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Metals, Volume 14, Issue 4 (April 2024) – 117 articles

Cover Story (view full-size image): Porous tungsten gradient materials with ordered gradient variations in pore size are valuable in the field of vacuum electronic devices. This work combines tape casting and dealloying methods to achieve the integrated preparation of porous tungsten gradient materials with a wide range of controllable porosity. The study focuses on the phase composition and microstructure evolution during the preparation of porous tungsten gradient materials. This work provides a design concept for the integrated preparation of porous metal gradient materials. View this paper
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19 pages, 8512 KiB  
Article
Semi-Analytical Solution Model for Bending Deformation of T-Shaped Aviation Aluminium Alloy Components under Residual Stress
by Ning Li, Shouhua Yi, Wanyi Tian and Qun Wang
Metals 2024, 14(4), 486; https://doi.org/10.3390/met14040486 - 22 Apr 2024
Viewed by 932
Abstract
Structures composed of aviation aluminium alloys, characterized by their limited rigidity and thin-walled configurations, frequently exhibit deformation after processing. This paper presents an investigation into T-shaped components fabricated from pre-stretched 7075-T7451 aviation aluminium alloy sheets, examining the effects of residual stress and the [...] Read more.
Structures composed of aviation aluminium alloys, characterized by their limited rigidity and thin-walled configurations, frequently exhibit deformation after processing. This paper presents an investigation into T-shaped components fabricated from pre-stretched 7075-T7451 aviation aluminium alloy sheets, examining the effects of residual stress and the geometrical parameters of T-shaped components on their deformational behavior. A semi-analytical model, developed to elucidate the bending deformation of T-shaped components subjected to residual stress, was validated through finite element analysis and empirical cutting experiments. The experimental results revealed that the bending deformation deflection of the T-shaped specimen was 0.920 mm, deviating by a mere 0.011 mm from the prediction provided by the semi-analytical model, resulting in an inconsequential error margin of 1.2%. This concordance underscores the precision and accuracy of the semi-analytical model specifically designed for T-shaped components. Moreover, the model’s simplicity and ease of application make it an effective tool for predicting the bending deformation of thin-walled T-shaped components under a range of residual stresses and dimensional variations, thereby demonstrating its significant utility in engineering applications. Full article
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11 pages, 49133 KiB  
Article
Investigation on the Duration of Action of Mg3N2 as a Grain Refiner for AZ80 Alloy
by Thomas Hösele, Ernst Neunteufl and Jiehua Li
Metals 2024, 14(4), 485; https://doi.org/10.3390/met14040485 - 22 Apr 2024
Viewed by 951
Abstract
In magnesium alloys with aluminum as an alloying component, zirconium loses its grain refinement effect as a grain refiner. Instead of zirconium, Mg3N2 can be used, and promising results have already been obtained. However, the duration of action of Mg [...] Read more.
In magnesium alloys with aluminum as an alloying component, zirconium loses its grain refinement effect as a grain refiner. Instead of zirconium, Mg3N2 can be used, and promising results have already been obtained. However, the duration of action of Mg3N2 has not been elucidated yet. The aim of this work is therefore to determine the grain size of the AZ80 alloy as a function of the duration of action of Mg3N2 and thus the economically reasonable duration of use. It was found that the Mg3N2 reaches its full effect from 30 min after a complete remelting and does not lose this grain refinement effect even after 90 min. It thus proves to be a stable and reliable grain refiner. A grain size of 146.3 ± 10.3 µm was achieved. Furthermore, a minimum tensile strength of 205 MPa with a break elongation of 5.99% was achieved. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Metal Casting, Forming and Heat Treatment)
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21 pages, 18973 KiB  
Article
Evaluation of Melting Efficiency in Cold Wire Gas Metal Arc Welding Using 1020 Steel as Substrate
by R. A. Ribeiro, P. D. C. Assunção and A. P. Gerlich
Metals 2024, 14(4), 484; https://doi.org/10.3390/met14040484 - 21 Apr 2024
Viewed by 1397
Abstract
A key welding parameter to quantify in the welding process is the ratio of the heat required to melt the weld metal versus the total energy delivered to the weld, and this is referred to as the melting efficiency. It is generally expected [...] Read more.
A key welding parameter to quantify in the welding process is the ratio of the heat required to melt the weld metal versus the total energy delivered to the weld, and this is referred to as the melting efficiency. It is generally expected that the productivity of the welding process is linked to this melting efficiency, with more productive processes typically having higher melting efficiency. A comparison is made between the melting efficiency in standard gas metal arc welding (GMAW) and cold wire gas metal arc welding (CW-GMAW) for the three primary transfer modes: short-circuit, globular, and spray regime. CW-GMAW specimens presented higher melting efficiency than GMAW for all transfer modes. Moreover, an increase in plate thickness in the spray transfer regime caused the melting efficiency to increase, contrary to what is expected. Full article
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20 pages, 10851 KiB  
Article
A Novel Design of a Molten Salt Bath Structure and Its Quenching Effect on Wire Transformation from Austenite to Sorbite
by Jun Li, Bo Wang and Jieyu Zhang
Metals 2024, 14(4), 483; https://doi.org/10.3390/met14040483 - 20 Apr 2024
Viewed by 1316
Abstract
The technology for obtaining sorbite by isothermal quenching of high-temperature molten salt has been used by more and more factories to produce wires with high tensile strength. In this paper, the controlling cap and bottom pipeline of the original salt bath are redesigned. [...] Read more.
The technology for obtaining sorbite by isothermal quenching of high-temperature molten salt has been used by more and more factories to produce wires with high tensile strength. In this paper, the controlling cap and bottom pipeline of the original salt bath are redesigned. The mathematical model previously proposed is used to simulate the redesigned salt bath model, and the flow field is analyzed in detail. The redesigned and original controlling cap are compared in detail by applying third-generation vortex identification technology. Then, by using the inverse heat transfer method, the heat transfer coefficient (HTC) during the boiling heat transfer stage of the wire rod in molten salt is calculated by taking advantage of quenching experimental data, on the basis of which the original model is corrected. Finally, a new salt bath design is proposed, which divides the salt bath into two parts. The first salt bath at 515 °C is used to cool the austenitized wire and complete the initial phase transformation. The second salt bath at 560 °C is used to prevent the transformation from retained austenite to bainite, and to induce its transformation from retained austenite to sorbite. Full article
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23 pages, 18628 KiB  
Article
TiAl Alloy Fabricated Using Election Beam Selective Melting: Process, Microstructure, and Tensile Performance
by Yu Zhang, Yan Li, Meihui Song, Yanchun Li, Shulin Gong and Bin Zhang
Metals 2024, 14(4), 482; https://doi.org/10.3390/met14040482 - 20 Apr 2024
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1046
Abstract
TiAl alloy is one of the most attractive candidates for a new generation of high-temperature structural materials and has broad application prospects in the aerospace field. As a typical intermetallic material, TiAl is inevitably difficult to process using conventional methods. Election beam selective [...] Read more.
