Geosciences

18 pages, 8681 KiB

Open AccessArticle

First Results of Integrated Geoarchaeological Analyses in the Capua Territory (Campania, Italy)

by Elda Russo Ermolli, Nicola Busino, Fabio Marzaioli, Concetta Rispoli and Ettore Valente

Geosciences 2025, 15(4), 157; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences15040157 - 19 Apr 2025

Viewed by 159

This study employs a multidisciplinary approach, integrating geoarchaeology, geomorphology, archaeometry, and palynology to analyze settlement patterns and land use in the surroundings of Capua (southern Italy) during the medieval transition. Borehole sampling and stratigraphic studies indicate significant landscape transformations due to human activity, [...] Read more.

This study employs a multidisciplinary approach, integrating geoarchaeology, geomorphology, archaeometry, and palynology to analyze settlement patterns and land use in the surroundings of Capua (southern Italy) during the medieval transition. Borehole sampling and stratigraphic studies indicate significant landscape transformations due to human activity, particularly deforestation and agricultural expansion. Radiocarbon dating confirms settlement activity from antiquity through the early medieval period. Results suggest that Capua’s elevated position provided natural flood protection, influencing its continuous habitation. Pollen analysis reveals a shift from forested landscapes to open pastures, indicating intensive land use. Future research will focus on refining the chronology and archeological context of this transition, further clarifying Capua’s historical and environmental development. Full article

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19 pages, 13626 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Afghanistan Earthquake of 21 June 2022: The Role of Compressional Step-Overs in Seismogenesis

by Tejpal Singh, Nardeep Nain, Fernando Monterroso, Riccardo Caputo, Pasquale Striano, R. B. S. Yadav, Chittenipattu Puthenveettil Rajendran, Anil G. Sonkusare, Claudio De Luca and Riccardo Lanari

Geosciences 2025, 15(4), 156; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences15040156 - 18 Apr 2025

Viewed by 427

Abstract

The Afghanistan earthquake of 21 June 2022 ruptured a ~10 km-long fault segment in the North Waziristan–Bannu fault system (NWBFS) located towards the north of the Katawaz Basin. The earthquake was shallow and reportedly caused widespread devastation. In this article, we investigated the [...] Read more.

The Afghanistan earthquake of 21 June 2022 ruptured a ~10 km-long fault segment in the North Waziristan–Bannu fault system (NWBFS) located towards the north of the Katawaz Basin. The earthquake was shallow and reportedly caused widespread devastation. In this article, we investigated the long-term, i.e., geological and geomorphological, evidence of deformation along the earthquake segment. For comparison, we also studied the short-term space geodetic and remote sensing results documenting a visible offset between the fault traces. Focusing on the fault modelling and on the published results, it is thus clear that the earthquake rupture did not reach the surface; instead, it stopped in the shallow sub-surface at ~1 km depth. Moreover, the InSAR analyses show some technical issues, such as coherence loss, etc., likely due to severe ground-shaking leaving some gaps in the results; geological and geomorphological evidence complemented this information. As an outcome of this research, we confirmed that InSAR results could generally capture the overall fault geometry at depth, even in cases of blind faulting, whereas the detailed geometry of the tectonic structure, in this case with a right stepping en-echelon pattern, could be successfully captured by combining it with geological and geomorphological approaches and optical remote sensing observations. Accordingly, the right stepping fault generates a restraining bend in the dominantly left-lateral shear zone. Therefore, such fault stepovers are capable of localizing strain and could act as loci for seismic ruptures, bearing strong implications for the seismic hazard assessment of the region, as well as of other strike-slip fault zones. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Earthquake Geology of Plate Margins and Plate Interiors: Integrating Classical Methods with New Approaches)

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30 pages, 20652 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Distinct Element Numerical Modelling and In Situ CSIRO HI Cell Data for Rock Slope Stability Assessment

by Vivien De Lucia, Andrea Ermini, Stefano Guido, Daria Marchetti, Domenico Gullì and Riccardo Salvini

Geosciences 2025, 15(4), 155; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences15040155 - 18 Apr 2025

Viewed by 103

Abstract

Understanding the in situ stress state and mechanical properties of rock masses is essential for ensuring the stability and safety of quarrying operations. This study aims to estimate the natural stress state of rock using the CSIRO HI (Hollow Inclusion) triaxial overcoring method; [...] Read more.

Understanding the in situ stress state and mechanical properties of rock masses is essential for ensuring the stability and safety of quarrying operations. This study aims to estimate the natural stress state of rock using the CSIRO HI (Hollow Inclusion) triaxial overcoring method; we also conducted numerical modelling by applying the Distinct Element Method (DEM) for stability assessments in quarry environments. The investigation provided comprehensive insights into the geomechanical properties of the rock mass and the stability of quarry fronts. Precise measurements and analyses of in situ stress contributed to a detailed understanding of stress distribution within the rock. Additionally, biaxial compression tests further characterized the mechanical behavior of the rock, which was essential for accurate modelling and simulation. Numerical modelling using DEM facilitated an in-depth stability analysis, allowing evaluation of potential failure mechanisms and proposal of effective mitigation strategies. The 3D numerical model was calibrated using in situ measurements from CSIRO HI data and was employed to simulate future excavations. DEM modelling was particularly crucial because of the fractured nature of the rock mass, which necessitated thorough stability verification in excavation design simulations. This research advances the scientific understanding of stress distribution and mechanical behavior in jointed rock masses, ultimately contributing to the development of safer and more efficient quarrying practices. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Geomechanics)

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19 pages, 9813 KiB

Open AccessTechnical Note

EGMStream Webapp: EGMS Data Downstream Solution

by Francesco Becattini, Camilla Medici, Davide Festa and Matteo Del Soldato

Geosciences 2025, 15(4), 154; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences15040154 - 17 Apr 2025

Viewed by 129

Abstract

The European Ground Motion Service (EGMS), part of the Copernicus Land Monitoring Service (CLMS), provides free pan-European ground motion data to support local and regional ground deformation analyses. To enhance the accessibility and usability of EGMS products, a new webapp, EGMStream, has been [...] Read more.

The European Ground Motion Service (EGMS), part of the Copernicus Land Monitoring Service (CLMS), provides free pan-European ground motion data to support local and regional ground deformation analyses. To enhance the accessibility and usability of EGMS products, a new webapp, EGMStream, has been developed using Python and JavaScript for downloading and converting EGMS data. This revised and updated version improves the functionality and performance of the original R-based desktop tool, avoiding the need for a standalone software installation. Users can now simply access the webapp with an internet connection. In addition, the web version enhances data processing by leveraging high-performance server-side computing without relying on personal computer resources. The EGMStream webapp offers advanced features, including the parallel processing of large datasets and extraction of converted EGMS data for areas of interest (AoI) in various GIS-compatible formats. The transition from standalone software to a cloud-based system streamlines the integration of EGMS data into existing workflows, broadens user accessibility, and supports large-scale geospatial analysis. Consequently, this shift promotes the dissemination of these relevant and free available measurement data to a wider audience, including non-expert users. Full article

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Graphical abstract

15 pages, 14363 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Sedimentary Diversity of Tsunami Deposits in a River Channel Associated with the 2024 Noto Peninsula Earthquake, Central Japan

by Rina Okada, Koji Umeda, Keigo Motegi, Takanobu Kamataki and Tadashi Amano

Geosciences 2025, 15(4), 153; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences15040153 - 17 Apr 2025

Viewed by 173

Abstract

A comprehensive analysis of modern tsunami deposits offers a valuable opportunity to elucidate the characteristics of paleo-tsunami deposits. On 1 January 2024, a tsunami was generated by a magnitude 7.6 seismic event and subsequently struck the Noto Peninsula in central Japan. In order [...] Read more.

