited by small sample sets and inconsistent methodologies. Further studies are needed on standardized quality parameters, broader germplasm screening, genotype–environment interactions, post-harvest effects, and the integration of rapid analytical tools into industrial and commercial quality assurance systems.	[4,7,84,85,86,87,88]
Food safety, biotechnology, and preservation technologies	Research in this area addresses contaminant monitoring, food safety assessment, fermentation processes, biodegradable packaging, and molecular tools for genetic identification and diversity analysis of cañihua. Studies include mycotoxin occurrence, genotoxicity evaluation, phytate degradation through fermentation, dough fermentation performance, biofilm development from cañihua flour, and marker-assisted characterization of germplas	Findings indicate that cañihua and related pseudocereals may be exposed to mycotoxins depending on cultivation and storage conditions, highlighting the need for safety surveillance. Fermentation has shown potential to improve mineral bioaccessibility and dough properties through phytate reduction. In addition, cañihua flour has demonstrated suitability for biodegradable biofilm production, while molecular markers have supported diversity assessment and germplasm management.	Available studies are still limited in scale and continuity. Further research is needed on long-term contaminant monitoring, industrial validation of fermentation processes, shelf-life and barrier properties of biofilms, genomic breeding tools, traceability systems, and regulatory frameworks to support safe commercialization of cañihua-based products.	[18,26,68,89,90,91,92,93,94]
Botanical and physiological foundations of pseudocereals	This thematic area examines the domestication history, archaeobotanical evidence, reproductive traits, early plant development, root architecture, stress adaptation, and metabolic profiling of cañihua and related pseudocereals. It provides the biological basis for understanding crop evolution, adaptation, and future improvement strategies.	Studies have identified domesticated and wild forms of kañawa in the Lake Titicaca Basin, supporting its long-standing role in Andean agriculture. Research on seed shattering has highlighted key domestication-related traits linked to harvestability, while root system architecture studies indicate adaptive strategies for nutrient foraging and establishment under marginal conditions. Metabolic profiling has further revealed biochemical diversity with relevance for stress responses and grain quality.	This area remains comparatively underexplored. Further studies are needed on reproductive biology, seed physiology, genome-assisted domestication traits, root–soil interactions, ecophysiological responses to climate stress, and the integration of archaeobotanical and molecular evidence to clarify the evolutionary trajectory of cañihua.	[95,96,97,98]
History, cultural uses, and heritage value	Studies in this area explore the domestication history, ancestral consumption, traditional uses, and cultural significance of cañihua within Andean societies.	Archaeobotanical evidence supports the early domestication and use of cañihua in the Andean Altiplano, while historical studies indicate its role in pre-Columbian food systems and traditional ethnomedical practices. These findings highlight cañihua as both a food resource and a component of regional biocultural heritage.	Further interdisciplinary research is needed to document traditional knowledge, historical diffusion, culinary practices, and the role of cañihua in contemporary cultural identity and heritage conservation.	[99,100,101]
Processing, optimization, and development of Andean products	Research in this area focuses on process optimization, ingredient extraction, and technological improvement of cañihua and other Andean raw materials for food applications.	Studies have optimized germination conditions for whole-grain pseudocereal flours and improved protein extraction processes, enhancing nutritional quality and functional properties. These approaches support the development of value-added Andean products with greater industrial potential.	Further research is needed on process scale-up, cost-efficiency, sustainability, sensory quality, and industrial implementation of optimized technologies for commercial production.	[102,103]

In addition to the thematic classification presented in Table 2, it is important to note that the current body of evidence is predominantly based on in vitro and laboratory-scale studies, with a limited number of animal studies and scarce human clinical research. This imbalance in study design and level of evidence should be considered when interpreting the reported findings, as it limits the strength, reproducibility, and direct applicability of the conclusions. Consequently, while the thematic synthesis provides a comprehensive overview of research trends, its interpretation should be framed within a predominantly preclinical and heterogeneous evidence base.

The distribution of these thematic areas is illustrated in Figure 7. The percentages were calculated considering 100% as the total number of studies analyzed, and each thematic category represents its relative proportion within this dataset. As shown in the figure, most studies focus on bioactive compounds and health effects, followed by industrial applications and sustainable agricultural production. Other areas, such as physicochemical and functional properties, characterization of Andean seeds, food safety, biotechnology, genetic improvement of pseudocereals, and historical or cultural aspects, represent smaller but relevant shares of the scientific literature. This distribution highlights the current research priorities and the multidimensional interest in cañihua, ranging from molecular composition and health implications to technological development and cultural value.

Figure 7. Topic areas of cañihua (Chenopodium pallidicaule) research. The distribution of publications across thematic categories illustrates the principal lines of research and the breadth of scientific interest in this crop.

The predominance of research areas related to bioactive compounds, functional properties, and food applications highlighted in Figure 7 is consistent with the bibliometric and thematic analyses presented above. These dominant topics explain the strong emphasis on nutritional composition and functional potential in the literature, which in turn has driven the development of diverse food applications. Accordingly, the following section synthesizes the reported nutritional value and bioactive compounds of cañihua as the basis for its technological and functional uses.

3.2. Trends in the Use of Cañihua

3.2.1. Nutritional Value and Bioactive Compounds

Cañihua (Chenopodium pallidicaule) has gained increasing attention as an Andean pseudocereal due to its nutritional value, cultural relevance, and suitability for functional food development [8]. Its tolerance to frost, drought, and marginal soils also highlights its strategic importance for resilient food systems in vulnerable regions. However, as summarized in Table 3, its compositional variability remains a significant limitation, as nutrient content is strongly influenced by genotype, environmental conditions, and post-harvest practices, which complicates direct comparisons across studies and limits data reproducibility [10,20].

Compared with other pseudocereals such as quinoa and amaranth, cañihua has frequently shown higher protein and lipid contents, suggesting a competitive nutritional profile. Nevertheless, these comparisons should be interpreted with caution, as differences in analytical methodologies and cultivation conditions are rarely standardized [10,22]. Beyond compositional values, the technological and functional implications of these differences remain underexplored. For instance, higher lipid content may enhance energy density but could also affect oxidative stability and shelf life, posing challenges for industrial applications.

Its protein fraction, mainly composed of albumins and globulins, presents an amino acid profile comparable to quinoa, with high levels of glutamic acid, aspartic acid, and arginine, while essential amino acids such as valine, leucine, and isoleucine are particularly abundant [74]. Although its chemical score (93.3) approaches the FAO/WHO reference pattern, with threonine as the limiting amino acid [75], protein quality assessments are still largely based on compositional data rather than digestibility or bioavailability studies. This represents a critical gap, as processing conditions and food matrices can significantly alter protein utilization in vivo.

The lipid fraction is characterized by a predominance of unsaturated fatty acids, which may enhance its nutritional value; however, limited evidence exists regarding its oxidative stability during storage and processing [28,30,33]. Similarly, cañihua contains a wide range of bioactive compounds, including phenolics, flavonol glycosides, tocopherols, tocotrienols, betalains, and carotenoids, which contribute to its antioxidant potential [22,37,104]. Despite this, most findings are based on in vitro assays, and there is a lack of in vivo and clinical evidence supporting their actual health effects, as well as limited information on bioaccessibility and metabolism.

