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Article

Provenance Variations of Cretaceous Sandstones from Arkansas and Drainage Reorganization in Southern USA: Evidence from Detrital Zircon Ages

by
Haibo Zou
*,
David T. King, Jr.
,
Mackenzie Benton
and
Zain Webb
Department of Geosciences, Auburn University, Auburn, AL 36849, USA
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Geosciences 2025, 15(4), 133; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences15040133
Submission received: 9 March 2025 / Revised: 31 March 2025 / Accepted: 31 March 2025 / Published: 4 April 2025
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Abstract

:
Detrital zircon (DZ) ages of Cretaceous sandstones in the United States contain critical spatial and temporal information on their sedimentary provenance and on the reorganization of drainage patterns. Herein, we report zircon U-Pb ages of sandstones from Lower Cretaceous and Upper Cretaceous formations of Arkansas. All Arkansas sandstones studied, except for those from the Upper Cretaceous Nacatoch Formation, display dominant Appalachian-Grenville DZ ages from among the Appalachian-Ouachita DZ grains that were studied. Our work shows that the sedimentary provenance of Arkansas sandstones started to change during the middle part of the Cretaceous. Notably, DZ grains from the Woodbine formation, which was deposited during the middle part of Cretaceous, show moderate contributions from Western Cordillera sources (275–55 Ma), and DZ grains from the Upper Cretaceous Nacatoch Formation exhibit dominant Western Cordillera sourcing. Our Arkansas-based DZ data suggest that the onset of DZ contribution of the Western Cordillera began at about 94 Ma, and the peak of the Western Cordillera source contribution occurred at about 73 Ma. Therefore, we can show that North American drainage reorganization with regard to Western Cordilleran DZ sourcing in Arkansas began during the time span 94–73 Ma, which is earlier than the previously reported onset of drainage reorganization with regard to Texas (i.e., 66–55 Ma).

1. Introduction

Zircon, ideally ZrSiO4, is a mineral species rich in U and poor in Pb, and can withstand weathering, erosion, transportation, and deposition processes. These features make detrital zircon U-Pb geochronology a powerful tool for sediment provenance analysis, sedimentary basin evolution, tectonic evolution, and paleogeographic reconstructions across geological time and space [1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8]. Quantitative comparison of detrital zircon age spectra makes this approach more rigorous [9,10,11]. Where detrital zircon (DZ) ages are coupled with zircon chemistry such as Th/U values and CL images, the approach is even more capable of distinguishing source terranes [12,13,14,15].
In southern USA, detrital zircons from sandstones of the coeval Tuscaloosa and Woodbine formations of Texas and Oklahoma, which were deposited during the middle part of Cretaceous, as well as sandstones from the Paleocene Wilcox Group of Texas and Arkansas have been extensively studied, yielding important information on the North American drainage reorganization [16]. Western Cordillera (275–55 Ma) zircons were not found in Tuscaloosa-Woodbine sandstones in Texas and Oklahoma, yet they occur in Paleocene Wilcox sandstones from Texas and Arkansas. This observation suggests that by the start of Paleocene, rivers that sourced sediment from the Western Cordillera drained to the Gulf of Mexico across Texas. These DZ data show that much of the United States, from the Cordilleran arc to the Appalachian Mountains, was integrated with the Gulf of Mexico by the Paleocene (i.e., 66–56 Ma). In this work, we are using the boundary ages of chronostratigraphic units, particularly stage boundaries, that are in accord with the current version of the International Chronostratigraphic Chart [17].
Cretaceous Woodbine sandstones, deposited during the midst of the Cretaceous, and several Upper Cretaceous sandstones crop out in the Arkansas coastal plain and occur at relatively shallow depths as well, yet their DZ information has been lacking. Therefore, to date, it has been unclear if these Arkansas Cretaceous sandstones contain DZ signatures consistent with sources from the Western Cordillera. Our new DZ ages from Arkansas formations provide new spatial and temporal information on their sedimentary provenance and the implied history of drainage reorganization. Subsurface Upper Jurassic and Lower Cretaceous sandstones occur in drill holes of Arkansas, and their DZ geochronology provides data pertinent to their sedimentary provenance for these older formations. We present these data as well, which serve as a frame of reference for ages of Arkansas detrital zircons.
Herein, we report DZ U/Pb ages for Lower and Upper Cretaceous sandstones from the Arkansas coastal plain. As discussed below, we discovered moderate Western Cordillera signatures in the Woodbine Formation and dominant Western Cordillera signatures in the Upper Cretaceous Nacatoch Formation. Thus, the drainage reorganization in Arkansas appears to have occurred during the Late Cretaceous (i.e., 94–73 Ma), earlier than the onset of the Paleogene in Texas. Our new data shed light on the start and the peak of the DZ contributions from Western Cordilleran sources.