TiAl alloy is one of the most attractive candidates for a new generation of high-temperature structural materials and has broad application prospects in the aerospace field. As a typical intermetallic material, TiAl is inevitably difficult to process using conventional methods. Election beam selective melting (EBSM) is an effective method of addictive manufacturing to prepare TiAl alloy with a complex structure. However, the microstructure of TiAl alloy formed using EBSM often contains defects such as pores, which seriously reduces the mechanical properties of the material. In this work, the effects of EBSM and post-processing procedures on the microstructure and mechanical properties of Ti-48Al-2Cr-2Nb alloy were studied. The results show that the microstructure of Ti-48Al-2Cr-2Nb alloy formed using the EBSM process was dense and composed of equiaxed γ-phase and double-phase regions. A large number of dislocations that formed due to thermal stress were clearly observed inside the Ti-48Al-2Cr-2Nb alloy. When the EBSM process parameters were 13.5 mA, 4.0 m/s, and 40.50 J/mm3, as the current intensity increased, the Al content decreased, the content of α2 phase increased, and the microstructure of the material was coarse. The results of the tensile test fracture morphology indicate that the Ti-48Al-2Cr-2Nb alloy exhibited brittle fracture during tensile deformation, lacking the typical yield deformation of metal materials. As the energy density of the EBSM process increased, the mechanical properties of the Ti-48Al-2Cr-2Nb alloy first increased and then decreased. The samples prepared with an energy density of 34.50~40.50 J/mm3 had excellent mechanical properties, of which the maximum tensile strength and maximum elongation reached 643 MPa and 2.09%, respectively. The phase composition of the Ti-48Al-2Cr-2Nb alloy after hot isostatic pressing (HIP) treatment remained unchanged from the EBSM samples, but there was a slight difference in content. There was an increase in the amount of γ phase and a decrease in B2 phase, accompanied by the generation of a massive γ phase after HIP treatment. Moreover, the number of dislocations inside the material increased. The Ti-48Al-2Cr-2Nb alloy after HIP treatment exhibited obvious plastic deformation characteristics, with a tensile strength of 679 MPa and elongation of 2.5%. A heat treatment of 900 °C/5 h was performed on the Ti-48Al-2Cr-2Nb alloy after HIP. The dislocation density of the Ti-48Al-2Cr-2Nb alloy decreased, and the B2 phase transformed from massive to lamellar. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in 3D Printing Technologies of Metals—2nd Edition)
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12 pages, 7617 KiB  
Article
Study on the Optimization of Investment Casting Process of Exhaust Elbow for High-Power Engine
by Shiyu Xie, Zhaozhao Lv and Shengquan Dong
Metals 2024, 14(4), 481; https://doi.org/10.3390/met14040481 - 20 Apr 2024
Viewed by 1182
Abstract
The high-power engine exhaust elbow has a complex construction, which makes it susceptible to casting flaws that could negatively impact its functionality. Therefore, the investment casting scheme was established and optimized in this study in order to cast structurally complete exhaust elbows for [...] Read more.
The high-power engine exhaust elbow has a complex construction, which makes it susceptible to casting flaws that could negatively impact its functionality. Therefore, the investment casting scheme was established and optimized in this study in order to cast structurally complete exhaust elbows for high-horsepower engines. ProCAST software was used to simulate and optimize the casting and solidification processes. The optimal process parameters were determined as follows: pouring temperature of 1650 °C, pouring speed of 1.5 kg/s, and shell preheating temperature of 1050 °C. The optimization of the primary parameters of the casting process, along with the results of dimensional accuracy analysis, shape and positional deviation, and defect detection, were validated through testing. The results indicated that the optimized castings had no casting defects and complied with the design specifications. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Casting Alloy Design and Characterization)
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15 pages, 7097 KiB  
Review
Recent Status of Production, Administration Policies, and Low-Carbon Technology Development of China’s Steel Industry
by Yufeng Qiao and Guang Wang
Metals 2024, 14(4), 480; https://doi.org/10.3390/met14040480 - 20 Apr 2024
Cited by 8 | Viewed by 2984
Abstract
In 2023, China’s crude steel production amount reached 1.019 billion tons, and the energy consumption of China’s steel industry amount reached 561 million tons of coal. China’s steel industry, with its dominant reliance on coal for energy and the primary use of blast [...] Read more.
In 2023, China’s crude steel production amount reached 1.019 billion tons, and the energy consumption of China’s steel industry amount reached 561 million tons of coal. China’s steel industry, with its dominant reliance on coal for energy and the primary use of blast furnaces and converters in production processes, as well as its massive output, has become the main field for achieving China’s “carbon peaking” and “carbon neutrality” goals. Firstly, this article summarizes the current production status of the steel industry and the situation of carbon emissions in the steel industry. Secondly, it discusses the dual-carbon policies based on the national and steel industry levels and outlines the future directions for China’s steel industry. Subsequently, it analyzes the current state of research and application of mature and emerging low-carbon technology in China’s steel industry and details the low-carbon plans of China’s steel companies using the low-carbon technology roadmaps of two representative steel companies as examples. Finally, the article gives policy suggestions for the further carbon reduction of China’s steel industry. The purpose of this paper is to show the efforts and contributions of China’s steel industry to the early realization of its “carbon peaking” and “carbon neutrality” goals. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Feature Papers in Extractive Metallurgy)
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12 pages, 27439 KiB  
Article
Characteristics of Oxide Films on Zr702 and Their Corrosion Performance in Boiling Fluorinated Nitric Acid
by Hangbiao Su, Yaning Li, Yongqing Zhao, Weidong Zeng and Jianping Xu
Metals 2024, 14(4), 479; https://doi.org/10.3390/met14040479 - 19 Apr 2024
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 868
Abstract
Fluoride ions, which interfere with the oxide formation on zirconium have been over-looked until recently. The effect of fluoride ions on oxide formation and dissolution behaviors in zirconium was investigated in this study. A detailed quantitative characterization of the oxide films formed on [...] Read more.