From a broader perspective, cañihua holds promise not only as a nutrient-dense ingredient but also as a crop that could contribute to diversifying global food systems and supporting climate-resilient agriculture. However, its wider adoption faces several challenges, including limited agronomic standardization, scarce large-scale production, and insufficient research on sensory acceptance and consumer perception. Addressing these gaps will be essential to move from its current status as a niche pseudocereal toward broader industrial and nutritional applications.

Table 3. Nutritional composition and bioactive compounds of cañihua (Chenopodium pallidicaule).

Component	Main Constituents	Content *	Key Remarks	Reference
Carbohydrates	Starch and complex carbohydrates	63.64–68.00%	Major fraction of the grain	[25,33]
Dietary fiber	Insoluble fiber	22.27–23.16%	High fiber content compared to other pseudocereals	[25,33]
Protein	Albumins, globulins, glutelins, prolamins	14.41–15.5%	High- quality protein; chemical score= 93.3; threonine limiting	[4,25,33]
Lipids	Unsaturated fatty acids (linoleic, oleic, α-linolenic)	7.6–8.5%	76.9% unsaturated; rich in essential fatty acids	[28,30,33,105]
Minerals	P, K, Ca, Mg, Na	-	Contributes to micronutrient intake	[84]
Phenolic compounds	Catechin, quercitin, kaempferol, resorcinols	186.54 mg GAE/100 g	Strong antioxidant potential	[22,34,37]
Flavonoids	Flavonol triglycosides	249.82 mg CAT/100 g	Linked to anti-inflammatory and anticancer activities	[30,34]
Tocols	Tocopherols and tocotrienols	18.06 mg/100 g DW	Higher than quinoa and amaranth	[34]
Betalains	Betacyanins and betaxanthins	2.3–42.0 mg/100 g	Varies with ecotype	[33]
Carotenoids	Lutein, β-carotene, β-cryptoxanthin, zeaxanthin	385.7 µg/100 DW	Lutein predominant	[34]

*: Values presented as reported in the studies; P: Phosphorus; K: Potassium; Ca: Calcium; Mg: Magnesium; Na: Sodium, GAE: Gallic Acid Equivalent; CAT: Catechin Equivalent; DW: dry weight.

Table 3. Nutritional composition and bioactive compounds of cañihua (Chenopodium pallidicaule).

Component	Main Constituents	Content *	Key Remarks	Reference
Carbohydrates	Starch and complex carbohydrates	63.64–68.00%	Major fraction of the grain	[25,33]
Dietary fiber	Insoluble fiber	22.27–23.16%	High fiber content compared to other pseudocereals	[25,33]
Protein	Albumins, globulins, glutelins, prolamins	14.41–15.5%	High- quality protein; chemical score= 93.3; threonine limiting	[4,25,33]
Lipids	Unsaturated fatty acids (linoleic, oleic, α-linolenic)	7.6–8.5%	76.9% unsaturated; rich in essential fatty acids	[28,30,33,105]
Minerals	P, K, Ca, Mg, Na	-	Contributes to micronutrient intake	[84]
Phenolic compounds	Catechin, quercitin, kaempferol, resorcinols	186.54 mg GAE/100 g	Strong antioxidant potential	[22,34,37]
Flavonoids	Flavonol triglycosides	249.82 mg CAT/100 g	Linked to anti-inflammatory and anticancer activities	[30,34]
Tocols	Tocopherols and tocotrienols	18.06 mg/100 g DW	Higher than quinoa and amaranth	[34]
Betalains	Betacyanins and betaxanthins	2.3–42.0 mg/100 g	Varies with ecotype	[33]
Carotenoids	Lutein, β-carotene, β-cryptoxanthin, zeaxanthin	385.7 µg/100 DW	Lutein predominant	[34]

*: Values presented as reported in the studies; P: Phosphorus; K: Potassium; Ca: Calcium; Mg: Magnesium; Na: Sodium, GAE: Gallic Acid Equivalent; CAT: Catechin Equivalent; DW: dry weight.

While Table 3 summarizes the general composition of cañihua, a more detailed examination of antioxidant-related compounds is necessary to better understand its functional properties. In particular, compounds such as phenolics, flavonoids, and γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA) have been associated with significant antioxidant capacity, commonly evaluated through in vitro assays such as total phenolic content (TPC) and oxygen radical absorbance capacity (ORAC).

However, the available evidence shows considerable variability depending on processing conditions, pre-treatments, and analytical methodologies. Germination, in particular, has been reported to enhance the concentration of certain bioactive compounds and antioxidant activity, although results are not always consistent across studies. Moreover, most findings are based on in vitro analyses, which limits the direct extrapolation of these effects to physiological conditions.

In this context, Table 4 presents a comparative summary of selected studies evaluating bioactive compounds and antioxidant capacity in cañihua and germinated cañihua samples, highlighting both the reported values and the variability associated with experimental conditions.

Table 4. Bioactive compounds and antioxidant capacity of cañihua (Chenopodium pallidicaule).

Sample	Parameters			References
	GABA (g/100 g dw)	TSPC (mg GAE/100 g)	ORAC (µmol TE/g)
Germinated cañihua	0.052	1545.09	114.92	[54]
Cañihua	27.05	97.50	1326.64	[48]
Germinated cañihua	1975.41	141.13	1975.41
Germinated cañihua	0.100	386.12	114.92	[56]

The variability in bioactive compounds and antioxidant capacity shown in Table 4 is partly influenced by processing conditions and pre-treatment methods applied to cañihua. These technological interventions can modify phenolic content, enhance bioavailability, and alter functional properties. Therefore, the following section summarizes the main pre-treatments reported in the literature and their effects on the nutritional and technological characteristics of cañihua.

3.2.2. Pre-Treatments of Cañihua

Table 4 summarizes the pre-treatments applied to cañihua (Chenopodium pallidicaule), highlighting that malting comprising soaking, germination, and drying has been the most extensively studied approach due to its significant impact on the nutritional and functional properties of the grain.

As illustrated in Figure 8, malting and germination involve a sequence of biochemical transformations driven by the activation of endogenous enzymes such as amylases, proteases, lipases, and phytases. These enzymes catalyze the hydrolysis of macromolecules, leading to the breakdown of starch into simple sugars, proteins into peptides and amino acids, and lipids into free fatty acids and glycerol [106]. This enzymatic activity enhances nutrient digestibility and contributes to the formation of bioactive compounds.

Figure 8. Schematic overview of malting and germination in cañihua, illustrating enzymatic macromolecular breakdown and its impact on nutritional quality. The activation of endogenous enzymes (amylases, proteases, lipases, and phytases) during soaking, germination, and drying leads to improved nutrient bioavailability, increased bioactive compounds, and reduced antinutritional factors. Arrows indicate process flow, while colors differentiate the stages of soaking, germination, and drying. All elements described in this figure are consistent with those displayed in the illustration.