2. Cretaceous Sandstones of Southwestern Arkansas

2.1. Overview

South and east of the fall line, the Cretaceous System of Arkansas crops out continuously across the state’s western coastal plain region from southwestern to south-central Arkansas (Figure 1). There are a plethora of groups, formations, and members among these Cretaceous strata, and the nomenclature can be quite complicated, both at the surface and in the subsurface as well. In southwestern Arkansas, there is also considerable variation in lithostratigraphic nomenclature from place to place and quadrangle to quadrangle. Our outcrop sample set comes specifically from the counties of Sevier, Howard, Pike, Clark, and Hempstead. For the purposes of this paper, we prepared a local stratigraphic column that shows the main lithostratigraphic units without thickness relationships, but in relation to the dichotomy between Lower Cretaceous and Upper Cretaceous Series. All of the lithostratigraphic units that we encountered in this study are shown in Figure 2, which was modified by us from the legend of the 1993 Geologic Map of Arkansas [18]. Further, we indicate the main stratigraphic breaks (i.e., unconformities) in the stratigraphic sequence. All lithostratigraphic units from which we have samples are marked in Figure 2. In stratigraphic order, they are (from the lowermost Lower Cretaceous Trinity Group) as follows: the Pike Gravel, the Delight Sand, the Holly Creek Member, and the Paluxy Sand; and from the Upper Cretaceous, they are the Woodbine and Tokio formations and the Nacatoch Sand. In the descriptions of stratigraphic units, given below, the main source for the specific data on each formation and their depositional environments is the 1993 Geologic Map of Arkansas and related text [18].
Our emphasis in the present study is on the coarse clastic stratigraphic units, which include a zircon population; therefore, carbonates, shales, and evaporates were not sampled. In addition to outcrop samples, we also study subsurface core samples from the Hosston Formation (at the base of Cretaceous strata in the study area) and Cotton Valley Formation (at the top of Jurassic strata in the study area). The well locations are marked in Figure 1, and their latitude and longitude coordinates are given in Table 1.

2.2. Lower Cretaceous

The Lower Cretaceous Series of southwestern Arkansas consists of the Trinity Group and the overlying Fredericksburg Group, which in turn consists of two discontinuous units, the Kiamichi Formation and Goodland Limestone. The Trinity Group is referred to as a formation in some papers, but we properly will call it a group in the present paper. The southwestern Arkansas constituent lithostratigraphic units within the Trinity are shown in Figure 1. They are, in stratigraphic order, the Pike Gravel Member, the Delight Sand Member, the Dierks Limestone Member (or Lentil), the Holly Creek Member, the DeQueen Limestone Member, and the Paluxy Sand Member. In some reports, the Paluxy Sand is considered a formation outside the Trinity, but we follow the 1993 Geologic Map of Arkansas [18] in the present paper by including it as a member within the Trinity.
The basal Pike Gravel Member of the Trinity Group lies upon a wide stratigraphic break (i.e., regional unconformity) that separates Paleozoic clastic formations from overlying Lower Cretaceous strata. At this stratigraphic break, there is a dip discordance and evidence of extensive subaerial erosion. The Pike Gravel consists of bedded gravel of fluvial and alluvial fan origin, which is rich in sedimentary rock fragments, including fine clastics and chert (including novaculite). The Pike Gravel averages approximately 100 feet (30 m) in thickness but varies considerably in thickness from place to place. The Pike is typically yellow and orange, and it lies directly upon eroded Paleozoic strata. Pike Gravel samples that we studied are poorly sorted litharenites that include sub-equal amounts of quartz and rock fragments. The Pike’s quartz is mainly subangular, but there is a small population of rounded quartz grains, which probably derive directly from eroded Paleozoic clastics.
The overlying Delight Sand Member of the Trinity Group lies conformably upon the Pike Gravel and consists of grey, cross-stratified, fine-grained sand, which is interbedded with grey shales. The Delight ranges in thickness across the area, but averages about 200 feet (60 m) thick. In some places, there is a notable amount of asphaltic material imbued in the sands. Delight Sand samples that we studied are moderately well sorted litharenites and sublitharenites, which are fine-grained. There is considerably more quartz than rock fragments in the Delight samples, and some feldspar is present. The Delight Sand is likely of marginal marine origin, based on lithology and grain size. The Delight is overlain by the Dierks Limestone Member, which is an interbedded, dark limestone and shale unit of 40 to 70 feet (12 to 21 m) in thickness. The Dierks is quite fossiliferous, including abundant oysters (specifically, Ostrea sp.).
Overlying the Dierks is the Holly Creek Member of the Trinity Group, which consists of iron-oxide-rich, cross-stratified gravels, sands, and multi-colored clays. The Holly Creek is approximately 300 feet (90 m) in thickness across in the study area. The samples that we studied from the Holly Creek are siltstones with compositions that are sublitharenite to quartzarenite. The grains are mainly subangular and moderately well sorted. The Holly Creek is likely of terrestrial fluvial origin and represents a regressive phase across the area. A 40-foot (12 m)-thick gravel facies that occurs in some places within the Holly Creek, near its base, may be part of a lag deposit related to significant sea-level change at the Dierks-Holly Creek contact. Overlying the Holly Creek is the DeQueen Limestone Member of the Trinity Group. The DeQueen is a 75-foot (22 m)-thick deposit of interbedded dark limestones, shales, and evaporates; the DeQueen is also fossiliferous, and oysters (e.g., Ostrea sp.) are common. DeQueen deposition likely represents a marine transgressive event for southwestern Arkansas.
Overlying the Trinity Group is the Paluxy Sand Member, which consists of iron-oxide-rich, cross-stratified sands that are interbedded with gravels and multi-colored clay deposits. The Paluxy in the study area is likely of terrestrial fluvial origin. Paluxy’s thickness in the study area averages approximately 290 feet (87 m), of which the upper 20 feet (6 m) is a marly clay facies of possible lacustrine origin called the Walnut. In our Paluxy Sand samples, the grain size is very fine (a coarse siltstone) and there is a quartzarenite composition (<95% quartz). The Paluxy clastics are moderately well sorted and are subangular. Overlying the Paluxy in the study area is the Washita-Fredericksburg Formation, a 55-foot (16 m)-thick interval that consists of two fossiliferous limestone formations, the Goodland and the Kiamichi. The Kiamichi is more clay-rich than the Goodland, and they are about equal in thickness. Atop the Washita-Fredericksburg Group is a significant stratigraphic break, a disconformity of regional extent, which marks the Lower-Upper Cretaceous series boundary in the study area.