Fluoride ions, which interfere with the oxide formation on zirconium have been over-looked until recently. The effect of fluoride ions on oxide formation and dissolution behaviors in zirconium was investigated in this study. A detailed quantitative characterization of the oxide films formed on Zr702 immersed in a fluorinated nitric acid solution was performed using X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, high-resolution transmission electron microscopy, and representative high-angle annular dark-field scanning Transmission Electron Microscope, (TEM). The corrosion performance in a fluorinated nitric acid solution was discussed. The results reveal that the thickness of the oxide films immersed in the fluorinated nitric acid solution was between 42–48 nm, which is much thinner than that of the oxide layer (~98.85 nm thickness) in the F free HNO3 solution. The oxide film was identified to be a nanocrystalline cluster, comprised of outermost HfO2 and HfF4 layers, sub-outer ZrO2 and ZrF4 layers, and an innermost Zr (F, O)3.6 layer. This fluoride species penetration through the oxide films indicated that the fluoride ions are responsible for the dissolution of the oxide film of Zr702. Full article
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15 pages, 7292 KiB  
Article
A 3D Non-Linear FE Model and Optimization of Cavity Die Sheet Hydroforming Process
by Arun Achuthankutty, Ajith Ramesh and Ratna Kishore Velamati
Metals 2024, 14(4), 478; https://doi.org/10.3390/met14040478 - 19 Apr 2024
Viewed by 986
Abstract
Cryo-rolled aluminum alloys have a much higher strength-to-weight ratio than cold-rolled alloys, which makes them invaluable in the aerospace and automotive industries. However, this strength gain is frequently accompanied by a formability loss. When uniformly applied to the blank surface, hydroforming provides a [...] Read more.
Cryo-rolled aluminum alloys have a much higher strength-to-weight ratio than cold-rolled alloys, which makes them invaluable in the aerospace and automotive industries. However, this strength gain is frequently accompanied by a formability loss. When uniformly applied to the blank surface, hydroforming provides a solution by generating geometries with constant thickness, making it possible to produce complex structures with “near-net dimensions”, which are difficult to achieve with conventional approaches. This study delves into the cavity die sheet hydroforming (CDSHF) process for high-strength cryo-rolled AA5083 aluminum alloy, focusing on two primary research questions. Firstly, we explored the utilization of a nonlinear 3D finite-element (FE) model to understand its impact on the dimensional accuracy of hydroformed components within the CDSHF process. Specifically, we investigated how decreasing fluid pressure and increasing the holding time of peak fluid pressure can be quantitatively assessed. Secondly, we delved into the optimization of process parameters—fluid pressure (FP), blank holding force (BHF), coefficient of friction (CoF), and flange radius (FR)—to achieve dimensional accuracy in hydroformed square cups through the CDSHF process. Our findings reveal that our efforts, such as reducing peak fluid pressure to 22 MPa, implementing a 30 s holding period, and utilizing an unloading path, enhanced component quality. We demonstrated this with a 35 mm deep square cup exhibiting a 16.1 mm corner radius and reduced material thinning to 5.5%. Leveraging a sophisticated nonlinear 3D FE model coupled with response surface methodology (RSM) and multi-objective optimization techniques, we systematically identified the optimal process configurations, accounting for parameter interactions. Our results underscore the quantitative efficacy of these optimization strategies, as the optimized RSM model closely aligns with finite-element (FE) simulation results, predicting a thinning percentage of 5.27 and a corner radius of 18.64 mm. Overall, our study provides valuable insights into enhancing dimensional accuracy and process optimization in CDSHF, with far-reaching implications for advancing metal-forming technologies. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Metal Casting, Forming and Heat Treatment)
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13 pages, 5140 KiB  
Article
Influence of Microstructure on the Mechanical Properties and Polishing Performance of Large Prehardened Plastic Mold Steel Blocks
by Hongxiao Chi, Jihao Liu, Jian Zhou, Dangshen Ma and Jinbo Gu
Metals 2024, 14(4), 477; https://doi.org/10.3390/met14040477 - 19 Apr 2024
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 881
Abstract
The microstructures throughout a 696 × 1360 mm cross-section of an ISO 1.2738 prehardened steel block for a plastic mold were characterized via optical and electron microscopy and electron backscatter diffraction. The hardness, strength, and polishing performance of the steel block were also [...] Read more.
The microstructures throughout a 696 × 1360 mm cross-section of an ISO 1.2738 prehardened steel block for a plastic mold were characterized via optical and electron microscopy and electron backscatter diffraction. The hardness, strength, and polishing performance of the steel block were also tested. The results showed that the microstructure of the steel bloom from the edge to the core consisted of tempered sorbite, tempered bainite, and pearlite microstructures. Abnormal upper bainite and coarse carbides were also found. The bloom sections with hardness values of 37.4 to 39.3 HRC comprised tempered sorbite and bainite. The hardness of the core was approximately 36.5 HRC due to the presence of pearlite. The tensile and yield strengths were the same in the edge and middle areas mainly owing to tempered sorbite. The polishing performance was affected by the microstructure. Tempered sorbite produced the best polishing performance due to its fine and uniform microstructure, whereas that of tempered bainite and pearlite, which contained large carbide particles and mixed phases, was worse. Full article
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16 pages, 5217 KiB  
Article
Numerical Simulation of Temperature Evolution, Solid Phase Transformation, and Residual Stress Distribution during Multi-Pass Welding Process of EH36 Marine Steel
by Pengyu Wen, Jiaji Wang, Zhenbo Jiao, Kuijun Fu, Lili Li and Jing Guo
Metals 2024, 14(4), 476; https://doi.org/10.3390/met14040476 - 19 Apr 2024
Viewed by 1155
Abstract
An investigation into the evolution of temperature and stress fields, as well as the phase transformation in marine steel EH36 during multi-pass welding, and their subsequent effects on Charpy impact toughness, remains in great lack. In this study, submerged arc welding (SAW) was [...] Read more.