A comprehensive analysis of modern tsunami deposits offers a valuable opportunity to elucidate the characteristics of paleo-tsunami deposits. On 1 January 2024, a tsunami was generated by a magnitude 7.6 seismic event and subsequently struck the Noto Peninsula in central Japan. In order to create a facies model of the tsunami deposits in terrestrial and riverine environments, field surveys were conducted on both the onshore and sandbars within the river channel in the Nunoura area on the northeastern Noto Peninsula. Terrestrial tsunami deposits were observed up to several hundred meters inland, with a slight decrease in thickness of several centimeters with distance from the shoreline. In terrestrial settings, the presence of a substantial silty layer overlying a graded sandy layer is indicative of ponded stagnant water from the tsunami wave. In contrast, riverine tsunami deposits are thicker and more extensive than terrestrial sediments, containing both gravels and shell fragments. An erosional surface develops between deposits of run-up and backwash flows, but a mud drape is not observed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Editorial Board Members' Collection Series: Natural Hazards)

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31 pages, 16165 KiB

Open AccessReview

Reappraisal of the Continental Rifting and Seafloor Spreading That Formed the South China Sea

by Brian Taylor

Geosciences 2025, 15(4), 152; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences15040152 - 16 Apr 2025

Viewed by 381

Abstract

Recently published marine geophysical and seafloor drilling data permit a substantive reappraisal of the rifting and spreading that formed the South China Sea (SCS). The SCS rifted margins are different from those of the Atlantic type, having higher strain rates, younger orogenic crust, [...] Read more.

Recently published marine geophysical and seafloor drilling data permit a substantive reappraisal of the rifting and spreading that formed the South China Sea (SCS). The SCS rifted margins are different from those of the Atlantic type, having higher strain rates, younger orogenic crust, and distributed syn-rift magmatism. Rifting ~66–11 Ma and spreading 30–14 Ma split a Cretaceous Andean arc and forearc, producing >700 km of seafloor spreading in the east and a ~2000-km-wide rifted margin in the west. Luconia Shoals–Dangerous Grounds–Reed Bank–north Palawan–SW Mindoro were separated from China when the SCS opened. Brittle faulting of the upper crust was decoupled from ductile flow and magmatic intrusion of the lower crust, producing wide rifting with thin spots held together by less extended surrounds. Sediments accumulated in inter-montane lakes. Transform faults formed at/after breakup to link offset spreading segments. Spreading in the eastern subbasin from C11n to C5AD was at rates averaging 62 mm/yr, 30–24 Ma, decreasing to 38.5 mm/yr younger than 23 Ma. Spreading reorganization was common as margin segments broke up to the SW and spreading directions changed from ~N-S before 23 Ma to NW-SE after 17 Ma. Full article

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21 pages, 3328 KiB

Open AccessReview

Review and Inventory of Pedological and Stratigraphical Knowledge for Investigating Shallow Landslides: A Case Study of the Cervinara Area (Central Campanian Apennines, Southern Italy)

by Antonella Ermice, Carla Buffardi, Rossana Marzaioli, Marco Vigliotti and Daniela Ruberti

Geosciences 2025, 15(4), 151; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences15040151 - 16 Apr 2025

Viewed by 132

Abstract

Landslides are one of the most serious problems affecting large parts of the world. There are two approaches that are used to study the organization of these land cover features: firstly, an approach utilizing lithostratigraphic tools, where soils are described and interpreted in [...] Read more.

Landslides are one of the most serious problems affecting large parts of the world. There are two approaches that are used to study the organization of these land cover features: firstly, an approach utilizing lithostratigraphic tools, where soils are described and interpreted in accordance with specific geological/lithological patterns, and, secondly, through pedological instruments, where the pedogenetic patterns are identified, and the sequences are identified via standardized criteria and organized according to modern classification systems. In the present review, a comparison between the two above approaches is outlined, using the Campania Apennine reliefs (Southern Italy) as the reference environment because they are periodically and dramatically affected by mass movements mainly associated with rainfall events. These reliefs are strongly influenced by the products emitted by the Phlegraean Fields and the Somma–Vesuvius volcanoes. These products affect surface structures either through their direct alteration, with the formation of pedogenized products, or through their reworking, mainly stimulated by rainfall events, which is also responsible for the movement of pedogenized materials along the slopes. This results in complex surface architectures, knowledge of which is a crucial step in the assessment of robust monitoring systems. This review covers the Cervinara area, located in the central portion of the Campania Apennines, which was overwhelmed by dramatic landslide events in 1999. Our aims were to critically analyze the impact and the potential of lithostratigraphic and pedological approaches in studying the soils of the area in question and to provide an inventory of the scientific papers in which, with different aims, descriptions and interpretations of the local soil covers are reported. We examined and selected the national and international literature available in major scientific online databases, and these were split into groups on the basis of citations and type of approach. The reviewed literature showed that the stratigraphic approach was by far the most preferred, although significant potential was offered by pedological tools in this field of investigation. A high number of hydraulic and geotechnical articles was also found, in comparison to geological and pedological papers, which confirmed the significant levels of interest in the land cover type in question, specifically regarding landslide processes, and in their role in risk mitigation practices. On the whole, the latter approach has been proven to offer a greater exploration potential through the use of rigorous classification systems and, thus, the possibility of identifying and correlating soil properties over large areas. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Landslides Runout: Recent Perspectives and Advances)

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39 pages, 37908 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Deformation of the “Anorogenic” Wolf River Batholith, Wisconsin, USA: Understanding the Baraboo Orogeny Hinterland

by John P. Craddock, David H. Malone, Erica P. Craddock, Steven J. Baumann, John E. Malone and Ryan Porter

Geosciences 2025, 15(4), 150; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences15040150 - 16 Apr 2025

Viewed by 244

Abstract

The Mesoproterozoic (~1470 Ma) Wolf River batholith (WRB) is exposed over 6500 km², encompassing 11 plutons that crosscut the Archean Marshfield and Proterozoic Penokean terranes. As the WRB is the classically defined anorogenic batholith, to test this hypothesis, seven igneous phases [...] Read more.

