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28 February 2026

22 Pages

Alternatives to Antibiotic Growth Promoters in Livestock: A Scoping Review

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1
Animal Population Health Institute, College of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, Colorado State University, Campus Stop 1644, Fort Collins, CO 80523, USA
2
Animal Production and Health Division, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Viale delle Terme di Caracalla, 00153 Rome, Italy
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Agriculture2026, 16(5), 559;https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture16050559
This article belongs to the Section Farm Animal Production
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Abstract

The use of antibiotics as growth promoters in livestock production has contributed to the emergence and spread of antimicrobial resistance (AMR), posing a significant global public health threat specifically from the projected mortality burden. Although many countries have restricted the non-therapeutic use of antibiotics, practical and effective alternatives are still required to maintain livestock productivity. This scoping review examines the current evidence on non-antibiotic compounds evaluated as growth-promoting agents in livestock production. The primary objective of this search was to generate a comprehensive list of commonly applied alternatives to antibiotics used as growth promoters in livestock systems. A search was conducted in the CAB Abstracts, Web of Science Core Collection, and AGRICOLA databases. Prior to the scoping review, an initial list of alternatives to antibiotic components was generated through a screening of selected scientific sources and subsequently verified using Google Scholar for the period 2010–2025. This list included brief descriptions of each component, which were used to inform the keyword strategy for the scoping review. Eligible studies were screened in accordance with PRISMA-ScR guidelines, and data were extracted on compound type, livestock species, geographic region, and reported performance outcomes. The alternatives identified included probiotics and prebiotics, phytogenic compounds and essential oils, enzymes and organic acids, vaccines and immunostimulants, bacteriophages, and competitive exclusion products. A total of 1230 records were retrieved and imported into Zotero for reference management. After removal of duplicate records using Zotero’s built-in deduplication tool, 377 unique records remained for screening. Overall, these compounds demonstrated variable effects on feed efficiency, weight gain, and gut health. However, most studies were limited in scale, duration, and methodological consistency. As a result, comprehensive comparative trials and large-scale field evaluations are needed to support evidence-based policy recommendations and the sustainable implementation of alternatives to antibiotics in livestock production systems. Our findings identified six major categories that represent the most frequently reported alternatives to antibiotic growth promoters. Although probiotics, phytogenic, and organic acids were the most extensively studied, substantial heterogeneity in trial design, dosage, and production systems limited meaningful cross-comparisons. In addition, most studies focused on poultry and swine, with comparatively fewer investigations involving ruminant species. This scoping review was not intended to evaluate the efficacy or practical applicability of these alternatives; such assessments require further standardized and extensive studies before recommendations for their widespread application can be made.