An investigation into the evolution of temperature and stress fields, as well as the phase transformation in marine steel EH36 during multi-pass welding, and their subsequent effects on Charpy impact toughness, remains in great lack. In this study, submerged arc welding (SAW) was employed to carry out multi-pass welding on EH36 steel plates, followed by the low-temperature toughness test of weldments. Comsol software version 6.2 and finite element analysis are utilized to simulate the evolution of the microstructure, temperature, and residual stress fields throughout the multi-pass welding process. As welding progressed, the heat absorption along the vertical direction was enhanced; in contrast, a decrease is observed in the horizontal direction away from the heat source. This complicated temperature history favors the bainite transformation in the vicinity to the heat source, whereas areas more remote from the weld zone exhibit a higher prevalence of acicular ferrite due to the reduced cooling rate. The concentration of residual stress is predicted to occur at the boundary of the melt pool and at the interface between the weld and the heat-affected zone, with the greatest deformation observed near the fusion line at the top surface of the model. Furthermore, multi-pass welding may alleviate the residual stress, especially when coupled with the formation of acicular ferrite upon cooling, leading to improved low-temperature impact toughness in regions remote from the heat source. These findings offer valuable insights for the design and optimization of multi-pass welding in future applications. Full article
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14 pages, 3998 KiB  
Article
Long-Term Oxidation Studies on Porous Stainless Steel 430L Substrate Relevant to Its Application in Metal-Supported SOFC
by Kai Xu and Liangzhu Zhu
Metals 2024, 14(4), 475; https://doi.org/10.3390/met14040475 - 18 Apr 2024
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1154
Abstract
Metal-supported solid oxide fuel cells (MS-SOFCs) can be used in portable mobile power generators due to their excellent thermal cycling performance, low cost, and strong mechanical strength. The selection and lifetime of the support material are crucial factors that affect the cell’s performance [...] Read more.
Metal-supported solid oxide fuel cells (MS-SOFCs) can be used in portable mobile power generators due to their excellent thermal cycling performance, low cost, and strong mechanical strength. The selection and lifetime of the support material are crucial factors that affect the cell’s performance and long-term stability. The oxidizability of porous 430L stainless steel in a dry air atmosphere at 800 °C was systematically studied and reported for up to 1500 h. The aim was to investigate the lifetime of porous stainless steel as a support skeleton in a symmetric MS-SOFC. The substrates were characterized and analyzed using scanning electron microscopy, energy spectroscopy, and X-ray diffractometry after different periods of oxidation. The analysis indicated that the porous substrate’s surface oxides, under dry air conditions, consisted primarily of Fe2O3 and Cr2O3, with small amounts of Fe3O4 and MnCr2O4 spinel. The long-term oxidation process can be divided into two stages with distinct characteristics. However, the oxide flaking phenomenon occurred after 1500 h of exposure. The estimated service life of the stainless steel was consistent with the experimental results, which were around 1500 h. This estimation was based on the measured weight gain and thickness data. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Metallic Functional Materials)
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14 pages, 7005 KiB  
Article
Comprehensive Unveiling of the Oxidation Resistance and Corrosion Protection of an Oxide Layer Formed on the Gd-Alloyed AZ80 Alloy Surface
by Chunlong Cheng, Gaolin Zhou, Bo Qu, Liang Wang, Abdul Malik and Zheng Chen
Metals 2024, 14(4), 474; https://doi.org/10.3390/met14040474 - 18 Apr 2024
Viewed by 927
Abstract
In our previous work, the effect of Gd alloying on the oxidation resistance of AZ80 alloy was revealed briefly. However, a comprehensive understanding of the oxidation and corrosion resistance of the oxide layer formed on the Gd alloying AZ80 alloy surface needs to [...] Read more.
In our previous work, the effect of Gd alloying on the oxidation resistance of AZ80 alloy was revealed briefly. However, a comprehensive understanding of the oxidation and corrosion resistance of the oxide layer formed on the Gd alloying AZ80 alloy surface needs to be developed. Thus, in this research, the high-temperature oxidation behaviors, oxidation products, and oxide layer characteristics of AZ80, AZ80-0.47Gd, and AZ80-0.75Gd (wt%) alloys were investigated at 420 °C. The corrosion protection of the oxide layer formed on the alloy surface was evaluated. The results showed that Gd alloying eliminated the content of the low melting point phase of β-Mg17Al12 and promoted the generation of a high melting point phase of Al2Gd. Gd2O3 appeared in the oxide layer and facilitated the propagation of homogeneous oxidation as well as densification of the oxide layer. In addition, the firm oxide layer showed characteristics of a blurred boundary with the magnesium matrix. After immersion of the oxide layer containing gadolinium oxide, the products of corrosion were massively nodulated, leading to the passivation of corrosion. This research provides new ideas for magnesium alloy protective layer preparation via a high-temperature oxidation technique. Full article
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10 pages, 213 KiB  
Editorial
Microstructure and Properties in Metals and Alloys (Volume 2)
by Andrea Di Schino and Claudio Testani
Metals 2024, 14(4), 473; https://doi.org/10.3390/met14040473 - 18 Apr 2024
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1008
Abstract
Microstructure design is key in targeting the desired material’s properties [...] Full article
12 pages, 2127 KiB  
Article
The Structure and Magnetic Properties of Sm2Fe17Cx Compounds Prepared from Ball-Milled Mixtures of Sm2Fe17 and Carbon Nanotubes or Graphite
by Vladislav A. Mikheev, Igor G. Bordyuzhin, Mikhail V. Gorshenkov, Elena S. Savchenko, Irina V. Dorofievich and Igor V. Shchetinin
Metals 2024, 14(4), 472; https://doi.org/10.3390/met14040472 - 18 Apr 2024
Viewed by 1086
Abstract
The processing route of Sm2Fe17 carbides is shorter than that of nitrides, which can potentially be used for cost-effective mid-performance magnets’ production. The magnetic properties of Sm2Fe17Cx compounds can be controlled at the annealing step, [...] Read more.
The processing route of Sm2Fe17 carbides is shorter than that of nitrides, which can potentially be used for cost-effective mid-performance magnets’ production. The magnetic properties of Sm2Fe17Cx compounds can be controlled at the annealing step, which allows them to be used for a variety of applications. In this work, X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis, Mössbauer spectroscopy, scanning and transmission electron microscopy (SEM, TEM) and vibrating sample magnetometry (VSM) were used for characterization of the structure and magnetic properties of Sm2Fe17Cx compounds. The powder samples were prepared by high-energy ball milling of Sm2Fe17 mixtures with carbon nanotubes (CNT) or graphite with subsequent annealing. The formation of Sm2Fe17Cx compounds after annealing was followed by the formation of α-Fe and amorphous Sm2O3. The hyperfine field values of Fe atoms of all the Sm2Fe17 lattice sites increased by 12% on average after annealing that was caused by carbon diffusion. The coercivity of the samples peaked after annealing at 375 °C. The samples with CNT demonstrated an increase of up to 14% in coercivity and 5% in specific remanence in the range of 250–375 °C annealing temperatures. Full article
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16 pages, 11153 KiB  
Article
First Principles Study of the Effects of Si, P, and S on the ∑5 (210)[001] Grain Boundary of γ-Fe
by Ying Xu, Weigang Cao, Mengzhe Huang and Fucheng Zhang
Metals 2024, 14(4), 471; https://doi.org/10.3390/met14040471 - 17 Apr 2024
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 729
Abstract
Solutes segregating at the grain boundary (GB) have a significant influence on the mechanical and chemical properties of steel. In this study, the segregation effects of Si, P, and S on γ-Fe ∑5 (210)[001] GB were systematically analyzed with solution energy, segregation energy, [...] Read more.