2.3. Upper Cretaceous

Overlying the disconformity atop the Washita-Fredericksburg is the Cretaceous Woodbine Formation, which consists of cross-stratified sands and gravels that are rich in volcanic particles, plus interbedded, multi-colored clays. The Woodbine is included within the Lower Cretaceous is some reports, and Upper Cretaceous in others; thus, we regard the Woodbine as having been deposited during the midst of the Cretaceous (i.e., the “middle” Cretaceous, if there were such a subdivision of geological time). In Figure 2, we include the Woodbine as the lowermost Upper Cretaceous formation.
The depositional environment for the Woodbine was likely a fluvial system. In some places, there are Woodbine facies that consist of water-laid tuffs. The color of the Woodbine ranges from dark shades of grey and green to red and orange, depending upon the extent of weathering. The Woodbine samples that we examined are all fine sandstones, specifically litharenites, which have 75 to 97 percent volcanic rock fragments in them. In our samples, the sorting was moderate to poor and the shapes of particles ranged from subangular to subrounded. Many of the grains in our samples were highly weathered, but others were nearly pristine, and we could see the constituent, microscopic lathe-like crystals typical of volcanic grains. Fossil wood and leaves occur in some beds of the Woodbine in the area. The Woodbine is quite thick in the study area, where its average approximately 250 feet (75 m). There is a significant stratigraphic break atop the Woodbine in the study area of southwestern Arkansas, which is a widespread disconformity.
Above the Woodbine, resting on the disconformity just noted, is the Tokio Formation, which consists of brown to grey, cross-stratified quartz-rich sands and interbedded sands with gravel layers, dark shales, and volcanic ash beds. There are some lignitic beds near the top of the Tokio, and there is a gravel facies near the base that is approximately 30 feet (9 m) thick in some places. The Tokio overall averages approximately 345 feet (104 m) in thickness across the study area. The Tokio samples that we studied were fine sands that had compositions of litharenites and sublitharenites and ranged widely in sorting from good to poor. Most Tokio grains were subangular, which is typical for fine sands. The depositional environment for Tokio is likely fluvial and lacustrine, which is supported by the textural information and the presence of lignites. One of our samples was a bioturbated marl, which may be of lacustrine origin. Minor amounts of glauconite have been reported from the Tokio, which suggests that some parts of the formation have a marine influence. In some reports, the Tokio is placed in the Austin Group, which consists of the Tokio and an overlying unit called the Brownstown Formation. The Brownstown consists of 140 feet (42 m) of fossiliferous, grey, sandy and calcareous clays and is glauconitic at its base.
Above the Austin Group lies a stratigraphic interval called the Taylor Group, which is mainly carbonates and is thus not part of our study. The Taylor Group consists of a sequence of formations, which, from oldest to youngest, are the Ozan, Annona, and Marlbrook. These chalks and limestone comprise approximately 600 feet (180 m) of strata, which are in turn overlain by the Navarro Group. The Navarro Group consists of the Nacatoch Formation and the Arkadelphia Formation. Of particular interest in this study is the Nacatoch, which will be discussed next.
The Nacatoch Formation, which is also called the Nacatoch Sand in some reports, consists of cross-stratified, fossiliferous sands, which are glauconitic in places and contain some interbedded limestone and clay lenses. The Nacatoch is approximately 395 feet (118 m) thick, and the upper 300 feet (90 m) is mainly cross-stratified sand. Fossils from the Nacatoch include corals, echinoderms, bryozoa, annelids, bivalves, gastropods, cephalopods, crab remains, and shark teeth. The fossils and glauconite suggest that the Nacatoch is a shallow marine deposit of coastal origin. The samples that we studied from the Nacatoch were all fine-grained, well sorted, and quartz-rich. The samples represent both quartzarenites and sublitharenites. In addition to a small percentage of glauconite (at most 3%), there was a noteworthy component of rounded phosphatic grains (at most 2%). Conformably above the Nactoch, within the Nararro Group, is the Arkadelphia Formation, which is a grey to tan, fossiliferous marl that averages approximately 120 feet (36 m) in thickness. There is a noteworthy stratigraphic break atop the Arkadelphia, which represents a regional disconformity at the Cretaceous–Cenozoic boundary.

2.4. Context for Sand Samples of This Study

Sand samples examined in this study range in stratigraphic position from the top of Upper Jurassic to near the top of Upper Cretaceous. The older sand samples of this study represent terrestrial clastics, mainly of fluvial origin, from the lower part of the stratigraphic section. These include samples from the Pike, Delight, Holly Creek, Paluxy, and Woodbine stratigraphic units. The younger samples are likely terrestrial in origin as well, but perhaps with marine influence. Figure 2 shows the stratigraphic position of the DZ-bearing samples used in this report.