1. Introduction

Antibiotics have revolutionized medicine and animal health by controlling bacterial infections and improving productivity of food producing animals. However, their widespread and often indiscriminate use—particularly as growth promoters in livestock—has raised significant public health and environmental concerns. The subtherapeutic use of antibiotics in animal feed began in the 1950s, following observations that treated food animals exhibited improved feed efficiency and growth rates [1]. These effects were largely attributed to modulation of the gut microbiota and suppression of subclinical infections, resulting in enhanced nutrient utilization.
Despite their economic benefits, prolonged exposure to low concentrations of antibiotics promotes the selection of resistant bacteria. These resistant organisms, or their resistance genes, can be transmitted to humans through the food chain, direct animal–human contact, or environmental dissemination. In recognition of this threat, international agencies—including the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), the World Organisation for Animal Health (WOAH), the World Health Organization (WHO), and the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP)—have repeatedly warned that the continued misuse of antibiotics in agriculture undermines global health security specifically the burden of global mortality burden due to AMR [2].
In response, several countries have implemented regulatory measures to restrict non-therapeutic antibiotic use. For example, the European Union banned antibiotic growth promoters in 2006, and the United States introduced the Food and Drug Administration’s Veterinary Feed Directive, which mandates veterinary oversight for the use of medically important antibiotics in animal feed. Nonetheless, enforcement remains inconsistent worldwide, particularly in regions facing economic and regulatory constraints. Furthermore, antibiotics were still used for growth promotion in 34 countries worldwide in 2023 [2].
Concurrently, innovation in human and veterinary medicine has driven the development of promising alternatives to antibiotics, including bacteriophage therapy, antimicrobial peptides, vaccines, nanotechnology-based interventions, and Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats (CRISPR)–based tools [3]. Advances in rapid diagnostic technologies have also contributed to reductions in inappropriate antibiotic use by improving the efficiency and accuracy of pathogen identification. Within this context, livestock production systems are increasingly seeking safe, effective, and economically feasible non-antibiotic growth-promoting strategies.
To date, no single, coherent, or universally accepted definition of “alternatives to antibiotic growth promoters” has been established. The term is used inconsistently across literature to describe a broad range of compounds, feed additives, biological products, and management strategies, often without a clear distinction between productivity-related effects and disease prevention or therapeutic claims.
For the purposes of this scoping review, alternatives to antibiotic growth promoters are defined as non-antibiotic compounds or biological products, including vaccines, that are intentionally administered to livestock and evaluated for their ability to support growth performance, feed efficiency, or related productivity indicators in the absence of antibiotic growth promoters. This definition is operational rather than regulatory and does not imply therapeutic, prophylactic, or health claims, nor does it assume equivalence to antibiotics in disease control. Instead, it reflects how these interventions are assessed in scientific literature, where outcomes such as body weight gain, feed conversion ratio, and nutrient utilization are commonly reported. Broader non-compound interventions—such as biosecurity, housing, hygiene, and management practices, while recognized as critical components of antimicrobial-use reduction strategies, are outside the scope of this review. Growth promoters are defined as compounds or combinations of ingredients that are currently used as substitutes for antibiotics. Modifications in livestock management or husbandry practices aimed at enhancing body growth are not considered within the scope of this research.

2. Objectives

This scoping review aims to synthesize existing literature and technical reports on alternatives to antibiotics used as growth promoters in livestock species. The specific objectives are to:
  • Identify non-antibiotic compound types studied as alternatives to growth-promoting antibiotics;
  • Describe the animal species and geographic regions represented in the literature; and
  • Summarize reported performance outcomes, including feed efficiency (aka feed conversion) and weight gain.
Based on these findings, the review highlights knowledge gaps and proposes future research directions, including priority areas for investment, specifically in recognizing the list of the most frequently studied alternatives to antibiotics as growth promoters.

3. Methods

3.1. Research Question

What non-antibiotic compounds have been studied as alternatives to antibiotics for promoting growth in livestock, and what outcomes have been reported?
For this study, a growth promoter is any agent or component that enhances growth performance, feed efficiency, or production traits in livestock, with effects measurable through improvements in weight gain, feed conversion, carcass quality, health indicators, and economic return.

