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Advances in 3D Printing Technologies of Metals—2nd Edition

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A special issue of Metals (ISSN 2075-4701). This special issue belongs to the section "Additive Manufacturing".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (25 March 2025) | Viewed by 19702

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Special Issue Editors

Dr. Irene Buj Corral

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Guest Editor

Department of Mechanical Engineering, School of Engineering of Barcelona (ETSEIB), Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya, 08028 Barcelona, Spain
Interests: additive manufacturing; hip prostheses; roughness; porosity; dimensional accuracy; mechanical strength
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Dr. Felip Fenollosa-Artés

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Guest Editor

1.Department of Mechanical Engineering, School of Engineering of Barcelona (ETSEIB), Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya, 08028 Barcelona, Spain
2.CIM UPC Technological Center, 08028 Barcelona, Spain
Interests: 3D printing; additive manufacturing; Industry 4.0; digital manufacturing
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Research into the additive manufacturing (AM) of metals has expanded in recent years, with the aim being to obtain high-strength parts and/or parts with high electrical conductivity and complex shapes.

Metallic AM parts are applied in different sectors, including the automotive, aeronautical, medical, and electronics sectors, among many others.

For this Special Issue, we welcome the submission of articles that focus on the characterization of metallic parts obtained with different additive manufacturing processes and considering their metallurgy, surface finish, porosity, mechanical properties, geometry features, etc. Topics of interest for the SI include (but are not limited to) the following different AM processes:

VAT polymerization techniques such as stereolithography (SL) with metallic-filled resin.
Metal binder jetting techniques.
Material extrusion techniques such as fused deposition modeling (FDM), also known as fused filament fabrication (FFF) with metal-filled filament, direct ink writing (DIW) with metal-filled inks, solid-state friction welding and Joule printing.
Metallic material jetting techniques such as nano particle jetting (NPJ), liquid metal 3D printing and supersonic 3D deposition.
Powder bed fusion techniques such as selective laser melting (SLM) or electron beam melting (EBM).
Directed energy deposition processes such as powder DED and wire DED based on different energy sources.
Other (ultrasonic consolidation, etc.)

Dr. Irene Buj Corral
Dr. Felip Fenollosa-Artés
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Metals is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2600 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

metal 3D printing
vat photopolymerization with metal-filled resins
metal binder jetting
fused filament fabrication (FFF) with metal-filled filament
direct ink writing (DIW) with metal-filled ink
selective laser melting (SLM, DLMS, LMF, etc.)
electron beam melting (EBM)
wire arc additive manufacturing (WAAM)
direct energy deposition (DED)
laser-engineered net shaping (LENS)

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Published Papers (10 papers)

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Research

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16 pages, 12925 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Influence of Friction Stir Processing Post-Treatment on the Microstructure and Mechanical Properties of 205A Aluminum Alloy Produced by Wire Arc-Directed Energy Deposition

by Jing Ma, Siyue Fan, Yuqi Gong, Qingwei Jiang and Fei Li

Metals 2025, 15(3), 331; https://doi.org/10.3390/met15030331 - 19 Mar 2025

Viewed by 310

Abstract

Although wire arc-directed energy deposition (WA-DED) technology demonstrates advancements in the rapid manufacturing of high-strength Al-Cu aluminum alloy components, coarse microstructures and pore defects inhibit its further development and application. In this study, friction stir processing (FSP) post-treatment was employed to improve the microstructure and mechanical properties of the 205A aluminum alloy component produced by WA-DED, and the effects of rotational rate on the microstructure and properties were also investigated. Key findings showed that the average grain size of the as-deposited sample was significantly refined from 22.8 μm to less than 5 μm after FSP post-treatment, and most of the pore defects were eliminated. Most of the α-Al + θ-Al₂Cu eutectic structures distributed on the grain boundaries were dissolved into the α-Al matrix after FSP post-treatment, and the element segregation phenomenon was effectively improved. The microhardness of the stirred zone significantly increased due to the microstructure refinement and pore elimination. The excellent elongation of the component was obtained after FSP post-treatment using a relatively low rotational rate of 800 min⁻¹. Comparatively, after improving the rotational rate to 1200 min⁻¹, the strength of the component slightly increased with the reduction in elongation. Compared to the as-deposited sample, the average yield strength, ultimate tensile strength, and elongation increased by 32.7%, 20.6% and 56.7%, respectively. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in 3D Printing Technologies of Metals—2nd Edition)