Solutes segregating at the grain boundary (GB) have a significant influence on the mechanical and chemical properties of steel. In this study, the segregation effects of Si, P, and S on γ-Fe ∑5 (210)[001] GB were systematically analyzed with solution energy, segregation energy, and tensile tests by using a first principles calculation. Si, P, and S are preferred to segregate at substitutional sites in the first layer near the GB. The variation in atomic configuration and electron distribution were investigated by the analysis of bond lengths, charge density, charge density difference, and density of states (DOS), which is caused by the atomic size and electronegativity of solute atoms. Through tensile tests, it was found that Si has a strengthening effect on GB, while P and S exhibit embrittlement effects at low concentration. As the concentration of solutes increase, the segregation sites of P are different from the others owing to the tendency to form Fe3P. The exhibited embrittlement effect is mitigated at first and then aggravated. However, in both cases Si and S show aggravating embrittlement effects on GB cohesion, while the effect of Si changes from strengthening to embrittlement. This work provides comprehensive insights into the effects of Si, P, and S, which will be a useful guidance in steel design. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Computation and Simulation on Metals)
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16 pages, 12284 KiB  
Article
Microstructure Evolution and Strengthening Mechanisms of Mg–Steel Welds Subjected to Multiple Microshot Peening Treatment
by Jianghui Wang and Chuan Xu
Metals 2024, 14(4), 470; https://doi.org/10.3390/met14040470 - 17 Apr 2024
Viewed by 708
Abstract
A surface modification through multiple microshot peening (MSP) was performed on Mg–steel weldment. Application of MSP was found beneficial to the elimination of surface microdefects owing to severe plastic deformation induced by MSP. Moreover, MSP treatment transformed the residual tensile stress of the [...] Read more.
A surface modification through multiple microshot peening (MSP) was performed on Mg–steel weldment. Application of MSP was found beneficial to the elimination of surface microdefects owing to severe plastic deformation induced by MSP. Moreover, MSP treatment transformed the residual tensile stress of the weld surface into residual compressive stress, which was beneficial to inhibit the initiation and propagation of surface microdefects. Strain strengthening and grain refining were introduced into the shot peened joint, resulting in the notable increase in surface hardness and tensile strength. Compared with an untreated joint, the tensile strength of optimized Mg/steel weldment was markedly enhanced and raised 28% to 244 MPa, and fracture ultimately occurred in the Mg alloy base material. Moreover, the refinement of weld grain induced by MSP treatment was beneficial to strengthen the stress corrosion sensitivity of Mg/steel joints, while also promoting the formation of a denser Mg(OH)2 passivation film on the weld surface and enhancing the corrosion resistance of the joints. Full article
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14 pages, 24089 KiB  
Article
Effect of Precipitated Particles on Austenite Grain Growth of Al- and Nb-Microalloyed 20MnCr Gear Steel
by Yingqi Zhu, Shitao Fan, Xiuzhen Lian and Na Min
Metals 2024, 14(4), 469; https://doi.org/10.3390/met14040469 - 17 Apr 2024
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 855
Abstract
The paper deals with the effect of the morphology characteristics, grain size, and the volume fraction of AlN- and NbC-precipitated particles on the prior austenite grain growth behavior in the Al- and Nb-microalloying 20MnCr gear steel during pseudo-carburizing heat treatments. The results indicate [...] Read more.
The paper deals with the effect of the morphology characteristics, grain size, and the volume fraction of AlN- and NbC-precipitated particles on the prior austenite grain growth behavior in the Al- and Nb-microalloying 20MnCr gear steel during pseudo-carburizing heat treatments. The results indicate that the Nb addition in 20MnCr gear steel have a better effect on preventing austenite grain growth. The coarsening time after pseudo-carburizing in the Nb-microalloyed 20MnCr steel are improved by about 4 h compared with the Al-microalloyed steel. The precipitated particles coarsen and the number decreases with the pseudo-carburization temperature increasing, resulting in a reduction in the pinning pressure of the precipitated particles on the austenite grain boundaries. When the pseudo-carburization temperature reaches 1150 °C, the precipitated particles no longer have the ability to pin the austenite grain boundaries. In addition, the kinetics model for austenite grain growth under the process of the pinning and coarsening of the precipitated particles was established. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Microalloying in Ferrous and Non-ferrous Alloys)
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14 pages, 16731 KiB  
Article
Corrosion Behavior of FeCrMnxAlCu High-Entropy Alloys in NaOH Solutions
by Yang Yang, Junpeng Cui, Zhipeng Wang and Li Feng
Metals 2024, 14(4), 468; https://doi.org/10.3390/met14040468 - 17 Apr 2024
Viewed by 972
Abstract
FeCrMnxAlCu (x = 2.0, 1.5, 1.0, 0.5, and 0.0) high-entropy alloys (HEAs) were prepared using vacuum arc melting. The phase structure, microstructure, and element distribution of FeCrMnxAlCu (x = 2.0, 1.5, 1.0, 0.5, and 0.0) HEAs were analyzed using [...] Read more.