3.2. Scoping Review

To address this research question, database searches were conducted covering the period from 2010 through June 2025 using selected bibliographic databases (see Section 3.2.1). A set of carefully developed keywords (see Section 3.2.2) was applied. The search strategy was refined iteratively by the co-author team (MDS, AA, SR, and SUKB) in collaboration with a library specialist (Evidence Synthesis Librarian) to improve precision and ensure comprehensive coverage of studies addressing alternatives to antibiotics in livestock and poultry production.
The search yielded 1230 records, which were imported into the Zotero v7.0.30 (https://www.zotero.org/) for reference management. After duplicate removal using Zotero’s internal tool, 377 unique records remained for screening.
The first screening stage involved title and abstract review based on predefined exclusion criteria (see below). Studies were retained if they evaluated a non-antibiotic alternative, involved livestock or poultry species, and reported at least one measurable growth-related outcome. Following this screening, 301 studies met the initial inclusion criteria. Full-text availability was then assessed, and studies that could not be accessed were excluded.
The remaining articles underwent full-text evaluation to confirm that they were experimental studies directly examining growth-promoting interventions. This review was conducted by one co-author (AA) and independently confirmed by MDS. However, no inter-rater reliability was estimated. Following this process, 203 studies were deemed eligible for data extraction. Exclusion criteria applied during the screening and review stages included:
  • Duplication—Duplicate records were removed prior to screening.
  • Title and Abstract Screening—Studies were excluded if they involved therapeutic antibiotic use, were non-English publications, were unrelated to livestock or poultry species, lacked accessible full texts, or were editorials or theoretical papers.
  • Full-Text Review—Additional exclusions included non-experimental studies, studies lacking reported sample sizes, and reviews or commentaries without original data.
This multistep process resulted in a final set of 203 studies included for data extraction.
From these studies, information was extracted primarily from the materials and methods sections, including animal species, alternative interventions applied, and reported growth-related outcomes. This structured approach enhanced consistency, minimized redundancy, and supported transparent organization of the data for subsequent synthesis.
To support keyword development and compound classification, a short descriptive list of components was generated using the Wikipedia encyclopedia (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encyclopedia) (accessed on 6 February 2025). Wikipedia was used solely for descriptive purposes and was not a source of included studies or evidence. Supplementary Materials containing the raw extracted data is provided with this submission for review by independent reviewers.
This scoping review followed the PRISMA Extension for Scoping Reviews (PRISMA-ScR) guidelines, including the recommended methodological steps and checklist items [4].

3.2.1. Data Sources

Three electronic databases were searched: CAB Abstracts, Web of Science Core Collection, and AGRICOLA. Our search aimed to capture publications from conferences, books, and other proceedings; therefore, CAB and Google Scholar were more suitable sources than Scopus or PubMed for our purpose. It is because Google Scholar indexes most of the content covered by Scopus, whereas Scopus excludes a substantial number of items indexed by Google Scholar, particularly non-journal and non-English publications. The search relied on free-text keywords only, not on controlled vocabularies (e.g., MeSH, CAB Thesaurus).

3.2.2. Search Strategy

An initial search strategy for abstracts incorporated the following keywords and subject headings:
  • “growth promoter” OR “growth promotion” OR “growth performance” AND
  • “non-antibiotic” OR “antibiotic alternative” OR “alternative to antibiotic” OR “antibiotic-free” AND
  • “poultry” OR “chicken*” OR “hen*” OR “pig*” OR “swine” OR “cattle” OR “cow*” OR “sheep” OR “goat*” OR “livestock”
Database-specific syntax and filters were applied as appropriate. The strategy was refined iteratively to improve both precision and recall. Studies were included if they (1) evaluated a non-antibiotic alternative, (2) involved livestock species, and (3) reported at least one measurable growth-related outcome. Publications from 2010 through June 2025 were eligible for inclusion.