3. Materials and Methods

Seven core sandstone samples (MCK5600, MCK4686, FM3200, NIP6300, NIP6400, NIP6500, NIP6600) and six outcrop sandstone samples (21AR01, 21AR07, 21AR10, 21AR11, 21AR23, 21AR24) from Arkansas are selected for zircon U/Pb age dating (Table 1). The formations represented by samples are, from bottom to top: Upper Jurassic Cotton Valley Formation (MCK5600), Lower Cretaceous Hosston Formation (NIP6500, NIP6400, NIP6300, MCK4686), Lower Cretaceous Paluxy Formation (21AR10), Upper Cretaceous Tuscaloosa Formation (FM3200), Upper Cretaceous Woodbine Formation (21AR11, 21AR23, 21AR24), Upper Cretaceous Tokio Formation (21AR07), and Upper Cretaceous Nacatoch Formation (21AR01). Figure 1 provides the localities of outcrop and core samples from Arkansas. Figure 2 gives sample positions in the schematic column of the Mesozoic strata in Arkansas. A summary of core and outcrop samples is given in Table 1.
A secondary ion mass spectrometer (IMS-1290, CAMECA, Grennevilliers, France) at the University of California at Los Angeles was used to analyze zircon U-Pb ages for seven core sandstone samples (MCK5600 from Upper Jurassic Cotton Valley Formation, NIP6600, NIP6500, NIP6400, NIP6300, and MCK4686 from Lower Cretaceous Hosston Formation, FM3200 from Upper Cretaceous Tuscaloosa Formation). The relative sensitivities for U and Pb were determined on zircon isotope standard AS3 [19] using a UO+/U+ calibration technique [20]. Since zircon standard AS3 does not have homogeneous U and Th concentrations, Th/U values for zircon unknowns are not reported for SIMS data. SIMS zircon U/Pb analytical methods have been documented in the literature [21].
Six outcrop samples from SW Arkansas (21AR10 from the Lower Cretaceous Paluxy Formation, 21AR11, 21AR23, and 21AR24 from the Upper Cretaceous Woodbine Formation, 21AR07 from the Upper Cretaceous Tokio Formation, and 21AR01 from the Upper Cretaceous Nacatoch Formation) were selected for zircon U-Pb dating by laser ablation inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS, Agilent 7900, Agilent Technologies, Santa Clara, CA, USA) at Wuhan Sample Solution Technology. Additional zircon grains from two core samples (NIP6300 and NIP6400 from Hosston Formation) are also analyzed by LA-ICP-MS (Table 1). Cathodoluminescence (CL) imaging of zircon grains were carried out using a scanning electron microscope (JSM-IT300HR, JEOL, Tokyo, Japan). Zircon standard 91500 (or Tanz) and glass NIST610 were used as external standards for U-Pb dating and trace element calibration, respectively [22]. Zircon Th/U ratios were also measured using LA-ICP-MS. Detailed operating conditions for the LA-ICP-MS instrument and data reduction have been documented in the literature [23]. The measured U-Pb ages of zircon standards GJ-1, Plesovice and Tanz (or 91500) are identical to their reported ages. Data deductions were conducted using Excel-based software: ICPMSDataCal 10.8 [24,25] and Isoplot/Ex_ver3.00 [26].

4. Results

The youngest zircon ages and the oldest zircon ages for all samples are given in Table 1. The complete data set is given in Supplementary Table S1. Concordia plots for individual samples are given in Supplementary Figure S1. Detrital zircon age distributions are presented in Figure 3 using kernel density estimates (KDEs) to estimate the probability density function of a database for visual inspections of the differences of age distributions and modes between samples. Appalachian-Ouachita and Western Cordillera as potential sources are also plotted.
Upper Jurassic Cotton Valley (MCK5600) zircons have U/Pb ages ranging from 308 Ma to 3558 Ma. The peak ages are at 519 Ma, 1052 Ma, and 1897 Ma.
Lower Cretaceous Hosston (MCK4686, NIP6300, NIP6400, NIP6500, NIP6600) zircons have U/Pb ages ranging from 317 Ma to 3511 Ma. All samples are reasonably similar in KDE plots and resemble the underlying Cotton Valley formation. For example, the degree of similarity [9,31] between the NIP6600 and the Cotton Valley sample MCK5600 is 0.950. When combined, the major age peaks are at 415 Ma, 950 Ma, and 1161 Ma. The dominant peaks are Grenvillian 950–1161 Ma. Their U/Th ratios for two samples (NIP6300 and NIP6400) range from 0.10 to 5.71.
Lower Cretaceous Paluxy (21AR10) zircon grains have U/Pb ages ranging from 319 Ma to 2576 Ma. The peak ages are 415 Ma, 1035 Ma, and 1225 Ma. The Grenvillian age peaks at 1035–1225 Ma are dominant. 21AR10 from Paluxy has a similar age spectrum to Appalachian foreland. Their zircon Th/U ratios range from 0.05 to 1.23.
Upper Cretaceous Tuscaloosa (FM3200) zircons have U/Pb ages ranging from 394 Ma to 1836 Ma. The peak ages are 420 Ma, 1053 Ma, and 1165 Ma. The Grenvillian age peaks from 1053–1165 Ma are more dominant than Paleozoic ages. No Archean zircons have been identified in the present study area.
Upper Cretaceous Woodbine (21AR11, 21AR23, 21AR24) zircons have U/Pb ages ranging from 89 Ma to 2783 Ma. 21AR11 is distinct from 21AR23 or 21AR24. Peak ages for 21AR11 are 90 Ma, 1022 Ma, and 1132 Ma. The peak ages for 21AR23 are 386 Ma, 1018 Ma, and 1096 Ma. Peak ages for 21AR24 are 456 Ma, 1006 Ma, and 1094 Ma; Grenvillian ages are dominant in 21AR23 and 21AR24. 21AR23 and 21AR24 have similar age distributions, whereas 21AR11 is different. The degree of similarity between 21AR23 and 21AR24 is very high at 0.988. By combining 21AR23 and 21AR24, the age peaks are 391 Ma, 1007Ma, and 1095 Ma. Notably, 21AR11 have zircon grains between 89 Ma and 94 Ma, and between 117 Ma and 233 Ma. The four zircons 89 Ma and 94 Ma yield a Concordia age of 91.7 ± 1.3 Ma (Figure 4). Their zircon Th/U ratios vary from 0.10 to 1.63. The youngest zircon age peak (91.7 ± 1.3 Ma) is comparable within uncertainties to the youngest depositional age (100–94 Ma) of Woodbine formation. The ages of the youngest zircons decrease from AR23 through AR24 to AR11 (Figure 3) in an eastward direction (Figure 1).
Upper Cretaceous Tokio (21AR07) zircons have U-Pb ages ranging from 321 Ma to 2565 Ma. The primary age peaks are 490 and 950 Ma. The Grenvillian zircon peak at 950 Ma is dominant. Zircon Th/U ratios vary from 0.16 to 1.33.
Upper Cretaceous Nacatoch (21AR01) zircons have U-Pb ages ranging from 71 Ma to 1713 Ma. Age peaks are at 73 Ma and 152 Ma. Seventeen zircons yield a Concordia age of 73.42 ± 0.53 Ma (Figure 5). Their zircon Th/U ratios range from 0.10 to 1.76. The dominant age peak is at 73 Ma. Notably, the Grenvillian (950–1250 Ma) peaks are only minor peaks at the Nacatoch Formation (Figure 3).
Grenvillian age peak dominants in all Cretaceous units (Hosston, Paluxy, Tuscaloosa, Woodbine, Tokio) except for the Upper Cretaceous Nacatoch Formation where a 73 Ma peak dominates.