The Mesoproterozoic (~1470 Ma) Wolf River batholith (WRB) is exposed over 6500 km², encompassing 11 plutons that crosscut the Archean Marshfield and Proterozoic Penokean terranes. As the WRB is the classically defined anorogenic batholith, to test this hypothesis, seven igneous phases were analyzed using anisotropy of magnetic susceptibility (AMS), as a proxy for magmatic flow during intrusion, and the samples recorded a sub-horizontal emplacement in six different orientations. Paleopoles from six of eight igneous samples preserve a wide variety of sub-vertical orientations with two reversed and four normal polarities. The synorogenic Baldwin Conglomerate is the youngest rock (<1460 Ga) associated with WRB. Magnetic fabrics are horizontal, but multidomain and paleopole signatures, where interpretable, are sub-vertical. The North American APWP places middle Laurentia at low-latitude during Geon 14, and all our paleopoles are sub-vertical, not sub-horizontal, again suggesting post-intrusion deformation. Moreover, the McCauley gneiss (1886 Ma; U-Pb zircon), Rib Mountain Quartzite (1750 Ma MDA; U-Pb zircon, n = 150), Dells of the Eau Claire rhyolite (1483 Ma; U-Pb zircon, 1469 Ma; monazites-in-garnet), and Baldwin conglomerate (1460 Ma MDA; U-Pb zircons, n = 150) are sub-vertical inliers (xenoliths) in the igneous suite; the Proterozoic Wausau turbidite (1850 Ma MDA; U-Pb zircon, n = 150) was intruded by the WRB and dips 25°W. Here, we present a reinterpretation of the WRB as a deformed synorogenic rather than an anorogenic intrusion. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Zircon U-Pb Geochronology Applied to Tectonics and Ore Deposits)

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31 pages, 5534 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Safety Assessment of Concrete Gravity Dams: Hydromechanical Coupling and Fracture Propagation

by Maria Luísa Braga Farinha, Nuno Monteiro Azevedo and Sérgio Oliveira

Geosciences 2025, 15(4), 149; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences15040149 - 15 Apr 2025

Viewed by 125

Abstract

For the safety assessment of concrete dam–foundation systems, this study used an explicit time-stepping small-displacement algorithm, which simulates the hydromechanical interaction and considers the discrete representation of the foundation discontinuities. The proposed innovative methodology allows for the definition of more reliable safety factors [...] Read more.

For the safety assessment of concrete dam–foundation systems, this study used an explicit time-stepping small-displacement algorithm, which simulates the hydromechanical interaction and considers the discrete representation of the foundation discontinuities. The proposed innovative methodology allows for the definition of more reliable safety factors and the identification of more realistic failure modes by integrating (i) softening-based constitutive laws that are closer to the real behavior identified experimentally in concrete–concrete and concrete–rock interfaces; (ii) a water height increase that can be considered in both hydraulic and mechanical models; and (iii) fracture propagation along the dam–foundation interface. Parametric studies were conducted to assess the impact of the mechanical properties on the global safety factors of three gravity dams with different heights. The results obtained using a coupled/fracture propagation model were compared with those from the strength reduction method and the overtopping scenario not considering the hydraulic pressure increase. The results show that the safety assessment should be conducted using the proposed methodology. It is shown that the concrete–rock interface should preferably have a high value of fracture energy or, ideally, higher tensile and cohesion strengths and high associated fracture energy. The results also indicate that with a brittle concrete–rock model, the predicted safety factors are always conservative when compared with those that consider the fracture energy. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fracture Geomechanics—Obstacles and New Perspectives)

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18 pages, 14419 KiB

Open AccessArticle

U-Pb Zircon Age Constraints on the Paleozoic Sedimentation, Magmatism and Metamorphism of the Sredogriv Metamorphics, Western Balkan Zone, NW Bulgaria

by Nikolay Bonev, Petyo Filipov, Tsvetomila Vladinova, Tanya Stoylkova, Hristiana Georgieva, Svetoslav Georgiev, Hristo Kiselinov and Lyubomirka Macheva

Geosciences 2025, 15(4), 148; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences15040148 - 15 Apr 2025

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Abstract

The Sredogriv greenschist facies rocks belong to the Western Balkan Zone in northwestern Bulgaria. The low-grade rocks consist of clastic-tuffaceous precursors and presumably olistostromic magmatic bodies. We present U-Pb LA-ICP-MS zircon age constraints for the Sredogriv metaconglomerate, intruding metaalbitophyre and a breccia-conglomerate of [...] Read more.

The Sredogriv greenschist facies rocks belong to the Western Balkan Zone in northwestern Bulgaria. The low-grade rocks consist of clastic-tuffaceous precursors and presumably olistostromic magmatic bodies. We present U-Pb LA-ICP-MS zircon age constraints for the Sredogriv metaconglomerate, intruding metaalbitophyre and a breccia-conglomerate of the sedimentary cover. Detrital zircons in the Sredogriv metaconglomerate yield a maximum depositional age of 523 Ma, with a prominent NeoproterozoicEarly Cambrian detrital zircon age clusters derived from igneous sources. The metaalbitophyre crystallized at 308 Ma and contains the same age clusters of inherited zircons. A 263 Ma maximum age of deposition is defined for a breccia-conglomerate of the Smolyanovtsi Formation from the sedimentary cover that recycled material from the Sredogriv metamorphics and Carboniferous–Permian magmatic rocks. The depositional setting of the Sredogriv sedimentary succession is characterized by proximity to Cadomian island arc sources and provenance from the northern periphery of Gondwana. The timing of the Variscan greenschist facies metamorphism of the Sredogriv metamorphics is bracketed between 308 Ma and the depositional age of 272 Ma of another adjacent clastic formation. These results constrain the timing of the Cadomian sedimentary history and the Variscan magmatic and tectono-metamorphic evolution in this part of the Western Balkan Zone. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Detrital Minerals Geochronology and Sedimentary Provenance)

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30 pages, 2254 KiB

Open AccessReview

Seismicity Precursors and Their Practical Account

by Vasilis Tritakis

Geosciences 2025, 15(4), 147; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences15040147 - 14 Apr 2025

Viewed by 176

Abstract

Earthquakes (EQs) are the most unpredictable and damaging natural disasters. Over the last hundred years, the scientific community has been engaged in an intense endeavor to attain a confident and secure method of seismic activity forecasting. So far, despite these efforts, no fully [...] Read more.

Earthquakes (EQs) are the most unpredictable and damaging natural disasters. Over the last hundred years, the scientific community has been engaged in an intense endeavor to attain a confident and secure method of seismic activity forecasting. So far, despite these efforts, no fully validated method for predicting EQs has been established. However, research over the last thirty years has documented a substantial number of seismic precursor phenomena, the correct evaluation and application of which may pave the way for the development of a reliable EQ prediction method in the near future. Most documented seismic precursors belong to the rapidly evolving field of electro-seismology, while a smaller subset falls within the traditional domain of classical seismology and geophysics. This article aims to compile, classify, and assess the most well-documented precursors while also proposing a preliminary framework for their more effective application. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Precursory Phenomena Prior to Earthquakes (2nd Edition))

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18 pages, 1727 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Comparison of Backprojection Techniques for Rupture Propagation Modelling of the M_w = 7.8 Mainshock Earthquake near Kahramanmaras and the M_w = 7.5 Second-Largest Mainshock near Elbistan, Turkey, 2023

by Dimitrios Nikolopoulos, Mahmood Sultan, Aftab Alam, Demetrios Cantzos, Georgios Priniotakis, Michail Papoutsidakis, Farhan Javed, Georgios Prezerakos, Jamil Siddique, Muhammad Ali Shah, Muhammad Rafique and Panayiotis Yannakopoulos

Geosciences 2025, 15(4), 146; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences15040146 - 14 Apr 2025

Viewed by 259

Abstract

This paper utilises teleseismic Z-component data to investigate rupture propagation, extent, and velocity for two very destructive earthquakes in the East Anatolian Fault Zone (EAFZ): the

M_{w}

= 7.8 earthquake near Kahramanmaras and the largest (

M_{w}

= 7.5 s) aftershock [...] Read more.