3.2.3. Data Extraction

From eligible studies, the following data were extracted:
  • Compound category (e.g., probiotics, essential oils, enzymes, phytogenic)
  • Animal species (poultry, pigs, cattle, sheep, goats)
  • Geographic region (reported or inferred)
  • Sample size
  • Performance outcomes (e.g., body weight gain, feed conversion ratio/feed efficiency)
  • Identified gaps or study limitations
All records were managed using Zotero, and the study selection process was summarized using a PRISMA flow diagram (Figure 1).
Figure 1. PRISMA flow diagram showing the stages of the review process and the number of studies identified at each stage. Source: Tricco, A.C.; Lillie, E.; Zarin, W.; O’Brien, K.K.; Colquhoun, H.; Levac, D.; Moher, D.; Peters, M.D.; Horsley, T.; Weeks, L. PRISMA extension for scoping reviews (PRISMA-ScR): Checklist and explanation. Ann. Intern. Med. 2018, 169, 467–473. [4] and Page, M.J.; McKenzie, J.E.; Bossuyt, P.M.; Boutron, I.; Hoffmann, T.C.; Mulrow, C.D.; Shamseer, L.; Tetzlaff, J.M.; Akl, E.A.; Brennan, S.E.; Chou, R. The PRISMA 2020 statement: an updated guideline for reporting systematic reviews. BMJ, 2021, 372, n71, https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.n71. [5] This work is licensed under CC BY 4.0. To view a copy of this license, visit https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.
During manuscript preparation, ChatGPT version 2 was used to assist in categorizing and summarizing the included literature according to growth-promoting compound categories and their applications across livestock species. ChatGPT Plus was subsequently used to generate draft tables aligned with the study objectives. All AI-generated outputs were independently reviewed, verified against the original sources, and edited by the authors prior to final inclusion. The authors take full responsibility for the content of this publication.

4. Results

4.1. Identified Categories of Alternatives

The following list of alternatives to antibiotics, along with brief descriptions, was compiled during the initial literature search. Items were initially grouped based on our professional judgment. We then reviewed the most current definitions available on Wikipedia (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encyclopedia) (accessed on 1 March 2025) to refine the classifications. Although Wikipedia is an unstable source for scientific taxonomy, our purpose in using it was to organize the literature into clearly related categories. Additionally, we recognize that definitions sourced from Wikipedia are time-sensitive and subject to change.

4.1.1. Probiotics and Prebiotics

Probiotics (live beneficial microorganisms) and prebiotics (non-digestible substrates that stimulate beneficial gut bacteria) enhance intestinal health, nutrient absorption, and immune competence. Their use in poultry and swine has yielded moderate improvements in growth and feed efficiency, though effects vary with strain, dosage, and feed formulation.

4.1.2. Phytogenic and Essential Oils

Phytogenic and essential oils include plant-derived bioactives, such as herbal extracts, essential oils (e.g., oregano, thyme, garlic), which exert antimicrobial, antioxidant, and anti-inflammatory products. They can improve gut function and feed conversion rates. Effectiveness depends on compound purity, stability, and administration methods.

4.1.3. Enzymes and Organic Acids

Exogenous enzymes and organic acids improve digestion and suppress pathogenic bacteria. Organic acids (e.g., formic, propionic, butyric) lower intestinal pH, limiting pathogen survival. Enzyme supplementation, especially in poultry, improves nutrient digestibility and reduces undigested substrates that support harmful microbes.

4.1.4. Vaccines and Immunostimulants

Vaccines and immunostimulants are biological interventions that strengthen the host’s immune system. Advances in recombinant and vector-based vaccines reduce the need for prophylactic antibiotics. Immunostimulants such as beta-glucans and nucleotides also enhance innate and adaptive immunity, improving resilience against infections.

4.1.5. Bacteriophages

Bacteriophages are viruses that target specific bacterial species and can offer a targeted, eco-friendly approach for pathogen control. Despite challenges in formulation stability and regulatory approval, their potential for precision microbial management is increasingly recognized.

4.1.6. Competitive Exclusion Products

Competitive exclusion products employ non-pathogenic bacterial strains to colonize the gut and block pathogen establishment. This approach has shown success in reducing Salmonella spp. colonization in poultry and may be extendable to other livestock systems.