At the same time, phytase activity promotes the degradation of phytic acid and other antinutritional factors, resulting in improved mineral bioavailability, particularly for iron, zinc, and calcium [107,108,109]. Additionally, germination is associated with increased levels of phenolic compounds, flavonoids, and vitamins, contributing to enhanced antioxidant capacity and improved nutritional quality.

These biochemical and structural modifications also influence sensory attributes, including flavor development through the formation of Maillard reaction precursors during drying, which may improve overall product acceptability [107,110].

Despite the predominance of malting, other pre-treatments such as dehulling, boiling, soaking, and steaming may also influence the nutritional composition and reduction in antinutrients through different mechanisms [84,111]. However, their effects are less systematically studied and vary depending on processing conditions.

To complement the mechanistic insights illustrated in Figure 8, Table 5 provides a comparative overview of the different pre-treatment strategies applied to cañihua, including malting and alternative processes such as dehulling, soaking, boiling, and steaming. The table highlights their respective effects on nutritional composition, antinutrient reduction, and functional properties, allowing for a more comprehensive evaluation of their technological potential in food applications.

Table 5. Pre-treatments of cañihua (Chenopodium pallidicaule) and their effects on antinutrients and nutritional profile.

Process	Process Description	Experimental Conditions	Antinutrient Content	Main Results	References
Malting	Disinfection	Sodium hypochlorite solution (0.1%) for 30 min	The phytic acid (PA) content in cañihua was 1.30 g/100 g on a dry weight basis in the raw sample, whereas after the malting process, it decreased to 0.93 g/100 g (dry weight), representing an approximate 28.5% reduction associated with germination.	The nutritional profile of cañihua was significantly improved, with increased dietary fiber, phenolic compounds, and antioxidant capacity; however, protein and ash content decreased	[48]
	Soaking	Grain–water ratio of 1:5 for 6 h at 25 °C in darkness
	Germination	72 h at 20 °C
	Drying	45 °C for 24 h until reaching 5–8% moisture content
	Particle size	0.25 mm
	Disinfection	Sodium hypochlorite solution (0.1%) for 30 min	The phytic acid (PA) content in sprouted cañihua flour (SCF) was 0.56 g/100 g on a dry weight basis.	The nutritional profile of cañihua was significantly improved	[54]
	Washing	In sterile water at a ratio of 1:5 (w/v) for 6 h
	Germination	20 °C for 72 h for cañihua
	Drying	40 °C for 30 h
	Washing and disinfection	Sodium hypochlorite solution (0.1%) for 30 min	NA	The nutritional profile of cañihua was significantly improved	[50]
	Soaking	Grain–water ratio of 1:5 for 6 h at 25 °C in darkness
	Germination	72 h at 20 °C, until radicles reach 7–10 mm
	Drying	45 °C for 24 h until reaching a moisture content of 5–8%
	Particle size	0.25 mm
	Disinfection	Sodium hypochlorite solution (0.1%) for 30 min	The phytic acid (PA) content in sprouted Cañihua flour (SCF) was 0.88 g/100 g on a dry weight basis.	The nutritional profile of cañihua was significantly improved	[56]
	Soaking	Grain–water ratio of 1:5 for 6 h at 25 °C in darkness
	Germination	Relative humidity ≥ 90%
	Drying	40 °C for 30 h
	Particle size	Particle size

The pre-treatments summarized in Table 5 indicate that different processing approaches, including malting, soaking, and germination, can influence the antinutritional content and nutritional profile of cañihua. However, the effects vary depending on the specific process and experimental conditions applied in each study. Overall, these modifications are associated with changes in bioactive compounds and functional properties, which may contribute to the potential use of cañihua in food product development. Therefore, these findings provide a basis for understanding its applications in functional foods, as discussed in the following section.

3.2.3. Applications in Functional Foods

Figure 9 illustrates the distribution of food products in which cañihua (Chenopodium pallidicaule) has been incorporated according to the studies analyzed in this review. The percentages were calculated considering 100% as the total number of food products identified in the reviewed literature, and each category represents its relative proportion within this dataset. The figure shows a higher incorporation of cañihua in extruded products, bread, cookies, beer, and other processed foods, reflecting the main matrices in which this Andean grain has been explored for food applications. These applications are particularly relevant because such processing technologies allow the integration of nutrient-dense ingredients while maintaining desirable physicochemical and sensory characteristics.

Figure 9. Percentage incorporation of cañihua (Chenopodium pallidicaule) in different food matrices. The distribution of incorporation percentages reflects the most commonly evaluated application levels and the diversity of food products developed using cañihua.

Table 6 summarizes in detail the use of cañihua in different food products reported in the scientific literature, highlighting the specific matrices in which it has been incorporated as well as its main nutritional and physical contributions. Several studies have evaluated its application in diverse products, including meat products, beverages, baked goods, extruded foods, and confectionery. The results indicate that cañihua can enhance the nutritional profile of foods due to its high-quality proteins, dietary fiber, and bioactive compounds. However, technological and sensory effects depend largely on the level of substitution and the type of product, with reported changes in texture, color, and sensory acceptance. Overall, these findings position cañihua as a versatile ingredient for developing functional foods, particularly when formulations are optimized for specific applications.

Table 6. Applications of cañihua (Chenopodium pallidicaule) in various food products and their main nutritional and physical properties, summarizing the reported effects of its incorporation on product quality and composition across different studies.