FeCrMnxAlCu (x = 2.0, 1.5, 1.0, 0.5, and 0.0) high-entropy alloys (HEAs) were prepared using vacuum arc melting. The phase structure, microstructure, and element distribution of FeCrMnxAlCu (x = 2.0, 1.5, 1.0, 0.5, and 0.0) HEAs were analyzed using X-ray diffraction, scanning electron microscopy, and energy-dispersive spectroscopy. The corrosion resistance of the alloy in a NaOH solution was evaluated using a potentiodynamic polarization curve, electrochemical impedance spectroscopy, an immersion test, WLI, and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy. The results showed that FeCrMnxAlCu HEAs are an FCC+BCC bi-phase mixed structure with typical dendrite and interdendrite structures. The corrosion test demonstrated that the HEAs presented a breakthrough characteristic of activation–passivation–passivation. With an increase in Mn content, the corrosion potential shifted first positively and then negatively, and the corrosion current first decreased and then increased. Among HEAs, the FeCrMn0.5AlCu HEA had the best electrochemical corrosion resistance. After corrosion, both oxide and hydroxide corrosion product films were formed on the surface, which reduced the ion diffusion rate, slowed down the corrosion process, and improved the corrosion resistance. Full article
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15 pages, 7779 KiB  
Article
Mechanical Properties of Interfaces between Mg and SiC: An Ab Initio Study
by Zhipeng Yao, Samaneh Nasiri, Mingjun Yang and Michael Zaiser
Metals 2024, 14(4), 467; https://doi.org/10.3390/met14040467 - 16 Apr 2024
Viewed by 1041
Abstract
Covalently bonded particles may exhibit extremely high strength, but their performance in the reinforcement of metal alloys crucially depends on the properties of their interfaces with the embedding matrix. Here, density functional theory is used for investigating a range of interface configurations between [...] Read more.
Covalently bonded particles may exhibit extremely high strength, but their performance in the reinforcement of metal alloys crucially depends on the properties of their interfaces with the embedding matrix. Here, density functional theory is used for investigating a range of interface configurations between magnesium and silicon carbide in view of their mechanical properties. Interfaces are analyzed not only in terms of interface energy/work of separation but also in terms of the interfacial shear stresses required to induce interface-parallel displacements. These properties are studied for bilayer systems with different orientations of the Mg and SiC layers and for different terminations of the SiC layer (Si or C atoms located at the interface). The results are discussed in terms of their implication for mechanical behavior of SiC reinforced Mg alloys. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Multi-Scale Simulation of Metals and Alloys)
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18 pages, 10455 KiB  
Article
Study on Al Evaporation during AlV55 Melting and Alloy Preparation
by Bin Sun, Heli Wan, Baoqiang Xu, Xianjun Lei and Lanjie Li
Metals 2024, 14(4), 466; https://doi.org/10.3390/met14040466 - 16 Apr 2024
Viewed by 1067
Abstract
Vacuum induction melting is a commonly used method for preparing AlV55 alloys. However, this method results in high Al evaporation losses, leading to poor cost control. Moreover, the influence of the process parameters on the alloy composition remains unclear. In this study, the [...] Read more.
Vacuum induction melting is a commonly used method for preparing AlV55 alloys. However, this method results in high Al evaporation losses, leading to poor cost control. Moreover, the influence of the process parameters on the alloy composition remains unclear. In this study, the evaporation pattern of Al in the melting and preparation processes of AlV55 alloys is studied, and measures for controlling the system pressure are proposed to effectively reduce Al evaporation. The experimental results show that smelting under an Ar gas atmosphere of 2000 Pa can reduce the evaporation loss of Al from 11.48% under vacuum conditions (60 Pa) to 0.58% of the amount of raw material added, effectively improving the metal utilization rate and reducing production costs. The influence of various process parameters on the alloy composition and Al volatilization are investigated to enable the effective control of the compositional uniformity and impurity content of the resulting alloys. Under optimal conditions, the impurity contents of C, O, and N are 0.03%, 0.0073%, and 0.013%, respectively; this reduces the amount of Al lost by evaporation compared to conventional methods, and the alloy produced meets commercial standards. Full article
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15 pages, 2041 KiB  
Article
Optimization of High-Alumina Blast Furnace Slag Based on Exergy Analysis
by Zhen Wang, Haiyan Zheng, Yan Zhang and Liang Ge
Metals 2024, 14(4), 465; https://doi.org/10.3390/met14040465 - 15 Apr 2024
Viewed by 1302
Abstract
Raw material with a high Al2O3 content has led to an increase in the Al2O3 content in blast furnace slag, which has affected the normal operation of a blast furnace. The exergy analysis method is an important [...] Read more.
Raw material with a high Al2O3 content has led to an increase in the Al2O3 content in blast furnace slag, which has affected the normal operation of a blast furnace. The exergy analysis method is an important method for studying the energy utilization of high-alumina blast furnace smelting. In this paper, to investigate the impact of slag composition on exergy efficiency and optimize exergy efficiency during the smelting process of high Al2O3 iron ore, a gray box exergy analysis model of blast furnace smelting and an objective function for minimizing the total exergy loss were developed. The results indicated that the blast furnace smelting process had an exergy efficiency (η) of 28.29% for hot metal and slag; the exergy efficiency of the blast furnace did not significantly increase with the increasing w(MgO)/w(Al2O3) and R (w(CaO)/w(SiO2)), but the exergy efficiency of the blast furnace declined with increasing w(Al2O3). The regional optimal solution for the objective function method was 7129.42 MJ with slag compositions of R = 1.295, w(MgO)/w(Al2O3) = 0.545, and w(Al2O3) = 15%. Full article
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20 pages, 8697 KiB  
Review
A Comprehensive Review of Fatigue Strength in Pure Copper Metals (DHP, OF, ETP)
by Eduardo Jiménez-Ruiz, Rubén Lostado-Lorza and Carlos Berlanga-Labari
Metals 2024, 14(4), 464; https://doi.org/10.3390/met14040464 - 15 Apr 2024
Viewed by 3237
Abstract
Due to their exceptional electrical and thermal conductivity properties, high-purity copper (Cu-DHP) and copper alloys of similar composition, such as electrolytic tough-pitch (ETP), oxygen-free electronic (OFE) and oxygen-free (OF), have often been used in the manufacture of essential components for the electrical, electronic [...] Read more.