5. Discussion

5.1. Igneous Provinces of North America and Provenances of Arkansas Detrital Zircons

Igneous provenances of North America can be divided into the following sections (Figure 6): Superior Province (>2500 Ma), Trans-Hudson/Penokean (1900–1800 Ma), Yavapi-Mazatzal (1800–1600 Ma), Mid-Continent Granite-Rhyolite province (1600–1300 Ma), Grenville (1350–900 Ma), Gondwanan Terrance (900–500 Ma), Taconic (490–440 Ma), Acadian (450–320 Ma), Alleghenian (330–265 Ma) and Cordilleran (265–55 Ma) [33].
The North American Cordilleran magmatic arc system was developed in response to a protracted subduction of paleo-Pacific ocean plate beneath the western margin of North America during the Mesozoic to early Cenozoic [34]. Primary igneous components of the arc system include the Pennislar Ranges, Sierra Nevada, Idaho-Boulder, and Costa Mountains batholiths [30]. Igneous activities of the arc system occurred from 265 Ma to 55 Ma. This arc experienced high-flux events at 160–150 Ma and 105–90 Ma [35].
The Cordillera-aged zircons dominate the Nacatoch Formation (67%) and occur in the Woodbine Formation (8%) (Table 2). No other formations have Cordillera-ages zircons. Cordillera-aged zircons started to appear in a sample 21AR11 from the Woodbine Formation.
Alleghenian-aged zircons occur in Cotton Valley (4%) and Paluxy (1%) but are not detected in other units. Acadian-aged zircons occur in all units, with percentages ranging from 4% (Nacatoch) to 13% (Tokio). Taconic zircons occur in all units except for Tuscaloosa, with percentages ranging from 2% to 11%. Gondwanan terrane aged zircons occur in all units except for Nacatoch, with percentages spanning from 28% to 6%. Grenvillian-aged detrital zircons dominate the Hosston Formation (37%), Paluxy (63%), Tuscaloosa Formation (45%), Woodbine Formation (43%), and Tokio Formation (51%), and are the second-highest peaks in Cotton Valley (26%) and Nacatoch (14%).
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Figure 6. Igneous province in North America. Modified from [33,36]. The red rectangle marks the study area in southwestern Arkansas.
Figure 6. Igneous province in North America. Modified from [33,36]. The red rectangle marks the study area in southwestern Arkansas.
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Mid-continent granite-rhyolite aged zircons occur in all units, with percentages ranging from 6% to 17%. Yavapai-Hudson aged zircons occur in all units, with percentages spanning from 1% to 9%. Trans-Hudson aged zircons occur in all units except for Nacatoch, with percentages spanning from 1% to 2%. Superior aged zircons occur in all units except for Tuscaloosa and Nacatoch, with percentages ranging from 1% (Paluxy) to 9% (Hosston).
Regional stratigraphic sources of reworked ages commonly include Appalachian-Ouachita. The detrital zircon signature of the Appalachian-Ouachita orogenic system is dominated by 40–50% Grenvillian (1250–950 Ma) and 10–15% Appalachian (500–275 Ma) age groups, with small (<5%) contributions from peri-Gondwana terranes (850–510 Ma) [37].
Multi-Dimensional Scaling (MDS) based on the Kolmogorov–Smirnov (K-S) statistical method [38] can be used to evaluate the degrees of similarity among zircon age distributions. In an MDS plot, similar samples cluster together whereas dissimilar samples plot far apart [39]. In the MDS plot for Arkansas sandstones (Figure 7), Paluxy, Woodbine, Hosston, Tokio, and Cotton Valley form one statistical cluster and are similar to the Appalachian-Ouachita sources. In this group, Paluxy, Woodbine, and Tuscaloosa are highly similar to Appalachian and Ouachita sources. Hosston and Tokio formations display partial contributions from local sources such as the Upper Jurassic Cotton Valley.
One sample from Woodbine (21AR11) and Nacatoch form another group that displays contributions from a Cordilleran source. Nacatoch does not have contributions from Appalachian-Ouachita sources. Woodbine 21AR11 has moderate contributions from Appalachian-Ouachita sources or older sedimentary rocks such as from Hosston.
The degrees of similarity and likeness [9] can be used to quantitatively compare zircon age distribution with a detrital zircon reference. Compared with the zircon age distributions of Appalachia-Ouachita, zircon ages from Hosston, Paluxy, Tuscaloosa, Woodbine 21AR23 and 21AR24, and Tokio show high similarity (0.85–0.94) and high likeness (0.55 to 0.76), Cotton Valley and Woodbine AR11 display intermediate degrees of similarity (0.74–0.76) and likeness (0.45), and Nacatoch formation shows low degrees of similarity (0.24) and likeness (0.15) (Table 3).
Compared with the Western Cordillera source, the Nacatoch zircon age distributions have high similarity (0.63) and likeness (0.38), and the Woodbine ArR11 shows moderate similarity (0.36) and moderate likeness (0.15). All other samples show low degrees of similarity (0.23 to 0.09) and likeness (0.09 to 0.05).
Zircon Th/U values for all samples are plotted in Figure 8. The proportional abundance of low-Th/U zircon grains for individual samples range from 0% to 3%. The overall zircon Th/U value for all samples is 1.1%. The proportional abundance of low-Th/U zircons at 1.1% for this study is slightly lower than the Appalachian foreland composite at 2.1% [13]. By contrast, the proportional abundance of low-Th/U zircons at 1.1% for this study is significantly lower than the southern Appalachian Piedmont province at 12.7% [13]. The low proportional abundance of low-Th/U zircons in all these Arkansas formations suggest that the southern Appalachian Piedmont is not the source for these sandstones in Arkansas.