Product Type	Raw Material Used	% Cañihua	Nutritional/Technological Properties	Physical Properties	References
Sausage	Cañihua grains (Cupi variety), obtained from the Agrarian Experimental Station of the National Institute of Agrarian Innovation (INIA), Puno, Peru	15% cañihua flour	Adding 15% cañihua flour produced sausages with intermediate texture, good stability, and high cooking yield, forming a compact protein network after frying. It also lowered color lightness, resembling artisanal meat, and reduced diameter shrinkage during cooking, improving product quality.	NA	[47]
Beer	Cañihua grains (Illpa-INIA variety), obtained from the Agrarian Experimental Station of the National Institute of Agrarian Innovation (INIA), Puno, Peru	7%, 11%, 13%, 15%, 16%, 19%, 21%, and 25% malted cañihua flour	Adding malted cañihua to craft beer slightly lowered pH, increased acidity, and improved microbiological stability. It raised density through fermentable carbs, reduced soluble solids via fermentation, and enhanced turbidity and foam capacity.	Cañihua improved the beer’s nutritional and functional profile, increasing dietary fiber, phenolics, GABA, and antioxidant capacity. Malting lowered protein and ash but boosted nutrient bioavailability and antioxidants. Overall, it allowed for a more nutritious, functional beer with typical alcohol levels.	[48]
Beer	Cañihua grains (Illpa-INIA variety), provided by the Agrarian Experimental Station of the National Institute of Agrarian Innovation (INIA), Puno, Peru	7%, 11%, 13%, 15%, 16%, 19%, 21%, and 25% malted cañihua flour	Adding cañihua to craft beer enhances density, viscosity, body, foam stability, darker color, turbidity, and slightly raises pH, aiding stability. Its fermentable sugars moderate alcohol and soften bitterness without affecting IBU.	NA	[50]
Extrudates	Pearled cañihua grains (Sahiua variety)	59.52% cañihua flour	Snacks with cañihua flour (59.52%) showed high protein content (13.6 g/100 g), low lipid content (2.6 g/100 g), and a predominance of carbohydrates (74.5 g/100 g). The product also provided dietary fiber (2.2 g/100 g) and minerals (2.08 g/100 g), demonstrating the potential of cañihua as a functional ingredient for nutritious and healthy extruded snacks	The snacks had a porous, compact structure with an apparent density of 0.27 g/cm3 and moderate expansion (SEI 2.74). The brown color with yellowish tones is due to partial starch gelatinization and non-enzymatic browning during extrusion. Low water solubility indicates partially intact starch, contributing to a firm, stable texture suitable for direct consumption or use in liquids and semi-solids.	[49]
Extrudates	Cañihua (Chenopodium pallidicaule Aellen), obtained from the Agrarian Experimental Station, National Institute of Agrarian Innovation (ILLPA-INIA), Puno, Peru	16.67%, 33.33%, 50%, 66.67%, and 100% germinated cañihua flour	Incorporating germinated cañihua flour boosted total soluble phenolic compounds (TSPC) and antioxidant capacity (ORAC), especially as the main ingredient. GABA content dropped (~35%) due to heat and shear during extrusion, while phytic acid stayed stable at high levels.	Incorporating germinated cañihua flour in extrudates reduces expansion, increases density, and produces denser snacks. It softens texture, boosts water absorption and solubility, and darkens color. While blending with corn semolina can lessen these effects, cañihua notably alters structure and functional properties.	[54]
Cookies	Cañihua (Chenopodium pallidicaule Aellen), INIA ILLPA variety, acquired from the National Institute of Agrarian Innovation (INIA), Puno, Peru	29.67–59.35% cañihua flour	NA	Cookies with 38.51% cañihua flour showed a soft texture, while those with 35.15% were harder; additionally, increasing cañihua content reduced lightness and color intensity, resulting in a darker product	[53]
Extrudates	Cañihua grains (Illpa-INIA and Cupi varieties), obtained from the National Institute of Agrarian Innovation (INIA), Puno, Peru	10% and 20% (Illpa variety), and 10% and 20% (Cupi variety)	Adding cañihua flour increased protein in extrudates, reaching 10.02% in Illpa at 20%, with modest fiber and ash levels, indicating higher mineral content. Illpa outperformed Cupi in protein at the same level. Extrudates had low lipid content (0.06–0.34%) and high carbohydrate content (77–80%), more than commercial brown rice but with less fiber.	Extruded rice products with 10–20% cañihua resembled cooked rice, reaching about 3 N hardness after 9–12 min, whereas brown rice stayed harder at 5 N, needing 24 min of cooking. Caçihua absorbs more water due to its fiber and porosity. Microstructure showed rough surfaces and voids in extrudates, but brown rice had smooth surfaces and a compact endosperm.	[52]
Chocolate	Cañihua grains supplied by the Native Cereals and Grains Program of the National Agrarian University La Molina, Peru	1%, 2%, 3%, and 4% cañihua flour	The incorporation of cañihua flour increased the antioxidant activity of dark chocolate compared to the control, with the increase progressive as the addition level rose. This effect is attributed to the phenolic compounds present in cañihua, highlighting its potential as a functional ingredient	Adding cañihua flour changed the chocolate’s physical properties, increasing pH and particle size. Hardness dropped significantly due to microstructural and fat-crystallization changes caused by 3% inclusion. These structural shifts also affected rheological behavior, confirming that flour concentration is vital to product quality.	[55]
Bread	Cañihua grains supplied by the Native Cereals and Grains Program of the National Agrarian University La Molina, Peru	8.33%, 5%, 10%, 15%, 15%, 10%, 11.67%, 5%, 5%, 5%, 6.67%, 10%, 6.67%, and 5% cañihua flour	Partial substitution of refined wheat flour with germinated cañihua flour improves bread’s nutritional properties. Higher cañihua levels boost phenolic compounds (up to 262.3 mg GAE/100 g) and antioxidant capacity (up to 66.3 µmol TE/g), surpassing control bread. GABA content nearly doubles, confirming enhanced bioactive compounds through germination.	NA	[56]
Bread	Cañihua (Cupi variety), supplied from the city of Puno, Peru	12.5%, 25%, 50%, and 100% cañihua flour	NA	Replacing wheat with cañihua flour lowered dough stability, with lower torque in Mixolab. Pure cañihua had low stability. 12.5% substitution improved specific volume, but 25% or more created denser bread. Higher amounts darkened the crumb, increased hardness, and reduced elasticity and cohesiveness.	[23]
Bread	Cañihua flour acquired from Peruan Nature S.A.	4.1%, 7.6%, 9.5%, and 8.3% cañihua flour	NA	Increasing the amount of cañihua flour raised bread hardness, while elasticity, gumminess, chewiness, and specific volume decreased compared to the wheat control. Color parameters L* and b* decreased, whereas a* increased, indicating a more reddish tone.	[59]
Sponge cake	Kañiwa supplied by Roland Foods, New York, USA	25%, 50%, 75%, and 100% cañihua flour	Adding cañihua boosted polyphenols (0.84–1.39 mg GAE/g), flavonoids (7.65–11.42 mg QE/g), and reducing power (3.14–6.53), showing dose effects. These findings indicate higher phenolic content and antioxidant capacity than those of standard cereals such as sweet corn, oats, and amaranth.	As cañihua proportion increased, cake density and firmness increased, while specific volume and moisture decreased, although water retention capacity increased. Crust darkened and crumb slightly lightened. Texture became harder, less cohesive, more fracture-resistant, and more chewable, while elasticity remained unchanged	[58]
Pasta	Cañihua obtained from the communities of Quipaquipani and Jalsuri, Viacha municipality, Central Altiplano of Bolivia	10%, 20%, and 30% cañihua flour from Quipaquipani (Viacha, Bolivia), and 10%, 20%, and 30% from Jalsuri (Viacha, Bolivia)	Partial substitution of wheat flour with cañihua flour (10%, 20%, and 30%) increased protein, dietary fiber, and amino acids. Although slight losses occur during cooking, cooked pasta maintains high fiber content, contributing 20–30% of the recommended daily intake per 100 g	Incorporation of cañihua flour into pasta modified the structure and technological behavior: cooking time decreased, water absorption and swelling index increased, and cooking loss rose due to disruption of the gluten network by fiber. Pasting viscosity and textural parameters, such as cohesiveness and elasticity, decreased	[60]
Extrudates	Commercial cañihua variety supplied from South America	20%, 35%, and 50% cañihua flour	Increasing canihua flour in extruded snacks improves the nutritional profile, with higher protein, dietary fiber, bioactive compounds, folates, and lipid content. Products with 50% cañihua showed better retention than those with 20%. However, tocopherols decreased due to thermal processing, although retention improved at higher inclusion levels	Corn-based snacks with up to 50% cañihua did not show substantial changes in sectional expansion index or rigidity	[61]
Extrudates	Cañihua is supplied from South America in grain form (Aduki Ltd., Finland)	20%, 35%, and 50% cañihua flour	NA	Cañihua incorporation significantly reduced the expansion index, especially at 50%, producing denser and less aerated extrudates, with smaller pores and thicker cell walls	[112]
Extrudates	Cañihua (Cupi variety), acquired from the Puno region in southern Peru	20% cañihua flour	As cañihua content increased in extrudates, dietary fiber, protein, minerals, and bioactive compounds also increased. Higher fiber improved water retention and lipid oxidation in ground extrudates, while whole products showed better storage stability	With increasing cañihua, extrudates showed lower radial expansion, smaller and irregular pores, and reduced hardness (28 N mm−1). Fiber-limited structural compactness, while amylose–lipid complexes contributed to a denser and less fragile matrix	[20]
Porridge	Cañihua obtained from the National Institute of Agrarian Innovation (INIA), Puno, Peru	NA	It contains 16% protein with an in vitro digestibility of 96.3% and a chemical score of 0.92, classifying it as a high-quality protein source	The extruded porridge is an instant product with low moisture (7.1%), allowing easy dissolution in water and maintaining a homogeneous texture suitable for infant consumption	[10]