This paper utilises teleseismic Z-component data to investigate rupture propagation, extent, and velocity for two very destructive earthquakes in the East Anatolian Fault Zone (EAFZ): the

M_{w}

= 7.8 earthquake near Kahramanmaras and the largest (

M_{w}

= 7.5 s) aftershock at Elbistan (both on 6 February 2023). The extent of the rupture is modelled with beamforming and multichannel signal classification. The teleseismic data are derived from agencies in USA and Canada. The rupture of the

M_{w}

= 7.8 earthquake is found to be bi-directional towards the northeast and southwest. Three rupture segments are identified for the Kahramanmaras earthquake between 34.5°–37.5° longitude and 37.0°–37.5° latitude, and another three are identified for the Elbistan earthquake between 36.5°–38.0° longitude and around 38.5° latitude. A total of 299 km is covered in 185 s with rupture velocities between 3.1 km/s and 3.4 km/s. Additionally, the mainshock’s splay and the second-largest aftershock’s rupture are also bidirectional, covering 150 km within 46 s. Five velocity segments are identified, three for the Kahramanmaras and two for the Elbistan earthquakes. Beamforming is efficient for identifying the velocity segments. The findings provide new insights on the evolution of the spatio-temporal rupture of the EAFZ and may serve as a basis for long-term earthquake hazard planning in the area. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Editorial Board Members' Collection Series: Natural Hazards)

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15 pages, 4901 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effects of Rock Texture on Digital Image Correlation

by Azemeraw Wubalem, Chiara Caselle, Battista Taboni and Gessica Umili

Geosciences 2025, 15(4), 145; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences15040145 - 10 Apr 2025

Viewed by 235

Abstract

Digital image correlation (DIC) is a non-contact optical method that can provide high-resolution strain and displacement measurements, but its effectiveness depends on surface texture contrast. This study investigates the effects of surface characteristics on the quality of DIC results in tonalite and marble [...] Read more.

Digital image correlation (DIC) is a non-contact optical method that can provide high-resolution strain and displacement measurements, but its effectiveness depends on surface texture contrast. This study investigates the effects of surface characteristics on the quality of DIC results in tonalite and marble samples under Brazilian tests. Tonalite samples have a coarse texture with a heterogeneous mineral composition; therefore, DIC analysis was conducted without artificial speckle patterns. Marble, instead, poses a challenge due to its uniform fine texture and composition. Thus, using point and line grids to enhance surface contrast, artificial speckle patterns were applied to marble samples. A total of 39 disk samples (12 tonalite and 27 marble) were tested with video frames recorded during loading and analyzed using Ncorr software. The results confirmed that tonalite’s natural texture allows accurate strain mapping without artificial speckle patterns. In contrast, marbles without speckles are not effective in strain evolution mapping due to a lack of surface contrast. Marble with both point- and line-speckled patterns effectively mapped the strain evolution except for some distortion and directionality along speckles in displacement fields. This result suggests that the preparation of speckled surfaces need special attention for effective deformation evolution mapping in homogeneous materials. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Digging Deeper: Insights and Innovations in Rock Mechanics)

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10 pages, 248 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Vibrations of an Elastic Half-Space

by Bogdan Felix Apostol

Geosciences 2025, 15(4), 144; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences15040144 - 9 Apr 2025

Viewed by 199

Abstract

We report on the resolution of the vibration problem for a homogeneous and isotropic elastic half-space (the Lamb problem), with application to the seismic tensorial force. We assume a homogeneous and isotropic half-space with a localized force which produces vibrations. The solution is [...] Read more.

We report on the resolution of the vibration problem for a homogeneous and isotropic elastic half-space (the Lamb problem), with application to the seismic tensorial force. We assume a homogeneous and isotropic half-space with a localized force which produces vibrations. The solution is achieved by introducing vector plane-wave functions. Explicit results are given for an isotropic tensorial force and a half-space with free surface. The contribution of the Rayleigh surface waves to vibrations is analyzed in the special case of a temporal-impulse force, where the solution exhibits unphysical features, as expected: it extends over the entire free surface and time domain, with a (scissor-like) double-wall propagating both in the future and the past. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Editorial Board Members' Collection Series: Natural Hazards)

33 pages, 44898 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Supra-Salt Sedimentary Sequence of the North Caspian Depression: Stratigraphy and Sedimentary History

by Aitbek Akhmetzhanov, Saule Uvakova, Kenzhebek Ibrashev, Gauhar Akhmetzhanova and Vyacheslav Zhemchuzhnikov

Geosciences 2025, 15(4), 143; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences15040143 - 9 Apr 2025

Viewed by 213

Abstract

The North Caspian Basin, known for its oil and gas potential, was formed because of the evolution of the ancient Tethys Ocean and is also a result of the collision of the East European, Kazakhstania, and Siberian paleocontinents. At the beginning of the [...] Read more.

The North Caspian Basin, known for its oil and gas potential, was formed because of the evolution of the ancient Tethys Ocean and is also a result of the collision of the East European, Kazakhstania, and Siberian paleocontinents. At the beginning of the Mesozoic Era, it was a part of the northern continental margin of the Neo-Tethys, which formed Eurasia. In the Late Triassic and Early Jurassic, a major restructuring of the North Caspian sedimentary basin occurred, characterized by angular unconformity and the erosion of underlying sediments in the coastal zones of the basin. The sedimentary succession of the depression accumulating in the Mesozoic Era consisted of alternating siliciclastic and carbonate rocks. It began to form due to the destruction of the uplifts formed north and west of the East European craton and Urals, which resulted in coastal clastic material in the Triassic and Jurassic, but by the end of the Jurassic and Cretaceous, when all uplifts existing in the north of Tethys were leveled, it was mostly marine environments that contributed to the accumulation of siliciclastic and carbonate strata. The appearance of a large amount of sedimentary material towards the center of the depression, causing stress, as well as the deflection of the basement, contributed to fault tectonics and the resumption and manifestation of salt tectonics. As a result of the continuous diapirism of salt bodies during the Late Mesozoic, mini basins were formed, in which different sedimentogenesis was manifested. These processes contributed to the redistribution of hydrocarbons from the underlying pre-salt formations to the intermediate depth interval post-salt succession with Permian–Triassic and also near-surface Jurassic–Cretaceous formations. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Sedimentology, Stratigraphy and Palaeontology)

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46 pages, 9978 KiB

Open AccessReview

Experimental and Numerical Methods for Hydraulic Fracturing at Laboratory Scale: A Review

by Atif Ismail and Saman Azadbakht

Geosciences 2025, 15(4), 142; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences15040142 - 9 Apr 2025

Viewed by 304

Abstract

Hydraulic fracturing experimentation is an essential tool for understanding the application of hydraulic fracturing in producing hydrocarbons from unconventional reservoirs. Laboratory testing methods such as uniaxial, biaxial, and true triaxial testing have limited accuracy due to the simplified consideration of in situ stresses, [...] Read more.