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32 pages, 9117 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Defining and Optimising High-Fidelity Models for Accurate Inherent Strain Calculation in Laser Powder Bed Fusion

by Iñaki Setien, Michele Chiumenti, Maria San Sebastian, Manuel A. Caicedo and Carlos A. Moreira

Metals 2025, 15(2), 180; https://doi.org/10.3390/met15020180 - 11 Feb 2025

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 631

Abstract

Powder Bed Fusion–Laser Beam (PBF-LB) is a leading technique in metal additive manufacturing, yet it continues to face challenges related to residual stresses and distortions. The inherent strain method has emerged as a valuable predictive tool, offering early assessments of part behaviour due to its simplicity and manageable computational demands. However, accurately defining the inherent strain tensor, which is critical for these models, remains a challenge. This study provides a comprehensive analysis of the local meso-scale model definition and inherent strain calculation procedure in the PBF-LB process using a multi-scale modelling approach. The primary objective is to guide the definition of local high-fidelity thermo-mechanical models. This research investigates the contributions of thermal, plastic, and activation strains (strains due to Finite Element (FE) activation) to the inherent strain tensor, demonstrating the significant impact of activation strains. A sensitivity analysis identified an optimal control volume size to ensure minimal boundary effects. An optimised local high-fidelity model is proposed to efficiently calculate inherent strain tensor, significantly reducing computational costs without compromising accuracy. The method was validated by applying it to a complex SBA actuator geometry, which showed good agreement between predicted and experimental distortions. The consistency of the proposed method with empirically derived tensors further reinforces its potential to improve predictive capabilities in the PBF-LB process, ultimately enhancing part quality. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in 3D Printing Technologies of Metals—2nd Edition)

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27 pages, 41978 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Integrating Temperature History into Inherent Strain Methodology for Improved Distortion Prediction in Laser Powder Bed Fusion

by Iñaki Setien, Michele Chiumenti, Maria San Sebastian, Carlos A. Moreira and Manuel A. Caicedo

Metals 2025, 15(2), 143; https://doi.org/10.3390/met15020143 - 30 Jan 2025

Viewed by 768

Abstract

Powder bed fusion–laser beam (PBF-LB) additive manufacturing enables the production of intricate, lightweight metal components aligned with Industry 4.0 and sustainable principles. However, residual stresses and distortions challenge the dimensional accuracy and reliability of parts. Inherent strain methods (ISMs) provide a computationally efficient approach to predicting these issues but often overlook transient thermal histories, limiting their accuracy. This paper introduces an enhanced inherent strain method (EISM) for PBF-LB, integrating macro-scale temperature histories into the inherent strain framework. By incorporating temperature-dependent adjustments to the precomputed inherent strain tensor, EISM improves the prediction of residual stresses and distortions, addressing the limitations of the original ISM. Validation was conducted on two Ti-6Al-4V geometries—a non-symmetric bridge and a complex structure (steady blowing actuator)—through comparisons with experimental measurements of temperature, distortion, and residual stress. Results demonstrate improved accuracy, particularly in capturing localized thermal and mechanical effects. Sensitivity analyses emphasize the need for adaptive layer lumping and mesh refinement in regions with abrupt stiffness changes, such as shrink lines. While EISM slightly increases computational cost, it remains feasible for industrial-scale applications. This work bridges the gap between simplified inherent strain models and high-fidelity simulations, offering a robust tool for simulation-driven optimisation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in 3D Printing Technologies of Metals—2nd Edition)

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19 pages, 9288 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of Volumetric Energy Density on the Evolution of the Microstructure and the Degradation Behavior of 3D-Printed Fe-Mn-C Alloys from Water-Atomized Powders

by Quang Nguyen Cao, Abdelhakim Cherqaoui, Carlos Henrique Michelin Beraldo, Carlo Paternoster, Simon Gélinas, Carl Blais, Paolo Mengucci and Diego Mantovani

Metals 2025, 15(2), 101; https://doi.org/10.3390/met15020101 - 22 Jan 2025

Viewed by 717

Abstract

Additive manufacturing of metals opens new doors for innovation in custom-based productions in a wide range of fields, including medicine, even if it introduces new challenges that need to be addressed to guarantee the properties are equal to or superior to those of conventional fabrication processes. In this research, porous, biodegradable Fe-Mn-C alloys were fabricated using a 3D printing technique with four different printing energy densities ranging from 62.5 to 125.0 J/mm³. The effect of printing energy density on the microstructure and degradation behavior was investigated. Lower energy densities resulted in higher pore density and the presence of unmelted powder particles, while the alloy printed at 104.2 J/mm³ exhibited the lowest pore density and the smallest grain size. Degradation tests revealed that the highest pore density in the sample printed at 62.5 J/mm³, and the lowest grain size in the sample printed at 104.2 J/mm³ contributed to faster degradation rates. The alloy printed at the highest energy density, 125.0 J/mm³, demonstrated the largest grain size and the slowest degradation rate. Energy-dispersive spectroscopy and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy analyses identified manganese carbonate as the primary degradation product, with calcium phosphate forming as a secondary product. These findings provide a significant understanding of the relationship between printing parameters, microstructure, and degradation behavior, which are essential for optimizing the performance of Fe-Mn-C alloys in biodegradable material applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in 3D Printing Technologies of Metals—2nd Edition)