The applications of cañihua in different food products summarized in Table 6 highlight its influence on nutritional composition and physical properties across a range of formulations. In addition to technological performance, consumer acceptability is a key factor determining its potential for successful food product development. Therefore, the following section presents the sensory evaluation of cañihua-containing products reported in the literature.

3.2.4. Sensory Evaluation of Cañihua-Containing Products

Table 7 presents the results of sensory analyses of various products formulated with cañihua. Reviewed studies consistently indicate that consumer acceptance remains within optimal ranges as long as the proportion of cañihua does not exceed approximately 25%. Beyond this threshold, noticeable changes in sensory attributes, particularly flavor, color, and texture, may negatively affect consumer preference.

Table 7. Sensory evaluation of products with cañihua (Chenopodium pallidicaule) inclusion, summarizing the reported effects of different incorporation levels on sensory attributes such as color, texture, flavor, and overall acceptability.

Product Type	% Cañihua	Type of Panelists	Type of Sensory Analysis	Results	Reference
Sausage	15% cañihua flour	Semi-trained panel (25 panelists, men and women, aged 21–24 years)	Hedonic sensory analysis (5-point hedonic scale for acceptance evaluation)	The formulation with more isolated soy protein and less quinoa scored higher for odor, flavor, and overall acceptability. The one with more quinoa was also accepted (scores > 3), but slightly less so, similar to commercial sausages. The cañihua proportion stayed at 15%.	[47]
Beer	7%, 11%, 13%, 15%, 16%, 19%, 21%, and 25% malted cañihua flour	120 consumers aged between 18 and 60 years	Consumers rated aroma, color, flavor, and appearance on a 10 cm visual analog scale (0 = dislike very much, 10 = like very much). Purchase intention was scored on a 5-point scale (5 = would definitely buy, 1 = would definitely not buy). In a second stage, the Check-All-That-Apply (CATA) method was used, in which participants selected all applicable attributes from a list of 37 attributes grouped into appearance, color, aroma, flavor, and mouthfeel, as defined through focus group sessions.	The formulation with 16% cañihua malt, 10% banana–passion fruit juice, and 74% Pilsen malt achieved the highest scores in overall evaluation, flavor, and appearance. It was associated with desirable attributes, including intense caramel color, balanced sweetness, good foam, and a smooth mouthfeel. The 7% cañihua malt formulation showed the highest purchase intention	[48]
Beer	7%, 11%, 13%, 15%, 16%, 19%, 21%, and 25% malted cañihua flour	120 panelists aged between 20 and 55 years	Aroma, color, flavor, and appearance were evaluated using an unstructured 0–10 hedonic scale, and purchase intention with a 5-point scale. Additionally, the CATA method (Check-All-That-Apply) was applied to characterize the sensory profile, including 37 attributes grouped into appearance, color, aroma, flavor, and mouthfeel	Sensory analysis showed high acceptance of craft beers in aroma, color, flavor, and appearance. The formulation with 25% cañihua malt was the most preferred due to foam, sweetness, and effervescence. CATA identified 21 discriminant attributes, highlighting that golden color, brightness, effervescence, and toasted grain aroma increased acceptability	[50]
Snack	59.52% cañihua flour	72 participants aged between 18 and 50 years, regular breakfast cereal consumers	Sensory analysis included Flash Profile and Free Sorting Task, both descriptive methods using untrained consumers. Flash Profile involved the generation and ranking of sensory attributes by intensity, while Free Sorting grouped samples based on perceived similarities, providing a holistic perception of products	The extruded cañihua snack showed a distinctive sensory profile with natural appearance, chocolate-like flavor, sweetness, and crunchiness. Flash Profile and Free Sorting positioned it as a unique product, differentiated from wheat-based extrudates	[49]
Cookies	29.67–59.35% cañihua flour	102 consumers aged between 18 and 30 years	Sensory analysis included a discriminative sorting test and an acceptability test. In the acceptability test, consumers evaluated odor, color, flavor, and overall acceptance using a 9-point hedonic scale	Increasing cañihua flour significantly affected the sensory properties of cookies. Formulations with 29.67%, 38.51%, and 52.02% were rated higher, whereas higher levels (42.19%, 51.81%, 59.35%) reduced acceptance due to stronger flavor and aroma. The 38.51% formulation achieved the best balance	[53]
Extrudates	10% and 20% (Illpa variety), and 10% and 20% (Cupi variety)	15 panelists specialized in Peruvian gastronomy (7 women and 8 men, mean ages 25.3 ± 0.86 and 26.9 ± 1.9 years, respectively)	A 5-point hedonic scale was used (1 = dislike extremely, 5 = like extremely). Evaluated attributes included flavor, aroma, overall appearance, texture (adhesiveness), color, and overall acceptability	The whole extrudate showed the highest scores. Among rice–cañihua formulations, Cupi10 had the closest sensory profile to the control and the highest acceptability. All samples exceeded the neutral acceptance threshold	[52]
Chocolate	1%, 2%, 3%, and 4% cañihua flour	24 untrained judges from the Cocoa and Coffee Quality Control Laboratory	Chocolate acceptance was evaluated following the UNE-ISO 8587 sensory analysis — ranking test.	All chocolate formulations with cañihua had higher acceptability than the control. Levels of 1–2% showed better texture, while higher levels increased particle size without negatively affecting overall acceptance	[55]
Bread	8.33%, 5%, 10%, 15%, 15%, 10%, 11.67%, 5%, 5%, 5%, 6.67%, 10%, 6.67%, and 5% cañihua flour	Thirty participants	Conducted in three sessions. Panelists evaluated bread acceptability (odor, color, flavor, texture) using a semi-structured 10 cm hedonic scale with monadic sample presentation	Bread with germinated cañihua showed good acceptability, particularly in color and texture, with no significant differences from the control. It maintained acceptable odor and flavor, supporting its use as a functional ingredient	[56]
Bread	4.1%, 7.6%, 9.5%, and 8.3% cañihua flour	76 panelists from the Food Engineering School of the National University Federico Villarreal	A discriminative test evaluated the importance of flavor, color, odor, volume, and softness. A 5-point hedonic test was then applied to determine overall acceptability, and an additional evaluation with celiac consumers validated preference	The most accepted bread contained 7.6% cañihua, while celiac consumers rated the formulation highly, with 8.3%	[56]
Sponge cake	25%, 50%, 75%, and 100% cañihua flour	30 untrained panelists (age range: 20–60 years)	Panelists evaluated pound cakes based on appearance, flavor, texture, sweetness, bitterness, and overall acceptability using a 9-point hedonic scale (1 = extremely bad, 9 = extremely good)	Increasing cañihua flour affected sensory scores (appearance, flavor, texture, sweetness, bitterness, acceptability). The most accepted sample contained 25% cañihua flour	[58]
Extrudates	20%, 35%, and 50% cañihua flour	10 panelists (7 women and 3 men, aged 20–30 years) recruited from the University of Helsinki (staff and students)	A descriptive sensory profile and Temporal Dominance of Sensations (TDS) were performed. Panelists rated flavor, texture, and aftertaste attributes using unstructured 10 cm scales, while TDS described the temporal evolution of dominant texture attributes during mastication	Extrudates with cañihua were less crispy than those with amaranth or quinoa. Crispness decreased and hardness increased with higher cañihua levels. Bitterness and aftertaste intensified at 50%, and TDS showed shorter crunch duration and greater stickiness before swallowing	[112]