Hydraulic fracturing experimentation is an essential tool for understanding the application of hydraulic fracturing in producing hydrocarbons from unconventional reservoirs. Laboratory testing methods such as uniaxial, biaxial, and true triaxial testing have limited accuracy due to the simplified consideration of in situ stresses, geological conditions, and subsurface temperature variations. Despite these limitations, hydraulic fracturing experimentation provides valuable insights for the execution of hydraulic fracturing in field conditions. Key factors influencing the accuracy and generalization of experimental results include sample specifications, stress regime, saturation conditions, and fracturing fluid properties. However, extending laboratory-scale conclusions to the field scale requires appropriate scaling factors. This paper provides an overview of the main concepts in hydraulic fracture modeling, including design considerations, laboratory scaling, uniaxial, biaxial, and triaxial testing in hydraulic fracturing experimentation and major numerical simulation methodologies. Numerical methods, such as the discrete element method, discontinuous deformation analysis, rigid body spring network, and virtual internal bond, effectively simulate complex mechanisms like fracture initiation, propagation, fracture–fluid interactions, and the influence of rock microstructure, complementing the experimental findings. Advancements in these models, including the integration of nonlinear elasticity in virtual internal bonds and coupling with finite element analysis or fluid network models, continue to enhance the predictive accuracy and efficiency, particularly in complex geological settings, offering promising applications for optimizing shale gas production, acid fracturing, and geotechnical engineering. Furthermore, this review discusses the importance of in situ stresses, geological conditions, and temperature in both laboratory experiments and numerical simulations, highlighting future directions to consider in laboratory-scale analyses of hydraulic fracturing. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Geomechanics)

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27 pages, 4415 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Using a Hydro-Morphic Classification of Catchments to Characterise and Explain High Flow and Overbank Flood Behaviour

by Amir Mohammad Arash, Kirstie Fryirs and Timothy J. Ralph

Geosciences 2025, 15(4), 141; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences15040141 - 8 Apr 2025

Viewed by 225

Abstract

The morphological characteristics of catchments are key controls on how flow is routed through catchments and the spatial and temporal dynamics of floods, therefore influencing the shape of hydrographs at any location. Here, we developed a hydro-morphic catchment classification to understand the extent [...] Read more.

The morphological characteristics of catchments are key controls on how flow is routed through catchments and the spatial and temporal dynamics of floods, therefore influencing the shape of hydrographs at any location. Here, we developed a hydro-morphic catchment classification to understand the extent to which various catchment characteristics act as controls on flood behaviour. The catchment characteristics include: size (as measured by gauge position in catchment and valley confinement at the gauge site), shape (elongation ratio and form factor), topography (catchment relief and longitudinal slope), and drainage network structure (drainage density). A total of 2452 high flow (near bankfull) and overbank flood hydrographs from rivers in 17 coastal catchments of New South Wales (NSW), Australia were used. Cluster analysis on hydrograph shape metrics of kurtosis, skewness, and rate-of-rise was performed to identify classes of hydrographs and their median shape. Three statistically distinct clusters were delineated for both high flows and overbank floods, and categorised as flashy, intermediate, and broad. Topographic characteristics of catchments (i.e., relief and longitudinal slope) were commonly among the dominant controls for all high flow and overbank flood hydrographs, excluding broad overbank floods. Drainage network structure (i.e., drainage density) also controlled flashy and intermediate high flows, and intermediate and broad overbank floods, while catchment size (i.e., gauge position in the network) influenced broad high flows. Catchment shape (i.e., elongation ratio) influenced broad overbank floods, and is a dominant control on flashy high flows, and intermediate and broad overbank floods. Overall, topographic controls were more useful for differentiating the hydrological behaviour of high flows relative to overbank floods. Understanding the relative control of different catchment morphometric characteristics on flow and flood behaviour can be used to identify the aspects of flood behaviour that are set by imposed controls and cannot therefore be realistically manipulated in management. A hydro-morphic classification can also be used in the design and calibration of hydrological models, tailoring their use to hydro-morphic catchment class. Full article

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22 pages, 8797 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Understanding Secondary Fragmentation Characteristics in Cave Mining: A Simulation-Based Analysis of Impact and Compression-Induced Breakage

by Yalin Li and Davide Elmo

Geosciences 2025, 15(4), 140; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences15040140 - 8 Apr 2025

Viewed by 223

Abstract

This study investigates the characteristics of secondary fragmentation and fines generation in cave mining through DEM simulations. The objective is not to develop a tool for accurately estimating fragmentation observed at drawpoints. Instead, the research focuses on an improved understanding of the impact [...] Read more.

This study investigates the characteristics of secondary fragmentation and fines generation in cave mining through DEM simulations. The objective is not to develop a tool for accurately estimating fragmentation observed at drawpoints. Instead, the research focuses on an improved understanding of the impact of critical parameters (tensile strength, damping coefficients, and micro-defects) on secondary fragmentation characteristics. Attempting to predict outcomes without first comprehending the underlying mechanisms risks oversimplifying complex mine-scale conditions. The analysis shows that tensile failure is the dominant mechanism governing fragmentation. Size-distribution curves of fragmented blocks under impact breakage demonstrate a concave-up exponential relationship between percentage mass passing at 1/10th of the original size (

t_{10}

) and kinetic energy. Furthermore, the analysis of compression-induced breakage highlights the significant role of tensile strength and micro-defects in determining the extent of fragmentation under different conditions. By better understanding these underlying mechanisms, the research establishes a solid foundation for predicting fines generation and ultimately enhancing decision making and operational strategies in mining. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Geomechanics)

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19 pages, 3879 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Conceptual Analog for Evaluating Empirically and Explicitly the Evolving Shear Stress Along Active Rockslide Planes Using the Complete Stress–Displacement Surface Model

by Akram Deiminiat and Jonathan. D. Aubertin

Geosciences 2025, 15(4), 139; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences15040139 - 7 Apr 2025

Viewed by 254

Abstract

The stability analysis of rock slopes traditionally involves the evaluation of limit state conditions to determine the potential for rockslides and rockfalls. However, empirical evidence supported by experimental studies has highlighted the complex response of rock interfaces under differential loading. It is characterized [...] Read more.

The stability analysis of rock slopes traditionally involves the evaluation of limit state conditions to determine the potential for rockslides and rockfalls. However, empirical evidence supported by experimental studies has highlighted the complex response of rock interfaces under differential loading. It is characterized by distinct pre-peak and post-peak stress–deformation relationships, which represent the deformation profile of loaded rock interfaces and, thus, capture dynamic and evolving events. The present research introduces an interpretation framework to reconcile these contradicting paradigms by interpreting empirically and explicitly the full stress–displacement relationship along active shear surfaces of rockslide events. The Complete Stress–Displacement Surface (CSDS) model was incorporated into conventional analytical solutions for a rock slope planar failure to describe the evolving stress conditions during an active rockslide event. The Ruinon rockslides (Italy), monitored and studied extensively at the turn of the century, are revisited using the adapted CSDS model to describe the evolving stress–deformation conditions. Empirical and experimental calibrations of the model are implemented and compared using the CSDS model for the description of evolving shear stresses in large rockslide events based on topographical monitoring. This paper contributes a detailed framework for correlating in situ topographical monitoring with relevant geomechanical information to develop a representative model for the evolving stress conditions during a rockslide event. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Geomechanics)

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20 pages, 2521 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Radioactive Assessment and Th-, Nb-Ta-, Zr-, REE-Bearing Minerals in Alkaline Syenite: Environmental Implications for Radiological Safety

by Ahmed E. Abdel Gawad, Elena G. Panova, Mohamed M. Ghoneim, Svetlana Y. Yanson, Sultan J. Alsufyani, A. Saftah, Nadi Mlihan Alresheedi and Mohamed Y. Hanfi

Geosciences 2025, 15(4), 138; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences15040138 - 4 Apr 2025

Viewed by 210

Abstract

This study focused on identifying Th-, Nb-Ta-, Zr-, and REE-bearing minerals with a multivariate statistical approach in alkaline syenite to evaluate their radiological risks, at Nikeiba, Egypt. Through microchemical analyses, by utilizing electron probe microanalysis, horite, microlite, monazite, zircon, columbite, and fergusonite were [...] Read more.