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12 pages, 2547 KiB

Open AccessArticle

An Inherent Strain Method Using Progressive Element Activation for Fast Distortion Calculation in Directed Energy Deposition

by Georg Seitz, Patrick Bantle, Max Biegler, Beatrix A. M. Elsner and Michael Rethmeier

Metals 2024, 14(12), 1338; https://doi.org/10.3390/met14121338 - 26 Nov 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1001

Abstract

The finite element analysis (FEA) simulation of directed energy deposition (DED) processes offers many potential cost savings during the build job optimization process, through, e.g., distortion predictions. However, the biggest challenge is the long calculation time, frequently exceeding the actual build time. One way of simplifying the simulation with the aim of reducing the calculation times is the inherent strain method. While this method is already used commercially in the simulation of powder bed-based processes and conventional welding technologies, its use in DED is still the subject of research. In this work, an inverse determination of an inherent strain is carried out on a 20-layer-high, single-track-wide wall, common theories are reviewed, and an approach based on thermal strain is introduced. As a result, the calculation time could be reduced by 83% and the accuracy remained at 92%. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in 3D Printing Technologies of Metals—2nd Edition)

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12 pages, 3335 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Comparative Studies of the Properties of Copper Components: Conventional vs. Additive Manufacturing Technologies

by Witold Malec, Joanna Kulasa, Anna Brudny, Anna Hury, Bartlomiej Adamczyk, Ryszard Rzepecki, Robert Sekula, Grzegorz Kmita and Andrzej Rybak

Metals 2024, 14(9), 975; https://doi.org/10.3390/met14090975 - 28 Aug 2024

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2231

Abstract

This article presents a comparative analysis of the crucial physical properties of electrically conductive components made of pure copper, produced by various additive manufacturing technologies such as binder jetting (BJ) and direct metal laser sintering (DMLS). The comparison concerned the assessment of critical parameters important from the application point of view, such as: electrical conductivity, hardness, yield point, microstructure and the occurrence of internal material defects. Same-sized components made in a conventional casting and subtractive method (machining) were used as a reference material. Comprehensive tests and the comparison of a wide range of parameters allowed us to determine that among the selected methods, printing using the DMLS technique allowed for obtaining arcing contact with mechanical and electrical parameters very similar to the reference element. Therefore, the obtained results showed the possibility of using the copper elements made by additive manufacturing for the switching and protection devices used in electrification and energy distribution industrial sectors. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in 3D Printing Technologies of Metals—2nd Edition)

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21 pages, 18628 KiB

Open AccessArticle

TiAl Alloy Fabricated Using Election Beam Selective Melting: Process, Microstructure, and Tensile Performance