For sensory evaluation, products were assessed using different methods and panel types, selected according to the objectives of each study. To measure overall perception and consumer preference, most products were evaluated using hedonic tests based on 5- to 9-point scales applied to untrained consumer panels, allowing quantification of overall acceptance and basic attributes such as aroma, flavor, texture, and appearance. Some studies complemented these evaluations with discriminative tests, such as sorting or difference tests, to identify specific differences between formulations. More complex products, including extrudates, bread, and snacks, were assessed using semi-trained or expert panels applying descriptive methodologies such as Flash Profiling, descriptive sensory analysis, and Temporal Dominance of Sensations (TDS), which provide deeper insight into texture perception, flavor release, and dynamic sensory behavior.

Beyond these methodological approaches, the effects of germination and malting on sensory acceptability can be explained by underlying biochemical and thermal mechanisms. These processes induce enzymatic and metabolic transformations that directly influence sensory attributes.

The generation of more pleasant aromas and flavors is associated with the accumulation of free amino acids and reducing sugars, which act as precursors of Maillard reactions during drying or processing, leading to toasted, caramelized, and malt-like notes [113,114]. At the same time, reductions in bitterness and astringency have been reported due to the degradation of compounds such as tannins and other phenolics that negatively affect taste perception [113,115].

Textural improvements are also observed, as enzymatic activity reduces viscosity and modifies structural components, resulting in softer matrices and improved product characteristics, such as increased bread volume and reduced hardness [116,117]. In addition, color changes occur as a result of Maillard reactions and oxidation processes, which may be desirable depending on the product type, particularly in baked and malted products [113].

Importantly, these sensory modifications occur simultaneously with improvements in nutritional quality, as both are driven by the same biochemical pathways activated during germination and malting. The activation of endogenous enzymes promotes the hydrolysis of macromolecules, increasing nutrient availability, while also generating precursors of flavor, aroma, and color. In parallel, the reduction in antinutritional factors improves mineral bioavailability and may decrease undesirable sensory attributes, such as bitterness and astringency, thereby linking both nutritional and sensory improvements within the same process [113,118].

Overall, consumer acceptance of products containing germinated or malted cañihua tends to be favorable when these transformations result in improved flavor, texture, and aroma [119]. However, excessive incorporation levels may lead to intensified sensory attributes that are not always positively perceived, explaining the observed acceptance threshold.

3.2.5. Potential in the Cosmetic Industry

Although studies on the cosmetic application of cañihua are still limited [63], extracted oil from cañihua seeds, which stood out for its unsaturated fatty acid profile, mainly linoleic acid (42.1%), oleic acid (24.7%), and linolenic acid (3.0%). This composition supports the integrity of the epidermal barrier, reduces transepidermal water loss, and provides emolliency and improved skin permeability. Additionally, its physicochemical parameters fall within the accepted ranges for vegetable oils used in cosmetic formulations, ensuring stability and technological compatibility. Its high content of phenolic compounds and flavonoids imparts significant antioxidant capacity, attributed to these bioactive compounds [28], reinforcing its potential as a functional cosmetic ingredient, as they play a key role in protection against oxidative stress and premature skin aging.

In the context of growing demand for natural and sustainable ingredients, the compositional and technological characteristics of cañihua oil position it as a promising candidate not only for facial care formulations but also for moisturizing and nourishing creams, antioxidant serums, anti-aging products, skin barrier protectors, reparative hair cosmetics, and even dermocosmetic soaps and emulsions. Likewise, cañihua extracts could be explored in masks and exfoliants within the “clean beauty” approach. However, there are still insufficient scientific articles to conclusively support these applications, so further experimental and clinical evidence is needed to consolidate their use at an industrial scale [120,121]. Consequently, further interdisciplinary research is necessary to consolidate its potential use at an industrial scale.

3.3. Challenges in Production and Consumption

The keyword co-occurrence network reveals not only the thematic relationships among the most relevant terms in cañihua research but also their temporal evolution (Figure 10). The color gradient applied to the nodes, ranging from blue to yellow, represents the chronology of each term’s appearance in the scientific literature between 2010 and 2020. Bluish nodes correspond to concepts established in the early stages of the analyzed period, while yellow tones indicate emerging terms or those of growing interest in more recent years. This color coding allows the identification of research dynamics, such as the shift from traditional agronomic approaches toward more recent studies focused on functional properties, bioactive compounds, and interdisciplinary applications. Overall, the use of color in the visualization adds a valuable temporal dimension to understanding the field’s trajectory and transformation.

Figure 10. Temporal evolution of research topics on cañihua represented in the keyword co-occurrence network (2010–2020). The temporal overlay of keywords shows changes in research emphasis, indicating earlier and more recent themes in the scientific literature.

However, this thematic evolution contrasts with the challenges that cañihua faces in its production and consumption. Limited scientific research on this pseudocereal, compared to crops such as quinoa, restricts its application in the development of new food products and the understanding of its functional fractions [122,123]. Variability in plant maturation, heterogeneity in grain size and color, and the reuse of seeds from previous harvests complicate product standardization and increase susceptibility to diseases [122,124]. In addition, the concentration on a few cultivated varieties and the limited large-scale production reduce genetic diversity and crop resilience [125]. Postharvest challenges, including the need for dry and ventilated storage, as well as grain cleaning and sorting, pose additional technological barriers for small producers [96]. Finally, its limited recognition outside Andean markets, low product diversification, and sensory acceptance challenges maintain cañihua as a niche crop, restricting its profitability and commercial expansion [96,123]. Addressing these constraints will be essential to unlock the full economic and nutritional potential of this underutilized Andean pseudocereal.