This study focused on identifying Th-, Nb-Ta-, Zr-, and REE-bearing minerals with a multivariate statistical approach in alkaline syenite to evaluate their radiological risks, at Nikeiba, Egypt. Through microchemical analyses, by utilizing electron probe microanalysis, horite, microlite, monazite, zircon, columbite, and fergusonite were shown to bear uranium and thorium. These minerals have played an important role in higher radioactive zones in the studied alkaline syenite. REE-minerals comprising bastnäsite, monazite, and fluorite and apatite are well recorded. The total rare earth elements (TREE₂O₃) reveal higher concentrations in bastnäsite than monazite, with averages 74.87 and 63.8 wt%. Ce is considered the most predominant LREE in the analyzed bastnäsite and monazite. The mean values of radionuclide activity concentrations of ²³⁸U, ²³²Th, and ⁴⁰K are 108 ± 20 Bq/kg, 107 ± 9 Bq/kg, and 1255 ± 166 Bq/kg, respectively. Radiological assessments revealed a radium equivalent activity of 357 Bq/kg, below global limits, but an air-absorbed dose rate (166 nGy/h) and annual effective doses (0.81 mSv/y indoors, 0.20 mSv/y outdoors) exceeding safe thresholds. Additionally, the excess lifetime cancer risk (ELCR) was calculated at 0.00071, surpassing the acceptable limit of 0.00029, making these rocks unsafe for construction use. Statistical analyses further underscored the relationships between radionuclide concentrations and associated risks, highlighting the necessity for continuous monitoring and mitigation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Geochemistry)

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19 pages, 7237 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Relative Sea-Level Changes During the Upper Holocene as Determined by Reference to Beachrock Formations Along the South Coastline of Cyprus and Their Correlation with the Archaeological Context of the Island

by Miltiadis Polidorou, Giannis Saitis, Anna Karkani and Judith Gatt

Geosciences 2025, 15(4), 137; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences15040137 - 4 Apr 2025

Viewed by 660

Abstract

This study examines the relative sea-level changes during the Upper Holocene period along the south coastline of Cyprus through the investigation of beachrock formations and their impact on archaeological sites. Beachrock, as a natural indicator of past relative sea levels, provides valuable insights [...] Read more.

This study examines the relative sea-level changes during the Upper Holocene period along the south coastline of Cyprus through the investigation of beachrock formations and their impact on archaeological sites. Beachrock, as a natural indicator of past relative sea levels, provides valuable insights into the dynamic interplay between sea-level fluctuations and human settlements. The research integrates field observations, mineralogical and geochemical analysis, geochronological studies, and archaeological data to reconstruct past sea-level variations and their implications for coastal archaeological sites. The results reveal significant fluctuations in relative sea levels during the Upper Holocene, influencing the development and occupation of coastal archaeological sites. By elucidating the complex relationship between sea-level changes and human activity, this study contributes to our understanding of past coastal environments and their socio-cultural dynamics. Moreover, it underscores the importance of considering geological factors in archaeological interpretations and coastal management strategies in the face of contemporary sea-level rise. Full article

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28 pages, 8775 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Assessing Shallow Groundwater Depth and Electrical Conductivity in the Brazilian Semiarid: A Geostatistical Analysis

by Thayná Alice Brito Almeida, Luiz Carlos da Silva Boaventura, Marcos Vinícius da Silva, Carolyne Wanessa Lins de Andrade Farias, Aline Maria Soares das Chagas, Rodrigo Soares da Costa, Cláudio Vinícius de Souza Moura and Abelardo Antônio de Assunção Montenegro

Geosciences 2025, 15(4), 136; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences15040136 - 4 Apr 2025

Viewed by 201

Abstract

The Brazilian semiarid region faces water scarcity, with alluvial aquifers playing a crucial role in agricultural water security. This study assesses the spatiotemporal variability of groundwater quantity and salinity, analyzing natural and anthropogenic impacts, including post-pandemic trends. The investigation was developed in the [...] Read more.

The Brazilian semiarid region faces water scarcity, with alluvial aquifers playing a crucial role in agricultural water security. This study assesses the spatiotemporal variability of groundwater quantity and salinity, analyzing natural and anthropogenic impacts, including post-pandemic trends. The investigation was developed in the Mimoso Alluvial Valley (MAV), Pernambuco State, mainly used for communal irrigation supply. The spatiotemporal dynamics of land use (LUC) was performed based on data provided by Mapbiomas for the years 2012, 2016, 2019, and 2023. Geostatistical analysis was applied for mapping water table levels and salinity. Changes in LUC suggest possible forest regeneration influenced by climatic factors and anthropogenic pressure alleviation. Electrical conductivity (EC) and groundwater level (GWL) exhibited medium to high variability. Temporal trends highlight climatic influences, groundwater abstraction, and recharge/discharge dynamics. Pre-2019 years were classified as dry, whereas the 2019–2023 years ranged from rainy to extremely rainy, leading to lower EC and GWL variability in 2023. Additionally, the COVID-19 pandemic temporarily reduced agriculture, lowering salinity and aiding groundwater recovery. The spatial analysis revealed critical distribution patterns, highlighting the interaction between natural processes and human activities. These findings provide valuable insights for optimizing irrigation and environmental strategies, supporting long-term groundwater sustainability in semiarid regions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Navigating Hydrological Challenges in a Changing Climate: Lessons and Innovations)

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26 pages, 11060 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Composition and Potential Industrial Uses of Upper Cretaceous Carbonates of the Wadi Sir Limestone (WSL) and the Amman Silicified Limestone (ASL) Formations, North Jordan

by Islam Al-Dabsheh, Ahmad AlShdaifat, Aseel Almasri, Faten Al-Slaty, Nour Alzoubi, Abdulaziz M. Alsaleh and Hani Shurafat

Geosciences 2025, 15(4), 135; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences15040135 - 4 Apr 2025

Viewed by 259

Abstract

Upper Cretaceous carbonate rocks in Jordan are the main resources for construction and paint-related industrial applications. This study evaluates the elemental composition, mineralogy, and petrography of two main geological formations from two localities in northern Jordan (Hallabat, Turonian age, and Ajlun, Santonian–Campanian age) [...] Read more.

Upper Cretaceous carbonate rocks in Jordan are the main resources for construction and paint-related industrial applications. This study evaluates the elemental composition, mineralogy, and petrography of two main geological formations from two localities in northern Jordan (Hallabat, Turonian age, and Ajlun, Santonian–Campanian age) to shed light on their composition, depositional environments, and potential industrial end uses. The elemental composition of the Hallabat Wadi Sir Limestone (WSL) Formation indicates notable variability between the middle and upper parts of the WSL carbonates in the area, with higher CaO content in the middle part (mean 55 wt.%) and higher silica content observed in the upper part (mean 2 wt.%) compared with the middle part (mean 0.9 wt.%). Meanwhile, analysis of the elemental composition of the Ajlun Amman Silicified Limestone (ASL) Formation indicates that the CaO content is relatively higher in the upper part (mean 56 wt.%). In addition, the lower part is more influenced by detrital input when compared with the upper part of the studied section, in contrast to the Hallabat WSL Formation. Petrographic analysis demonstrates that the WSL and ASL samples are predominantly micritic limestone. The XRD results for the Hallabat WSL and Ajlun ASL show that the mineralogical composition is dominated by calcite (CaCO₃). Statistical and PCA analyses also confirm these variabilities between the two sites, indicating that all samples from both sites were deposited under variable hydrodynamic and environmental conditions that affected their physical and chemical composition. The results show that all studied samples are in the range of pure limestone and can be used for specific industrial applications in addition to their current uses, including those in the pottery and porcelain ware, soda ash and caustic soda, steel industry, sugar, and textile production industries, thus contributing to the economic resources in Jordan. Full article

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24 pages, 89764 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Deep Gravitational Slope Deformation Numerical Modelling Supported by Integrated Geognostic Surveys: The Case of Borrano (Abruzzo Region—Central Italy)

by Massimo Mangifesta, Paolo Ciampi, Leonardo Maria Giannini, Carlo Esposito, Gianni Scalella and Nicola Sciarra

Geosciences 2025, 15(4), 134; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences15040134 - 4 Apr 2025

Viewed by 281

Abstract

Deep gravitational slope deformations (DsGSDs) are a geological and engineering challenge with important implications for slope stability, the reliability of existing infrastructures, land use and, above all, the safety of settlements. This paper focuses on the DsGSD phenomenon that affects a large part [...] Read more.