5.2. The Youngest Depositional Ages and Sedimentary Lag Times

The ages of the youngest concordant detrital zircons represent the maximum depositional ages. The ages of the detrital zircons in each sample can be compared with the depositional age of the host strata to constrain the duration between zircon crystallization in source terranes and deposition of the host sediment [40]. We can use Tc-d to denote this duration. Short Tc-d values reveal relatively rapid erosion, transportation, and final accumulation. Large Tc-d values raise the possibility of recycling prior to final deposition.
The Cotton Valley Formation yields the youngest zircon grain of 308 Ma, which is significantly older than the ca 161–143 Ma age of deposition. The five samples from the Hosston Formation yield the youngest grains of 317 Ma, which are significantly older than its ca 143–137 Ma depositional age. The Paluxy Formation yields the youngest zircon age of 319 Ma, which is significantly older than its depositional age of 105–108 Ma. The Tuscaloosa Formation yields the youngest zircon age of 394 Ma, which is significantly older than its depositional age of 100–94 Ma. Two samples from Woodbine have the youngest age of 221–384 Ma, which is significantly older than its 100–94 Ma depositional age. One Woodbine sample has the youngest zircon population of 92 Ma, comparable to the youngest depositional age of the Tuscaloosa Group within uncertainties, with which the Woodbine is coeval. The Tokio Formation yields the youngest zircon age of 321 Ma, which is significantly older than its ca 94–66 Ma depositional age. Notably, the Nacatoch Formation has the dominant population of 73 Ma, comparable to its ca 94–66 Ma depositional age. Their euhedral shapes in cathodoluminescence (CL) images for these ~73 Ma zircons (Figure 9) also support first-cycle zircons.

5.3. Province Changes During Late Cretaceous

All the zircon grains from the units below Woodbine Formation have the youngest U-Pb ages older than 308 Ma. Specifically, the youngest zircon ages are 308 Ma for Cotton Valley Formation, 317 Ma for Hosston Formation, 319 Ma for Paluxy Formation, and 394 Ma for Tuscaloosa Formation. Zircons from Upper Jurassic (Cotton Valley) and Lower Cretaceous formations (Hosston Formation and Paluxy Formation) lack signals from the Western Cordillera zircons (275–55 Ma).
Thus, the Western Cordillera zircons (275–55 Ma) are absent in the Cotton Valley, Hosston, Paluxy, and Tuscaloosa formations. Their source rocks may come from the Appalachian and Ouachita. By contrast, Western Cordillera zircons (275–55 Ma) are abundant in one sample, 21AR11 from Woodbine formations. Our youngest zircon U-Pb population (92 Ma) for 21AR11 in SW Arkansas reveals the transport of materials from the Western Cordillera. Although there are 90–100 Ma igneous rocks in Arkansas, we prefer that the detrital zircons were derived from Western Cordillera, as the 90–100 Ma silica-undersaturated rocks are zircon-poor [41]. The presence of other Mesozoic ages (117–233 Ma) suggests that the zircons may come from Western Cordillera, as Arkansas does not have 117–223 Ma igneous activities.
Zircons with Western Cordillera (275–55 Ma) sources to the west occur in Paleocene (66–55 Ma) sandstones [16]. Their zircon age data indicated that much of the USA and northern Mexico was integrated with the Gulf of Mexico by the Paleocene. Our new data suggest the occurrence of Western Cordilleran zircons in the Woodbine formation of SW Arkansas and may also indicate that the drainage reorganization already started at 94 Ma in southwest Arkansas.
Upper Cretaceous Nacacoch (21AR01) zircons have U-Pb ages of 71–1713 Ma. The dominant 73 Ma population and the similarity to the deposition age suggest nearby transportation. The euhedral CL zircon images of 73 Ma zircons are consistent with short-distance first cycle transportation. Note that 73 Ma zircons were reported from southeastern California of western Cordillera [42]. The lack of Greenville peak for Nacatoch zircons suggests that the Appalachian and Ouachita are not the dominant sources for the Nacatoch sandstone. If 94 Ma is regarded as the start of the reorganization, then 73 Ma is the peak of reorganization in Arkansas.