3.3.1. Limitations in Agricultural Production

Cañihua (Chenopodium pallidicaule Aellen) faces multiple challenges that threaten its sustainability and expansion beyond its native area in the Andes. Its cultivation is mainly restricted to the Altiplano, at altitudes around 3800 m above sea level, where it adapts to extreme conditions of cold, drought, and salinity. However, these same characteristics limit its expansion to other regions [81,126]. The main factors affecting its continuity include displacement by commercial crops with faster economic returns, historically low yields, high genetic variability, and lack of standardization among accessions, which hinders crop improvement and scientific research [81,96]. Additionally, agronomic issues such as limited plant height, susceptibility to pests and diseases shared with quinoa, and high achene dehiscence result in seed losses before harvest, restricting productivity and adoption of the crop in new agricultural systems [84].

Despite these limitations, cañihua has high nutritional and agronomic value that justifies its conservation and promotion. The grain is rich in high-quality proteins, essential amino acids, unsaturated fatty acids, fiber, and minerals, making it a functional food with potential to improve both local and global diets [64]. However, its promotion is limited, and access to resources, funding, and modern agricultural technology is insufficient, affecting mechanization and production efficiency [96]. Strategies proposed to overcome these challenges include genetic improvement to increase plant height and reduce seed dehiscence, standardization of accessions with high yield and desirable traits, and adoption of modern technologies to optimize production and mechanization. The combination of these actions could ensure sustainability, increase productivity, and enhance the value of cañihua, strengthening its role in food security and sustainable agriculture in the Andes [96,126].

Moreover, this high genetic variability, although valuable for conservation purposes, remains insufficiently characterized and standardized, limiting its effective use in breeding programs and the development of stable, high-yield cultivars. This creates a gap between the availability of genetic diversity and its practical utilization to overcome production constraints [64,96].

In this context, recent advances in plant biotechnology offer additional opportunities to address these limitations. Cañihua has been described as a crop with high tolerance to abiotic stresses such as frost, drought, and salinity, which is closely related to its adaptation to extreme Andean environments and the maintenance of a broad genetic diversity conserved in farmer-managed systems and genebanks [96]. Despite its recognized nutritional and functional value, research on cañihua remains limited compared with other pseudocereals such as quinoa and amaranth [3,6].

At the molecular level, studies in Chenopodium pallidicaule and related species have identified gene families, including NAC transcription factors, associated with stress response mechanisms, suggesting potential genetic bases underlying its resilience [67]. In addition, genomic comparisons within the genus Chenopodium and chloroplast genome analyses provide further evidence of its genetic diversity and evolutionary relationships [127]. Modern plant breeding approaches, including marker-assisted selection, genomic-assisted breeding, speed breeding, and genome editing technologies such as CRISPR, have been widely proposed as effective strategies to accelerate the improvement of stress tolerance and yield stability in crops [128,129,130]. These approaches have already demonstrated success in enhancing resilience traits in various underutilized and pseudocereal crops [131,132].

In particular, quinoa, as the closest well-characterized relative of cañihua, provides important physiological and genomic insights. Its adaptive mechanisms under abiotic stress include ion homeostasis, osmotic adjustment, reactive oxygen species detoxification, and stomatal regulation, which contribute to its high tolerance to salinity, drought, and temperature extremes [133,134]. Furthermore, the development of genomic resources and transformation tools in quinoa highlights the feasibility of applying similar strategies to cañihua improvement [133].

Taken together, integrating advanced biotechnological tools with the existing genetic diversity of cañihua could significantly enhance breeding efficiency and support the development of improved cultivars adapted to both current agricultural constraints and future climate change scenarios.

3.3.2. Grain Processing and Quality

Cañihua (Chenopodium pallidicaule Aellen) is a nutrient-dense Andean grain with significant protein content, balanced essential amino acids, and lipids rich in unsaturated fatty acids, mainly linoleic and oleic acids [135,136]. It also provides carbohydrates, dietary fiber, phenolic compounds, flavonoids, vitamins, and minerals, contributing to its antioxidant potential and functional properties [137]. Processing methods such as dehulling, cleaning, toasting, milling, extrusion, sprouting, and malting influence both the nutritional composition and the bioactive content: whole grains retain higher levels of protein and fiber, while dehulled or extruded products improve digestibility and sensory properties [48,96]. Sprouting and malting further increase fiber, phenolics, GABA, and antioxidant capacity, enabling applications in functional foods, gluten-free bread, snacks, and fortified beverages [138]. Technologically, cañihua starch exhibits high stability during cooking, and its gluten-free, low-prolamin profile makes it suitable for celiac-friendly formulations, while optical sorting and controlled storage ensure retention of quality [2]. These attributes position cañihua as a versatile grain for both traditional and industrial food applications.

3.3.3. Conservation of Genetic Diversity

The conservation of the genetic diversity of cañihua (Chenopodium pallidicaule Aellen) is critical to ensuring its adaptability and resilience to environmental changes and anthropogenic pressures. Insights from related Andean crops, such as quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.), indicate that a combination of in situ and ex situ strategies is particularly effective. In situ conservation, implemented through traditional agricultural systems and local seed exchange networks, allows for the continuous evolution of populations, supporting adaptation to climatic fluctuations and disease outbreaks [139,140,141]. Simultaneously, ex situ conservation in germplasm banks preserves diverse accessions and unique genotypes, providing a crucial resource for breeding programs [142,143]. Molecular marker studies have revealed significant levels of genetic diversity in cañihua, highlighting the importance of these strategies for maintaining its productive and nutritional potential [144]. However, challenges such as habitat fragmentation and genetic erosion driven by agroecosystem changes and climate impacts remain pressing [145]. Therefore, integrating conservation approaches, supported by active participation of local communities and modern genetic characterization tools, emerges as a robust framework to ensure the preservation, sustainable use, and continuous improvement of cañihua’s genetic resources [146,147].

Despite these advances, important gaps remain between genetic diversity conservation strategies and production limitations. Although germplasm collections and in situ conservation maintain a wide range of accessions, many lack standardized agronomic characterization, limiting their effective use in breeding programs aimed at improving yield and uniformity. Furthermore, the high nutritional and adaptive potential of cañihua has not translated into expanded cultivation due to low productivity, seed dehiscence, and limited mechanization. In addition, the genetic variability preserved in germplasm banks has not been fully integrated into the development of stable, high-performing cultivars, restricting adoption by farmers. Socioeconomic pressures, including the replacement of cañihua by more profitable crops, also threaten in situ conservation and reduce on-farm diversity. These factors highlight the need to better align conservation strategies with breeding, technological innovation, and value-chain development to ensure both preservation and productive use of cañihua genetic resources [64,96].