Deep gravitational slope deformations (DsGSDs) are a geological and engineering challenge with important implications for slope stability, the reliability of existing infrastructures, land use and, above all, the safety of settlements. This paper focuses on the DsGSD phenomenon that affects a large part of the Borrano hamlet, located in the municipality of Civitella del Tronto (Abruzzo Region, Central Italy). This instability is characterized by slow movements of large volumes of material. The main factors initiating deformations are a combination of geological and hydrogeological aspects. These factors include the complex local stratigraphy, composed of pelitic and arenaceous facies at high slope dip angles, and extreme natural events such as heavy rainfall and earthquakes. This study employs a multidisciplinary approach integrating in field activities such as remote-controlled surface monitoring (clinometers and strain gauges), in-depth monitoring (inclinometers and piezometers), aero-photogrammetric analysis and numerical modelling. These techniques permitted us to characterize the evolution of the slope and to identify both the critical sliding surfaces and the mechanisms governing the ground movements. Soil deformations were mainly observed in the central zone of the hamlet. Significant deformations were recorded along planes of weakness at depth between arenaceous and pelitic materials. These planes represent contact zones between the clayey–marly facies, characterized by low strength, and the arenaceous facies, characterized by higher stiffness, creating a mechanical contrast that favours the development of large deformations. The numerical analyses confirmed good correlation with the monitoring data, revealing in detail the instability of both local and territorial processes. The 3D numerical analysis showed how the movements are controlled by planes of weakness, highlighting the key rule of geological discontinuities. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Natural Hazards)

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18 pages, 3952 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Provenance Variations of Cretaceous Sandstones from Arkansas and Drainage Reorganization in Southern USA: Evidence from Detrital Zircon Ages

by Haibo Zou, David T. King, Jr., Mackenzie Benton and Zain Webb

Geosciences 2025, 15(4), 133; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences15040133 - 4 Apr 2025

Viewed by 241

Abstract

Detrital zircon (DZ) ages of Cretaceous sandstones in the United States contain critical spatial and temporal information on their sedimentary provenance and on the reorganization of drainage patterns. Herein, we report zircon U-Pb ages of sandstones from Lower Cretaceous and Upper Cretaceous formations [...] Read more.

Detrital zircon (DZ) ages of Cretaceous sandstones in the United States contain critical spatial and temporal information on their sedimentary provenance and on the reorganization of drainage patterns. Herein, we report zircon U-Pb ages of sandstones from Lower Cretaceous and Upper Cretaceous formations of Arkansas. All Arkansas sandstones studied, except for those from the Upper Cretaceous Nacatoch Formation, display dominant Appalachian-Grenville DZ ages from among the Appalachian-Ouachita DZ grains that were studied. Our work shows that the sedimentary provenance of Arkansas sandstones started to change during the middle part of the Cretaceous. Notably, DZ grains from the Woodbine formation, which was deposited during the middle part of Cretaceous, show moderate contributions from Western Cordillera sources (275–55 Ma), and DZ grains from the Upper Cretaceous Nacatoch Formation exhibit dominant Western Cordillera sourcing. Our Arkansas-based DZ data suggest that the onset of DZ contribution of the Western Cordillera began at about 94 Ma, and the peak of the Western Cordillera source contribution occurred at about 73 Ma. Therefore, we can show that North American drainage reorganization with regard to Western Cordilleran DZ sourcing in Arkansas began during the time span 94–73 Ma, which is earlier than the previously reported onset of drainage reorganization with regard to Texas (i.e., 66–55 Ma). Full article

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30 pages, 13319 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Simulation of a Multi-Stage Stress Field and Regional Prediction of Structural Fractures in the Tucheng Syncline, Western Guizhou, China

by Jilin Wang, Lijun Jiang, Tiancheng Cang, Xiaozhi Zhou and Bicong Wang

Geosciences 2025, 15(4), 132; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences15040132 - 2 Apr 2025

Viewed by 228

Abstract

The prediction of structural fractures in concealed coal-bearing strata has always been a complex problem. The purpose of this study was to clarify the tectonic evolution of the study area, i.e., the Tucheng syncline, since the coal-forming period and to predict the development [...] Read more.

The prediction of structural fractures in concealed coal-bearing strata has always been a complex problem. The purpose of this study was to clarify the tectonic evolution of the study area, i.e., the Tucheng syncline, since the coal-forming period and to predict the development of structural fractures. The tectonic evolution of the study area was divided into three stages using regional tectonic analysis. The paleotectonic stress field of the study area was reconstructed through the field investigation, statistics, and analysis of joints. Based on the tectonic deformation analysis, numerical simulation was used to reveal the stress field characteristics of different tectonic deformation stages, and combined with the Mohr–Coulomb criterion, the degree of structural fracture development in the target layers (No.17^# coal seam) of the study area was predicted. This study concludes the following: (1) The study area underwent two tectonic deformations during the Yanshanian period, transitioning from an ellipsoidal columnar shape to a semi-ellipsoidal and stereotyped form, forming a superimposed short-axis syncline, and then tilting southeastward as a whole, and was locally cut by faults during the Himalayan period. (2) The distribution characteristics of the stress field in different tectonic stages vary. The stress concentration zones in the first and second stages have a more obvious symmetry, and the present-day stress concentration zone is located in the center of the syncline basin. (3) The superimposed rock fracture indices are larger in the edge zone parallel to the long axis of the syncline and at the bottom of the syncline, which also indicates a higher degree of structural fracture development at the corresponding locations. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Geomechanics and Engineering Evaluation of Fractured Oil and Gas Reservoirs)

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15 pages, 38862 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Landslides in the Himalayas: The Role of Conditioning Factors and Their Resolution in Susceptibility Mapping

by Lalit Pathak, Badri Baral, Kamana Joshi, Dipak Raj Basnet and Danilo Godone

Geosciences 2025, 15(4), 131; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences15040131 - 2 Apr 2025

Viewed by 1109

Abstract

Landslides present remarkable hazards in the Himalayan region, particularly in areas with young and fragile topography. Mitigating vulnerability requires assessing susceptibility, which relies heavily on the accuracy of susceptibility maps generated through various approaches that consider different conditioning factors at various resolutions. This [...] Read more.