6. Conclusions

We report U-Pb ages and Th/U ratios of detrital zircons from Cretaceous sandstones from Arkansas. Detrital zircon ages for Arkansas Cretaceous sandstones range from 73 Ma to 3.5 Ga. The Lower Cretaceous units (Hosston and Paluxy formations) and most Upper Cretaceous units (Tuscaloosa, parts of Woodbine, Tokio) have zircon age distributions comparable to Appalachian-Ouachita sources, indicating recycling of older strata.
Western Cordillera sources started to contribute to parts of the Woodbine Formation at 94 Ma at Arkansas. The Western Cordillera source dominates in the Upper Cretaceous Nacatoch Formation. The contributions of the Western Cordillera source started at 94 Ma in some Woodbine samples and peaked at 73 Ma in SW Arkansas. This indicates that the North American drainage reorganization in Arkansas at 94–73 Ma occurred earlier than Texas at 66–55 Ma.

Supplementary Materials

The following supporting information can be downloaded at https://www.mdpi.com/article/10.3390/geosciences15040133/s1: Table S1: Analytical results and U-Pb ages for DZ from Arkansas sandstones. Figure S1: Concordia plots for zircons from individual samples from Aransas sandstones.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, H.Z.; methodology, H.Z.; formal analysis, H.Z., D.T.K.J., M.B. and Z.W.; investigation, H.Z., D.T.K.J., M.B. and Z.W.; writing—original draft preparation, H.Z.; writing—review and editing, H.Z. and D.T.K.J.; visualization, H.Z., M.B. and D.T.K.J.; supervision, H.Z. and D.T.K.J.; project administration, H.Z. and D.T.K.J.; funding acquisition, H.Z. and D.T.K.J. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research was funded by the American Chemical Society-Petroleum Research Fund (ACS-PRF), grant number 57500-UR2 to H.Z. and D.T.K.

Data Availability Statement

Data are available upon request.

Acknowledgments

HZ thanks Ming-Chang Liu and Elizabeth Bell for their assistance during his visit to UCLA SIMS lab. The UCLA SIMS lab is partially funded by the NSF Instrumentation and Facility Program. We thank Doug Hanson for collecting outcrop samples from southwest Arkansas, Peng Li for donating core samples, and Jie Tong for sample preparations. Fan Yang and three anonymous reviewers provided constructive reviews that significantly improved the quality of this paper.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest. The funders had no role in the design of the study; in the collection, analyses, or interpretation of data; in the writing of the manuscript; or in the decision to publish the results.