Due to their exceptional electrical and thermal conductivity properties, high-purity copper (Cu-DHP) and copper alloys of similar composition, such as electrolytic tough-pitch (ETP), oxygen-free electronic (OFE) and oxygen-free (OF), have often been used in the manufacture of essential components for the electrical, electronic and power generation industries. Since these components are subject to cyclic loads in service, they can suffer progressive structural damage that causes failure due to fatigue. The purpose of this review is to examine the most relevant aspects of mechanical fatigue in Cu-DHP, ETP, OFE and OF. The impact of many factors on fatigue strength (Se), including the frequency, temperature, chemical environment, grain size, metallurgical condition and load type, were analyzed and discussed. Stress–life (S-N) curves under zero mean stress (σm = 0) were found for high-cycle fatigue (HCF). For non-zero mean stress (σm ≠ 0), stress curves were based on a combination of Gerber, Soderberg and ASME elliptic failure criteria. Stress–life (S-N) curves were also developed to correlate fatigue strength (Se) with stress amplitude (σa), yield strength (Syp) and ultimate strength (Sut). Finally, for low-cycle fatigue (LCF), strain–life (ε-N) curves that establish a relationship between the number of cycles to failure (N) and total strain amplitude (εplastic) were determined. Hence, this review, as well as the proposed curves, provide valuable information to understand fatigue failure for these types of materials. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fatigue Behavior in Metallic Materials)
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18 pages, 6263 KiB  
Article
Orientation Relationship of the Intergrowth Al13Fe3 and Al13Fe4 Intermetallics Determined by Single-Crystal X-ray Diffraction
by Yibo Liu, Changzeng Fan, Zhefeng Xu, Ruidong Fu, Bin Wen and Lifeng Zhang
Metals 2024, 14(4), 463; https://doi.org/10.3390/met14040463 - 15 Apr 2024
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1331
Abstract
In the Al-Fe binary system, the Al13Fe3 phase as well as the Al13Fe4 phase has similar icosahedral building blocks like those appearing in quasicrystals. Therefore, it is of vital importance to clarify the formation process of these [...] Read more.
In the Al-Fe binary system, the Al13Fe3 phase as well as the Al13Fe4 phase has similar icosahedral building blocks like those appearing in quasicrystals. Therefore, it is of vital importance to clarify the formation process of these two phases. Coexistence of the Al13Fe3 and Al13Fe4 phases was discovered from the educts obtained with a nominal atomic ratio of Al/Fe of 9:2 by high-pressure sintering for the first time. Firstly, single crystal X-ray diffraction (SXRD) combined with a scanning electron microscope (SEM) with energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDX) measurement capabilities were adopted to determine the detailed crystal structures of both phases, which were sharply refined with regard to Al13Fe3 and Al13Fe4. Secondly, the orientation relationship between Al13Fe3 and Al13Fe4 was directly deduced from the SXRD datasets and the coexistence structure model was consequently constructed. Finally, seven pairs of parallel atomic planes and their unique orientation relations were determined from the reconstructed reciprocal space precession images. In addition, the real space structure model of the intergrowth crystal along with one kind of interfacial atomic structure were constructed from the determined orientation relations between two phases. Full article
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14 pages, 3337 KiB  
Article
Study of Assimilation of Cored Wire into Liquid Steel Baths
by Edgar-Ivan Castro-Cedeno, Julien Jourdan, Jonathan Martens, Jean-Pierre Bellot and Alain Jardy
Metals 2024, 14(4), 462; https://doi.org/10.3390/met14040462 - 15 Apr 2024
Viewed by 1456
Abstract
Cored wire is a widespread technology used for performing additions into liquid metal baths as an alternative to bulk-additions. A laboratory-scale study was performed in which the kinetics of assimilation of cored wire in liquid steel baths were studied. An original dataset of [...] Read more.
Cored wire is a widespread technology used for performing additions into liquid metal baths as an alternative to bulk-additions. A laboratory-scale study was performed in which the kinetics of assimilation of cored wire in liquid steel baths were studied. An original dataset of positions of the wire/melt interface of cored wire as a function of the time and steel bath temperature was produced. The dataset was compared against results of simulations made with a transient 1D (radial) thermal model of the assimilation of cored wire, and demonstrated reasonable agreement. Hence, this paper provides a dataset that can be used as a resource for the validation of future developments in the field of modeling cored wire injection into liquid metal baths. Full article
(This article belongs to the Topic Advanced Processes in Metallurgical Technologies)
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18 pages, 3661 KiB  
Article
Planning Mechanical Behavior of A356 Alloy Wheels by Using Distinct Heat Treatments
by Adriano L. Tonetti, Wislei R. Osório, Ausdinir D. Bortolozo and Giovana S. Padilha
Metals 2024, 14(4), 461; https://doi.org/10.3390/met14040461 - 13 Apr 2024
Viewed by 1425
Abstract
The aim of this investigation concerns evaluating the mechanical strength and microhardness values of A356 alloy samples in distinctive heat treatments, including those commonly applied to automotive wheels. It is recognized that A356 and Al-Si-based alloys exhibit considerable versatility across numerous industrial applications. [...] Read more.
The aim of this investigation concerns evaluating the mechanical strength and microhardness values of A356 alloy samples in distinctive heat treatments, including those commonly applied to automotive wheels. It is recognized that A356 and Al-Si-based alloys exhibit considerable versatility across numerous industrial applications. The mechanical behavior obtained is intimately associated with different operational parameters (e.g., cooling rates, solution treatment, quenching, and artificial aging). In this study, a group of samples are quenched at 30, 60 and 80 °C. Another set is quenched and subsequently aged at three different temperatures, i.e., 180, 200, and 220 °C for 5 h, and mechanical responses are compared. Microstructural characterization, X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis, tensile testing, and microhardness measurements are carried out. Using the Rietveld data and based on the modified Williamson–Hall method, the microstrains, crystallite size, and dislocation densities are calculated. Based on this, the resulting mechanical strengths from distinctive quenching and aging are understood. It was found that there exists a “quasi-optimal range” of operational parameters involving different A356 alloy treatments, which vary depending on the manufacturing route. Considering A356 alloy wheels, the planning of the powder coat treatment before or after T6 treating provides better mechanical properties and ductility. Full article
(This article belongs to the Topic Alloys and Composites Corrosion and Mechanical Properties)
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16 pages, 5550 KiB  
Article
Study on Recovery of Lithium from Lithium-Containing Aluminum Electrolyte
by Rui Ji, Xi Cui, Wenzheng Zhang, Shichao Wang, Mingliang Yang and Tao Qu
Metals 2024, 14(4), 460; https://doi.org/10.3390/met14040460 - 13 Apr 2024
Viewed by 1179
Abstract
The current process of recovering lithium from wasted aluminum electrolyte mostly entails extracting lithium from lithium-containing aluminum electrolyte by acid leaching and dissipation. Aiming at the disadvantages of the existing treatment method, such as the long process flow, environmental pollution, poor working environment, [...] Read more.