Landslides present remarkable hazards in the Himalayan region, particularly in areas with young and fragile topography. Mitigating vulnerability requires assessing susceptibility, which relies heavily on the accuracy of susceptibility maps generated through various approaches that consider different conditioning factors at various resolutions. This study, conducted in Jajarkot District within the Karnali Province of Nepal and covering 2230 km², aims to identify suitable conditioning factors at appropriate resolutions. Sixteen factors, encompassing topography, hydrology, geology, and anthropogenic activities, were analyzed alongside a landslide inventory of 159 occurrences compiled from satellite imagery, the literature, and field surveys. A genetic algorithm (GA) was employed to determine the optimal set of conditioning factors, while Maximum Entropy (Maxent) modeling produced landslide susceptibility maps (LSM) at spatial resolutions ranging between 12.5 and 200 m. Resolution selection was guided by Receiver Operating Characteristic (ROC) curve and Area Under the Curve (AUC) analyses. Multicollinearity testing identified 15 influential factors, with land use ranking highest at 22.7%, followed by stream power index (SPI), drainage density, and aspect. The GA consistently highlighted land use and slope as effective factors across subset sizes. The results indicated resolutions finer than one hundred meters enhanced discrimination between landslide and non-landslide areas, emphasizing the need to balance resolution with computational resources and data availability. This study emphasizes the intricate interplay of conditioning factors, the GA’s efficacy in subset selection, and the crucial role of resolution in the improvement of susceptibility models. The findings provide practical insights for policymakers and disaster management authorities, aiding evidence-based decision making in the mitigation of landslide risk in Jajarkot and similar regions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Natural Hazards)

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18 pages, 19341 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Landslide at the River’s Edge: Alum Bluff, Apalachicola River, Florida

by Joann Mossa and Yin-Hsuen Chen

Geosciences 2025, 15(4), 130; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences15040130 - 1 Apr 2025

Viewed by 607

Abstract

When rivers impinge on the steep bluffs of valley walls, dynamic changes stem from a combination of fluvial and mass wasting processes. This study identifies the geomorphic changes, drivers, and timing of a landslide adjacent to the Apalachicola River at Alum Bluff, the [...] Read more.

When rivers impinge on the steep bluffs of valley walls, dynamic changes stem from a combination of fluvial and mass wasting processes. This study identifies the geomorphic changes, drivers, and timing of a landslide adjacent to the Apalachicola River at Alum Bluff, the tallest natural geological exposure in Florida at ~40 m, comprising horizontal sediments of mixed lithology. We used hydrographic surveys from 1960 and 2010, two sets of LiDAR from 2007 and 2018, historical aerial, drone, and ground photography, and satellite imagery to interpret changes at this bluff and river bottom. Evidence of slope failure includes a recessed upper section with concave scarps and debris fans in the lower section with subaqueous features including two occlusions and a small island exposed from the channel bottom at lower water levels. Aerial photos and satellite images indicate that the failure occurred in at least two phases in early 2013 and 2015. The loss in volume in the 11-year interval, dominantly from the upper portion of the bluff, was ~72,750 m³ and was offset by gains of ~14,760 m³ at the lower portion of the bluff, suggesting that nearly 80% of the material traveled into the river, causing changes in riverbed morphology from the runout. Despite being along a cutbank and next to the scour pool of a large meandering river, this failure was not driven by floods and the associated lateral erosion, but instead by rainfall in noncohesive sediments at the upper portion of the bluff. This medium-magnitude landslide is now the second documented landslide in Florida. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Landslides Runout: Recent Perspectives and Advances)

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30 pages, 5513 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Quantitative Biofacies Analysis of Upper Oligocene Reef-Coral Neritic Carbonates (Southern Pakistan)

by Luca Mariani, Giovanni Coletti, Mubashir Ali, Mahmood Iqbal, Muhammad Shumail, Hafiz Ahmed Raza Hassan and Francesca R. Bosellini

Geosciences 2025, 15(4), 129; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences15040129 - 1 Apr 2025

Viewed by 328

Abstract

This study examines four shallow-water, reef-coral-bearing carbonate successions belonging to the Jhill Limestone Unit of the Gaj Formation, exposed in the area near Karachi (southern Pakistan). Sixty-two samples were collected for the quantitative analysis of the skeletal and foraminiferal assemblages. The analysis of [...] Read more.

This study examines four shallow-water, reef-coral-bearing carbonate successions belonging to the Jhill Limestone Unit of the Gaj Formation, exposed in the area near Karachi (southern Pakistan). Sixty-two samples were collected for the quantitative analysis of the skeletal and foraminiferal assemblages. The analysis of large benthic foraminifera suggests a placement within the late Oligocene, characterized by the setup of the Late Oligocene Warming Event. Thanks to quantitative analyses and multivariate statistics, three biofacies were identified: (1) the reef coral biofacies (BFA), indicative of a sheltered, shallow-water environment above fair-weather wave base; (2) the coralline algal biofacies (BFB), deposited within a mesophotic setting and representing the deepest biofacies among the three recognized ones; and (3) the large benthic foraminiferal and coralline algal biofacies (BFC), subdivided into two sub-biofacies, namely (a) the miogypsinid, thin and flat large benthic foraminiferal and coralline algal sub-biofacies (BFC1), indicative of deeper setting, comprised between BFA and BFB, and (b) the miogypsinid and coralline algal sub-biofacies (BFC2), indicative of shallower settings than BFC1, and bearing evidence of paleo-seagrass meadows. All these biofacies were developed within the photic zone, in a relatively flat seafloor punctuated by patch reefs and seagrass meadows and characterized by a notable nutrient influx. Foraminiferal-based experimental paleobathymetric parameters, including the lepidocyclinids/miogypsinids, the flat nummulitids/lepidocyclinids, and the hyaline/porcelaneous foraminifera ratios, were tested and confirmed as reliable tools for paleodepth and paleoenvironmental reconstructions. Full article

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41 pages, 10214 KiB

Open AccessReview

A Review of Parameters and Methods for Seismic Site Response

by A. S. M. Fahad Hossain, Ali Saeidi, Mohammad Salsabili, Miroslav Nastev, Juliana Ruiz Suescun and Zeinab Bayati

Geosciences 2025, 15(4), 128; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences15040128 - 1 Apr 2025

Viewed by 673

Abstract

Prediction of the intensity of earthquake-induced motions at the ground surface attracts extensive attention from the geoscience community due to the significant threat it poses to humans and the built environment. Several factors are involved, including earthquake magnitude, epicentral distance, and local soil [...] Read more.

Prediction of the intensity of earthquake-induced motions at the ground surface attracts extensive attention from the geoscience community due to the significant threat it poses to humans and the built environment. Several factors are involved, including earthquake magnitude, epicentral distance, and local soil conditions. The local site effects, such as resonance amplification, topographic focusing, and basin-edge interactions, can significantly influence the amplitude–frequency content and duration of the incoming seismic waves. They are commonly predicted using site effect proxies or applying more sophisticated analytical and numerical models with advanced constitutive stress–strain relationships. The seismic excitation in numerical simulations consists of a set of input ground motions compatible with the seismo-tectonic settings at the studied location and the probability of exceedance of a specific level of ground shaking over a given period. These motions are applied at the base of the considered soil profiles, and their vertical propagation is simulated using linear and nonlinear approaches in time or frequency domains. This paper provides a comprehensive literature review of the major input parameters for site response analyses, evaluates the efficiency of site response proxies, and discusses the significance of accurate modeling approaches for predicting bedrock motion amplification. The important dynamic soil parameters include shear-wave velocity, shear modulus reduction, and damping ratio curves, along with the selection and scaling of earthquake ground motions, the evaluation of site effects through site response proxies, and experimental and numerical analysis, all of which are described in this article. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Geotechnical Earthquake Engineering and Geohazard Prevention)

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