Beyond agronomic and genetic limitations, the sustainability of cañihua should be understood within the broader context of climate change adaptation and food system resilience in high-altitude environments. Its tolerance to frost, drought, and marginal soils positions it as a climate-resilient crop with potential to contribute to sustainable agriculture in the Andes. However, this potential remains underexploited due to structural constraints in production systems, limited technological adoption, and weak integration into value chains. Therefore, enhancing the sustainability of cañihua requires not only genetic improvement and agronomic optimization but also the development of inclusive production systems that align conservation, productivity, and climate adaptation goals.

3.4. Future Opportunities

3.4.1. Development of New Products

The development of new products from cañihua can leverage technological processes such as germination, malting, and fermentation, which increase the concentration of bioactive compounds, flavonoids, phenols, and betalains, and enhance the bioavailability of essential nutrients such as proteins, amino acids, and minerals [62,148]. These treatments reduce antinutritional factors, including saponins and phytic acid, and promote the formation of functional compounds with antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties, contributing to the prevention of diet-related chronic diseases [148,149]. Additionally, germination and fermentation improve the sensory characteristics of products’ texture, aroma, and flavor, allowing higher incorporation of cañihua without compromising consumer acceptance and facilitating the reduction in critical components such as fat, salt, and sugar [53,150].

Cañihua, as a gluten-free pseudocereal, is suitable for individuals with celiac disease or those following gluten-free diets, while maintaining a high nutritional profile [151]. Its flour can be combined with other gluten-free ingredients, such as whey, potato starch, or pseudocereals like quinoa and amaranth, to produce baked goods and formulations with desirable sensory and functional qualities [152,153]. Sugar reduction can be achieved through product reformulation or fermentation with specific bacterial strains, such as Leuconostoc citreum TR116, which produces mannitol, a sweet polyol, maintaining the sensory acceptability of products such as cereals and cookies [150,154].

Moreover, food-industry residues containing bioactive compounds, such as husks, bran, or pulp, are valuable sources of antioxidants and fiber that can be incorporated into cañihua-based formulations, thereby reducing waste and enhancing functional value [155]. Complementary processes such as malting, fermentation, and extrusion optimize flavor, digestibility, and nutrient absorption, although extrusion can affect the glycemic index [149,155]. Overall, incorporating germinated, malted, or fermented cañihua alongside bioactive-rich industrial residues enables the development of functional, healthy, and sustainable foods aligned with current nutrition and chronic disease prevention trends.

3.4.2. Agricultural Sustainability and Resilience

Cañihua is a key crop for maintaining sustainable and resilient agricultural systems in the Andes, as it can grow under extreme conditions such as frost, drought, and saline soils, while also providing a beneficial nutritional profile and low levels of compounds that may affect digestion, such as saponins [96]. When integrated into organic and regenerative farming practices, which aim to mimic natural processes and enhance soil health, cañihua helps maintain soil fertility and increases the capacity of agricultural ecosystems to adapt and recover from climate change or economic pressures. However, its cultivation faces challenges from competition with other commercial crops that offer faster returns. Therefore, strengthening in situ conservation by keeping it in its native fields to preserve genetic diversity and local adaptations, as well as ex situ conservation through seed storage in germplasm banks as a backup, is crucial [96]. Additionally, the use of modern technologies, including molecular techniques to improve its traits, together with public policies and institutional support, is essential to ensure its sustainability [156,157]. Finally, ongoing research and international collaboration contribute to refining sustainable agricultural practices, enhancing the genetic quality of cañihua, and ensuring food security, while also strengthening the resilience of Andean communities [156,158].

Although specific studies evaluating the impact of climate change on cañihua remain limited, evidence from quinoa and other high-Andean crops suggests that rising temperatures, increased climatic variability, water stress, and shifting pest dynamics are redefining research priorities for Andean pseudocereals [159,160]. These changes highlight the need to investigate abiotic stress tolerance, including drought, salinity, and extreme temperatures, as well as phenological plasticity and yield stability under variable environments [133,161]. Climate modeling studies in related crops also indicate potential shifts in suitable cultivation zones, emphasizing the importance of evaluating cañihua across altitudinal gradients and future climate scenarios [133]. In addition, research on adaptive agronomic practices, pest–climate interactions, and diversification of resilient cropping systems will be essential to strengthen food security and sustainable production in high-Andean regions [162,163]. Therefore, climate change is expected to drive future research priorities for cañihua toward genetic improvement for multi-stress tolerance, climate-adapted agronomic management, and integration into diversified and climate-smart agricultural systems [164,165].

3.4.3. Innovation and Research in Genetic Improvement

Innovation and research in genetic improvement focus on leveraging available genetic variability and biotechnological tools to develop cultivars with superior traits. Germplasm characterization, such as the collection of approximately 400 accessions at the Andean Crops Germplasm Bank in Puno, Peru, enables the identification of desirable agronomic traits, including high yield and larger grain size [64]. Advanced technologies like CRISPR/Cas9 and marker-assisted selection accelerate the development of varieties resistant to diseases, tolerant to environmental stresses, and nutritionally enhanced [166,167]. The combination of traditional and modern breeding methods, along with the exploration of epigenetic modifications, can further increase yield and hybrid vigor [168]. Its high content of essential amino acids, unsaturated fatty acids, and bioactive antioxidant compounds also allows for applications in the food industry beyond native regions [3]. The adoption of these innovations requires consideration of regulatory frameworks, socioeconomic impacts, and social acceptance, as well as the promotion of scientific collaboration and long-term investment [168,169]. Overall, integrating traditional and modern approaches in genetic improvement provides a robust pathway toward more sustainable and food-secure agricultural systems.

4. Conclusions

Cañihua (Chenopodium pallidicaule) is a nutritionally dense Andean pseudocereal with high levels of bioactive compounds and strong potential for incorporation into functional food systems. The bibliometric and systematic analysis presented in this study reveals a steady increase in scientific interest in cañihua, particularly in relation to its nutritional composition, bioactive properties, and applications in food formulation and processing. Evidence indicates that pre-treatments such as germination, malting, and fermentation significantly enhance nutrient bioavailability, reduce antinutritional factors, and improve sensory acceptability. These processes allow the incorporation of up to 25% cañihua flour in food products without negatively affecting consumer acceptance, highlighting its technological feasibility for food innovation. From a practical perspective, cañihua represents a valuable ingredient for the development of healthier and more sustainable food products. Its integration into the food industry could contribute to improving dietary quality and diversifying raw material sources, particularly in regions facing nutritional insecurity. From a policy standpoint, the promotion of cañihua cultivation and utilization aligns with strategies aimed at strengthening agrobiodiversity, supporting smallholder farmers, and enhancing the resilience of Andean agricultural systems. However, important gaps remain, particularly in agronomic optimization, genetic diversity characterization, large-scale processing technologies, and clinical validation of its health effects. Future research should also explore the socioeconomic impacts of cañihua value chains, as well as its scalability in global food markets. Overall, cañihua represents a strategic crop for advancing sustainable agriculture and functional food development, with the potential to contribute meaningfully to nutritional security, rural development, and the resilience of agri-food systems in the Andean region.