The current process of recovering lithium from wasted aluminum electrolyte mostly entails extracting lithium from lithium-containing aluminum electrolyte by acid leaching and dissipation. Aiming at the disadvantages of the existing treatment method, such as the long process flow, environmental pollution, poor working environment, etc., we propose a new technology to extract lithium from the wasted aluminum electrolyte and systematically investigate the effects of raw material particle size, holding time, temperature and other factors on the recovery of lithium. The results show that the better process conditions for the recovery of lithium are as follows: the raw material particle size is 75~150 μm, the additive is CaCl2, the mass ratio of calcium chloride to lithium-containing aluminum electrolyte is 3:5, the reaction temperature is 1473 K, and the holding time is 3 h. After the product of the reaction is crushed and leaching is carried out by using deionized water (pH = 6.8), the temperature of the leaching is 368 K, the leaching time is 3 h, and the solid–liquid ratio is 1/3, and the leaching rate of Li can be up to 75.1%. In addition, the purity of the recovered AlF3 is more than 92.7%. This process realizes the comprehensive and efficient use of lithium-containing aluminum electrolyte and provides a new idea for the development of lithium extraction technology from lithium-containing aluminum electrolyte. Full article
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15 pages, 12435 KiB  
Article
Additive Manufacturing for Rapid Sand Casting: Mechanical and Microstructural Investigation of Aluminum Alloy Automotive Prototypes
by Silvia Cecchel and Giovanna Cornacchia
Metals 2024, 14(4), 459; https://doi.org/10.3390/met14040459 - 13 Apr 2024
Viewed by 1439
Abstract
The automotive industry is undergoing a rapid evolution to meet today’s challenges; therefore, continuous innovation and product development are needed. Validation tests on prototypes play a crucial role in moving new components into industrial production. There is also a pressing need for faster [...] Read more.
The automotive industry is undergoing a rapid evolution to meet today’s challenges; therefore, continuous innovation and product development are needed. Validation tests on prototypes play a crucial role in moving new components into industrial production. There is also a pressing need for faster prototyping processes. In this context, rapid sand casting (RSC), based on additive manufacturing technology, offers a promising solution for a quick production of sand molds. While this technology is already employed in the industry, the need to deepen the general understanding of its impact on the casting properties is still a relevant item. In this study, different geometries of automotive prototypes made of aluminum EN AC 42100-T6 alloy were experimentally analyzed. Microstructural examinations, tensile tests, and fractography and porosity analyses were conducted. The findings demonstrate the considerable potential of RSC, giving, in general, high mechanical properties. A comparative analysis with prototypes produced through traditional sand casting revealed similar results, with RSC exhibiting superior yield strength and stress at brake. However, both technologies revealed a reduced elongation percentage, as expected. Future efforts will focus on standardizing the RSC process to enhance ductility levels. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Light Alloy and Its Application (2nd Edition))
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25 pages, 19567 KiB  
Article
Evaluation of Energy Utilization Efficiency and Optimal Energy Matching Model of EAF Steelmaking Based on Association Rule Mining
by Lingzhi Yang, Zhihui Li, Hang Hu, Yuchi Zou, Zeng Feng, Weizhen Chen, Feng Chen, Shuai Wang and Yufeng Guo
Metals 2024, 14(4), 458; https://doi.org/10.3390/met14040458 - 12 Apr 2024
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1170
Abstract
In the iron and steel industry, evaluating the energy utilization efficiency (EUE) and determining the optimal energy matching mode play an important role in addressing increasing energy depletion and environmental problems. Electric Arc Furnace (EAF) steelmaking is a typical short crude steel production [...] Read more.
In the iron and steel industry, evaluating the energy utilization efficiency (EUE) and determining the optimal energy matching mode play an important role in addressing increasing energy depletion and environmental problems. Electric Arc Furnace (EAF) steelmaking is a typical short crude steel production route, which is characterized by an energy-intensive fast smelting rhythm and diversified raw charge structure. In this paper, the energy model of the EAF steelmaking process is established to conduct an energy analysis and EUE evaluation. An association rule mining (ARM) strategy for guiding the EAF production process based on data cleaning, feature selection, and an association rule (AR) algorithm was proposed, and the effectiveness of this strategy was verified. The unsupervised algorithm Auto-Encoder (AE) was adopted to detect and eliminate abnormal data, complete data cleaning, and ensure data quality and accuracy. The AE model performs best when the number of nodes in the hidden layer is 18. The feature selection determines 10 factors such as the hot metal (HM) ratio and HM temperature as important data features to simplify the model structure. According to different ratios and temperatures of the HM, combined with k-means clustering and an AR algorithm, the optimal operation process for the EUE in the EAF steelmaking under different smelting modes is proposed. The results indicated that under the conditions of a low HM ratio and low HM temperature, the EUE is best when the power consumption in the second stage ranges between 4853 kWh and 7520 kWh, the oxygen consumption in the second stage ranges between 1816 m3 and 1961 m3, and the natural gas consumption ranges between 156 m3 and 196 m3. Conversely, under the conditions of a high HM ratio and high HM temperature, the EUE tends to decrease, and the EUE is best when the furnace wall oxygen consumption ranges between 4732 m3 and 5670 m3, and the oxygen consumption in the second stage ranges between 1561 m3 and 1871 m3. By comparison, under different smelting modes, the smelting scheme obtained by the ARM has an obvious effect on the improvement of the EUE. With a high EUE, the improvement of the A2B1 smelting mode is the most obvious, from 24.7% to 53%. This study is expected to provide technical ideas for energy conservation and emission reduction in the EAF steelmaking process in the future. Full article
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18 pages, 2936 KiB  
Article
Numerical Simulation of Cathode Nodule Local Effects
by Xiaoyu Wang, Chun Li and Jun Tie
Metals 2024, 14(4), 457; https://doi.org/10.3390/met14040457 - 12 Apr 2024
Viewed by 980
Abstract
As one of the main factors decreasing current efficiency and product quality, the growth of nodules deserves attention in the copper electrorefining process. Three-dimensional (3D) Finite Element Method models combining tertiary current distribution and fluid flow were established in this study to investigate [...] Read more.
As one of the main factors decreasing current efficiency and product quality, the growth of nodules deserves attention in the copper electrorefining process. Three-dimensional (3D) Finite Element Method models combining tertiary current distribution and fluid flow were established in this study to investigate the details of the growth of columnar nodules, including the electrolyte flow around the nodule and its effects. Compared with an inert nodule, a significant impact of the electrochemical reaction of an active nodule has been observed on the fluid flow, which may be one of the reasons for the formation of small nodule clusters on the cathode. Furthermore, the local current density is not even on the nodule surface under the comprehensive influence of local electrolyte flow, local overvoltage, and the angle with the anode surface. Thus, the head of an active nodule grows faster than the root, and the upper parts grow faster than the lower parts, leading to asymmetric growth of the nodules. Full article
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