4.2. Literature Findings Using Scoping Review

Database Search and Screening Process

A total of 1230 records were retrieved and imported into Zotero v7.0.30 for reference management. Duplicate records were removed using Zotero’s built-in deduplication tool, resulting in 377 unique studies for screening [6,7,8,9,10,11,12,13,14,15,16,17,18,19,20,21,22,23,24,25,26,27,28,29,30,31,32,33,34,35,36,37,38,39,40,41,42,43,44,45,46,47,48,49,50,51,52,53,54,55,56,57,58,59,60,61,62,63,64,65,66,67,68,69,70,71,72,73,74,75,76,77,78,79,80,81,82,83,84,85,86,87,88,89,90,91,92,93,94,95,96,97,98,99,100,101,102,103,104,105,106,107,108,109,110,111,112,113,114,115,116,117,118,119,120,121,122,123,124,125,126,127,128,129,130,131,132,133,134,135,136,137,138,139,140,141,142,143,144,145,146,147,148,149,150,151,152,153,154,155,156,157,158,159,160,161,162,163,164,165,166,167,168,169,170,171,172,173,174,175,176,177,178,179,180,181,182,183,184,185,186,187,188,189,190,191,192,193,194,195,196,197,198,199,200,201,202,203,204,205,206,207,208]. Figure 1 depicts the entire steps in the screening process with the actual number that were included and excluded for each of these steps as summarized below.
The first stage of screening involved assessing titles and abstracts against predefined selection process and exclusion criteria. A total of 301 studies met the inclusion criteria at this stage.
Subsequently, the availability of full-text articles was confirmed, and inaccessible papers were excluded. During the final screening stage, the remaining studies were re-evaluated to ensure they were experimental in design and directly assessed interventions aimed at enhancing growth performance. This process yielded a final dataset of 203 studies for data extraction. Six of those articles published after June 2025 were included, because they were available online prior to the finalization of specific journal issues.
For each included study, data were systematically extracted including information on animal species, type of alternative intervention, and growth performance indicators. This structured data extraction process ensured consistency across studies, minimized redundancy, and supported a transparent and reproducible synthesis in the subsequent stages of the review.
Table 1 shows the frequency of the repeated compounds with their context. The most frequent proportions repeated compounds are probiotics with 47% of the total.
Table 1. Most Frequently Occurring Terms in Published Articles (n = 203) on Alternatives to Antibiotics as Growth Promoters in Livestock: Scoping Review (2010–2025).
Table 2 is a thematic summary of 203 reviewed studies, organized by growth promoters and animal species. Avian species including broiler chickens, ducks, turkeys, and layers are the most applications of the growth promoters with diversity in their uses.
Table 2. Thematic Summary of Growth Performance and Health Benefits of non-Antibiotic Growth Promoters by Species (n = 203): Scoping Review (2010–2025).
Table 3 depicts the thematic summary of purposes of growth promoters across livestock species. The table shows that probiotics, phytogenic, essential oils, organic acids, and peptides are the most effective alternatives (as per the 203 selected papers) to antibiotics for body weight gain which are used in broiler chickens and piglets.
Table 3. Summary of Growth Performance and Health Outcomes of Growth Promoters Across Species: A Scoping Review (2010–2025; n = 203).