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Figure 1. Arkansas geologic map and locations of outcrop samples (yellow stars) and core samples (red dots). 1 = 21AR01 from Nacatoch Formation; 7 = 21AR07 from Tokio Formation; 11 = 21AR11 from Woodbine Formation; 23 = 21AR23 from Woodbine Formation; 24 = 21AR24 from Woodbine Formation; 10 = 21AR10 from Paluxy Formation. Well names: MCK = McKean B-1; NIP = Nipper Well; FM = Friend Marble #1. Little Rock, the capital of Arkansas, is marked on the map.
Figure 1. Arkansas geologic map and locations of outcrop samples (yellow stars) and core samples (red dots). 1 = 21AR01 from Nacatoch Formation; 7 = 21AR07 from Tokio Formation; 11 = 21AR11 from Woodbine Formation; 23 = 21AR23 from Woodbine Formation; 24 = 21AR24 from Woodbine Formation; 10 = 21AR10 from Paluxy Formation. Well names: MCK = McKean B-1; NIP = Nipper Well; FM = Friend Marble #1. Little Rock, the capital of Arkansas, is marked on the map.
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Figure 2. Schematic stratigraphic column of the Mesozoic strata in the present study area of Arkansas. Blue numbers (e.g., 66.0 Ma) represent the ages in Ma between formation boundaries. The formations in red were sampled for the present study of DZ grains in their sandstones. Note that Woodbine is a formation name used for surface outcrops and Tuscaloosa is a group name used for subsurface strata.
Figure 2. Schematic stratigraphic column of the Mesozoic strata in the present study area of Arkansas. Blue numbers (e.g., 66.0 Ma) represent the ages in Ma between formation boundaries. The formations in red were sampled for the present study of DZ grains in their sandstones. Note that Woodbine is a formation name used for surface outcrops and Tuscaloosa is a group name used for subsurface strata.
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Figure 3. Kernel density estimates (KDEs) from DZ samples collected from Arkansas. AgeCalcML [27] is used to make KDE plots. Data sources: App = Appalachian Foreland [28]. Oua = Ouachita [29]; Cordillera arc [30]. Mesozoic zircons from Cordilleran arc started to significantly occur in 21AR11 (Woodbine Formation) and dominated in 21AR01 (Nacatoch Formation).
Figure 3. Kernel density estimates (KDEs) from DZ samples collected from Arkansas. AgeCalcML [27] is used to make KDE plots. Data sources: App = Appalachian Foreland [28]. Oua = Ouachita [29]; Cordillera arc [30]. Mesozoic zircons from Cordilleran arc started to significantly occur in 21AR11 (Woodbine Formation) and dominated in 21AR01 (Nacatoch Formation).
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Figure 4. Concordia ages of four zircons from 21AR11. IsoplotR (v.5.6) [11] is used to make the plot. Concordia age error ellipse is shown in white. The seemingly straight line for the Concordia is a curve that concaves downward because the second derivative of the Concordia curve is always negative [32].
Figure 4. Concordia ages of four zircons from 21AR11. IsoplotR (v.5.6) [11] is used to make the plot. Concordia age error ellipse is shown in white. The seemingly straight line for the Concordia is a curve that concaves downward because the second derivative of the Concordia curve is always negative [32].
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Figure 5. Concordia plot for 17 zircons from Nacatoch Formation. IsoplotR [11] is used for making this plot. Concordia age error ellipse is shown in white.
Figure 5. Concordia plot for 17 zircons from Nacatoch Formation. IsoplotR [11] is used for making this plot. Concordia age error ellipse is shown in white.
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Figure 7. Multi-dimensional scaling (MDS) plot for zircons from Arkansas sandstones. IsoplotR is used to make this plot. App + Oua = Appalachian and Ouachita. The dotted line rectangle marks the formations with the main Appalachian-Ouachita source.
Figure 7. Multi-dimensional scaling (MDS) plot for zircons from Arkansas sandstones. IsoplotR is used to make this plot. App + Oua = Appalachian and Ouachita. The dotted line rectangle marks the formations with the main Appalachian-Ouachita source.
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Figure 8. Zircon Th/U ratios from Arkansas Cretaceous sandstones.
Figure 8. Zircon Th/U ratios from Arkansas Cretaceous sandstones.
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Figure 9. CL images of 73 Ma euhedral zircons from Nacatoch. Age unit is Ma. The red circles represent laser beam spots.
Figure 9. CL images of 73 Ma euhedral zircons from Nacatoch. Age unit is Ma. The red circles represent laser beam spots.
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Table 1. Summary of Jurassic and Cretaceous detrital zircon samples from Arkansas.
Table 1. Summary of Jurassic and Cretaceous detrital zircon samples from Arkansas.
SamplesUnitUnit AgeWellDepthLatitudeLongitudeYoungestOldest   Methods
ft Zircon (Ma)Zircon (Ma)
Core
FM3200TuscaloosaLate KFriend Mable #13200–330033.11699−93.70603941938      SIMS
MCK4686HosstonEarly KMckean B-14686–482133.36063−93.40683262757      SIMS
NIP6300HosstonEarly KNipper Well6300–640033.18546−93.32543953179      SIMS, LA
NIP6400HosstonEarly KNipper Well6400–650033.18546−93.32543652591      SIMS, LA
NIP6500HosstonEarly KNipper Well6500–660033.18546−93.32543172526      SIMS
NIP6600HosstonEarly KNipper Well6600–670033.18546−93.32543293511      SIMS
MCK5600Cotton ValleyLate JMckean B-15600–585033.36063−93.40683083558      SIMS
Outcrop
21AR01NacatoshLate K 32.12249−93.09441711714      LA
21AR07TokioLate K 34.03459−93.454313212565      LA
21AR11WoodbineLate K 34.03900−93.86958892606      LA
21AR23WoodbineLate K 33.9343794.359563842699      LA
21AR24WoodbineLate K 33.98196−93.968252212783      LA
21AR10PaluxyEarly K 34.06744−93.902733192576      LA
J = Jurassic; K = Cretaceous; SIMS = secondary ion mass spectrometry; LA = laser ablation inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry. ft = foot, and 1 ft = 0.3048 m.
Table 2. North American Igneous province age distribution and percentages for the Arkansas sandstone samples. n = number of zircons analyzed.
Table 2. North American Igneous province age distribution and percentages for the Arkansas sandstone samples. n = number of zircons analyzed.
N American Age ProvincesMax AgeMin AgeCotton ValleyHosstonPaluxyTuscaloosaWoodbineTokioNacatoch
MaMan = 47n = 203n = 72n = 49n = 122n = 47n = 57
Cordillera265550%0%0%0%8%0%67%
Alleghanian3202654%0%1%0%0%0%0%
Acadian44032011%10%6%8%11%13%4%
Taconic49044011%4%4%0%4%9%2%
Gondwanan Terranes90050028%22%6%27%11%13%0%
Grenville135090026%37%63%45%43%51%14%
Mid Cont Granite-Rhyolite160013509%7%17%12%11%6%9%
Yavapai-Mazatzal180016004%9%1%6%7%4%5%
Trans-Hudson/Penokean190018002%1%1%2%1%2%0%
Superior Province 25006%9%1%0%5%2%0%
Table 3. Likeness and similarity of zircon ages from Arkansas compared with zircon age references.
Table 3. Likeness and similarity of zircon ages from Arkansas compared with zircon age references.
CottonHosstonPaluxyTuscaloosaWood23 + 24Wood
11		TokioNacatoch
 Appala-Ouachita as reference
 Likeness0.450.610.760.630.700.450.550.15
 Similarity0.760.880.940.860.920.740.850.24
 Western Cordillera as reference
 Likeness0.090.060.050.050.060.150.060.38
 Similarity0.230.120.090.100.160.360.130.63
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Zou, H.; King, D.T., Jr.; Benton, M.; Webb, Z. Provenance Variations of Cretaceous Sandstones from Arkansas and Drainage Reorganization in Southern USA: Evidence from Detrital Zircon Ages. Geosciences 2025, 15, 133. https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences15040133

AMA Style

Zou H, King DT Jr., Benton M, Webb Z. Provenance Variations of Cretaceous Sandstones from Arkansas and Drainage Reorganization in Southern USA: Evidence from Detrital Zircon Ages. Geosciences. 2025; 15(4):133. https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences15040133

Chicago/Turabian Style

Zou, Haibo, David T. King, Jr., Mackenzie Benton, and Zain Webb. 2025. "Provenance Variations of Cretaceous Sandstones from Arkansas and Drainage Reorganization in Southern USA: Evidence from Detrital Zircon Ages" Geosciences 15, no. 4: 133. https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences15040133

APA Style

Zou, H., King, D. T., Jr., Benton, M., & Webb, Z. (2025). Provenance Variations of Cretaceous Sandstones from Arkansas and Drainage Reorganization in Southern USA: Evidence from Detrital Zircon Ages. Geosciences, 15(4), 133. https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences15040133

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