5. Discussion

As with any literature review, this study is limited to published articles and reports addressing the use of alternatives to antibiotics as growth promoters. Unpublished data, including practices currently employed by livestock producers, were not captured and may introduce bias into the findings. Although the included literature was sourced from reputable databases and peer-reviewed journals, variability in study quality is expected. As a scoping review, rather than a systematic review, this study did not assess the methodological rigor or strength of evidence of individual studies. Consequently, the results should be interpreted as a broad overview of available alternatives to antibiotic growth promoters, rather than a critical evaluation of their efficacy. Further research is required to address the latter.
Although the involvement of multiple reviewers can increase precision, it may also introduce variability related to individual interpretation. Therefore, a single co-author (AA) was assigned to manually screen the retrieved literature using predefined inclusion and exclusion criteria. The senior author (MDS) subsequently reviewed the complete raw-data spreadsheet to ensure consistency, completeness, and accuracy of the extracted records.
This review stratified six major categories of alternatives to antibiotic growth promoters based on their distinct mechanisms of action and associated limitations. Probiotics, phytogenic, and organic acids were the most extensively studied; however, substantial variation in experimental design, dosage, and production context limits direct cross-comparison among studies. Moreover, the majority of research focused on poultry and swine, with relatively few studies addressing ruminant species, likely reflecting prevailing industry practices. Rumen growth promoters require further investigation beyond the scope of this study due to microbial complexity, variations in antibiotic use patterns, and differences between grazing-based systems and confined feeding operations. Economic feasibility, regulatory harmonization, and producer adoption remain critical barriers to implementation. While laboratory and small-scale trials often report promising outcomes, validation under commercial production conditions is frequently lacking. In addition, the long-term impacts of these alternatives on microbial ecology, animal productivity, and food safety require further investigation.
Future research should prioritize multifactorial study designs that compare different classes of alternatives, standardize outcome measures, and evaluate potential synergistic effects, such as probiotic–phytogenic combinations. field-scale validation in commercial settings; long-term longitudinal studies; meta-analytic quantification of effect sizes and variability; and comparative cross-species research, particularly in underrepresented ruminant systems. Collaborative international studies could strengthen the evidence base and support the development of harmonized regulatory frameworks among countries stratified by their AGPs.
The potential risk of resistance development to certain alternatives also warrants careful consideration. For example, resistance to bacteriophages has long been recognized, and adaptive responses to antimicrobial peptides and essential oils—such as membrane modification—have also been reported. Additionally, the possibility of horizontal gene transfer of antimicrobial resistance determinants from resistant bacteria to probiotic strains represents a critical knowledge gap. Accordingly, future studies should explicitly investigate resistance dynamics and the potential for horizontal gene transfer associated with the use of non-antibiotic growth-promoting alternatives.

6. Conclusions

Reducing antibiotic use in livestock production is essential for mitigating antimicrobial resistance. Numerous non-antibiotic compounds, including probiotics, phytogenics, enzymes, and bacteriophages, were reported to have potential growth-promoting effects. However, variability in efficacy, limited field validation, and inconsistent regulatory oversight continue to hinder their widespread adoption. A coordinated, evidence-based approach involving academia, industry and the private sector, and policymakers is required to ensure the sustainable, safe, and effective implementation of these alternatives. Additional efforts are also needed to strengthen knowledge dissemination and raise awareness among stakeholders. This study represents an initial step toward identifying the most frequently reported and commonly applied substitutes for antibiotics as growth promoters, thereby providing a foundation for large-scale, scientifically rigorous evaluation of these substitutes.

Supplementary Materials

The following supporting information can be downloaded at: https://www.mdpi.com/article/10.3390/agriculture16050559/s1, Literature Review Data-Alternative AB. PRISMA-ScR-Fillable-Checklist.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, M.D.S. and S.R.; methodology, M.D.S., S.U.K.B., S.R., M.H. and J.S.; software, A.A.; validation, S.R., M.H. and J.S.; formal analysis, M.D.S., S.R. and S.U.K.B.; investigation, S.U.K.B. and A.A.; resources, A.A., S.R. and S.U.K.B.; data curation, A.A.; writing—original draft preparation, M.D.S.; writing—review and editing, S.R., M.H., J.S. and S.U.K.B.; visualization, M.D.S.; supervision, M.D.S.; project administration, M.D.S.; funding acquisition, M.D.S. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research received no external funding. The authors conducted the review independently, and funder had no role in study design, data collection, analysis, interpretation, or manuscript preparation.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

No new data were created or analyzed in this study. Data sharing is not applicable to this article.

Acknowledgments

During the preparation of this manuscript, we used ChatGPT version 2 for the purposes of categorizing and summarizing all included literature based on specific growth-promoting compounds and their applications across species. ChatGPT Plus was then asked to generate specific tables to achieve the aim of this study. All AI-generated outputs for both steps were independently reviewed, verified against the original sources, and edited by the authors prior to final inclusion. The authors have reviewed and edited the output and take full responsibility for the content of this publication.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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