by Yu Zhang, Yan Li, Meihui Song, Yanchun Li, Shulin Gong and Bin Zhang

Metals 2024, 14(4), 482; https://doi.org/10.3390/met14040482 - 20 Apr 2024

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 1485

Abstract

TiAl alloy is one of the most attractive candidates for a new generation of high-temperature structural materials and has broad application prospects in the aerospace field. As a typical intermetallic material, TiAl is inevitably difficult to process using conventional methods. Election beam selective melting (EBSM) is an effective method of addictive manufacturing to prepare TiAl alloy with a complex structure. However, the microstructure of TiAl alloy formed using EBSM often contains defects such as pores, which seriously reduces the mechanical properties of the material. In this work, the effects of EBSM and post-processing procedures on the microstructure and mechanical properties of Ti-48Al-2Cr-2Nb alloy were studied. The results show that the microstructure of Ti-48Al-2Cr-2Nb alloy formed using the EBSM process was dense and composed of equiaxed γ-phase and double-phase regions. A large number of dislocations that formed due to thermal stress were clearly observed inside the Ti-48Al-2Cr-2Nb alloy. When the EBSM process parameters were 13.5 mA, 4.0 m/s, and 40.50 J/mm³, as the current intensity increased, the Al content decreased, the content of α₂ phase increased, and the microstructure of the material was coarse. The results of the tensile test fracture morphology indicate that the Ti-48Al-2Cr-2Nb alloy exhibited brittle fracture during tensile deformation, lacking the typical yield deformation of metal materials. As the energy density of the EBSM process increased, the mechanical properties of the Ti-48Al-2Cr-2Nb alloy first increased and then decreased. The samples prepared with an energy density of 34.50~40.50 J/mm³ had excellent mechanical properties, of which the maximum tensile strength and maximum elongation reached 643 MPa and 2.09%, respectively. The phase composition of the Ti-48Al-2Cr-2Nb alloy after hot isostatic pressing (HIP) treatment remained unchanged from the EBSM samples, but there was a slight difference in content. There was an increase in the amount of γ phase and a decrease in B2 phase, accompanied by the generation of a massive γ phase after HIP treatment. Moreover, the number of dislocations inside the material increased. The Ti-48Al-2Cr-2Nb alloy after HIP treatment exhibited obvious plastic deformation characteristics, with a tensile strength of 679 MPa and elongation of 2.5%. A heat treatment of 900 °C/5 h was performed on the Ti-48Al-2Cr-2Nb alloy after HIP. The dislocation density of the Ti-48Al-2Cr-2Nb alloy decreased, and the B2 phase transformed from massive to lamellar. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in 3D Printing Technologies of Metals—2nd Edition)

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17 pages, 2741 KiB

Open AccessArticle

An Experimental Investigation about the Dimensional Accuracy and the Porosity of Copper-Filled PLA Fused Filament Fabrication Parts

by Irene Buj-Corral and Maurici Sivatte-Adroer

Metals 2023, 13(9), 1608; https://doi.org/10.3390/met13091608 - 18 Sep 2023

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 1695

Abstract

In recent years, metal-filled plastic filaments have begun to be used in fused filament fabrication (FFF) technology. However, the characterization of the parts obtained is still under development. In this work, the results on dimensional accuracy and porosity of copper-filled 3D-printed parts are presented. Cuboid parts were 3D-printed in the vertical position. The three dimensions of each part were measured, and the relative error was calculated for each one of them. Dimensional accuracy in terms of width and depth depends mainly on the layer height and printing temperature, while accuracy in height is mainly influenced by print speed and the interaction of layer height with print speed. Porosity is related to layer height, printing temperature and print speed. According to multiobjective optimization, to minimize dimensional error and obtain a porosity target value of 20%, it is recommended to select a low layer height of 0.1 mm, a high print speed of 40 mm/s, a low extrusion multiplier of 0.94 and a low temperature of 200 °C. The results of the present work will help to select appropriate 3D printing parameters when using metal-filled filaments in FFF processes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in 3D Printing Technologies of Metals—2nd Edition)

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Review

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66 pages, 14659 KiB

Open AccessReview

Advancements in Metal Processing Additive Technologies: Selective Laser Melting (SLM)

by Neetesh Soni, Gilda Renna and Paola Leo

Metals 2024, 14(9), 1081; https://doi.org/10.3390/met14091081 - 21 Sep 2024

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 4437

Abstract

Nowadays, the use of metal processing additive technologies is a rapidly growing field in the manufacturing industry. These technologies, such as metal 3D printing (also known as additive manufacturing) and laser cladding, allow for the production of complex geometries and intricate designs that would be impossible with traditional manufacturing methods. They also offer the ability to create parts with customized properties, such as improved strength, wear resistance, and corrosion resistance. In other words, these technologies have the potential to revolutionize the way we design and produce products, reducing costs and increasing efficiency to improve product quality and functionality. One of the significant advantages of these metal processing additive technologies is a reduction in waste and environmental impact. However, there are also some challenges associated with these technologies. One of the main challenges is the cost of equipment and materials, which can be prohibitively expensive for small businesses and individuals. Additionally, the quality of parts produced with these technologies can be affected by factors such as printing speed, temperature, and post-processing methods. This review article aims to contribute to a deep understanding of the processing, properties, and applications of ferrous and non-ferrous alloys in the context of SLM to assist readers in obtaining high-quality AM components. Simultaneously, it emphasizes the importance of further research, optimization, and cost-effective approaches to promote the broader adoption of SLM technology in the industry. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in 3D Printing Technologies of Metals—2nd Edition)

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41 pages, 4508 KiB

Open AccessReview

The Challenges and Advances in Recycling/Re-Using Powder for Metal 3D Printing: A Comprehensive Review

by Alex Lanzutti and Elia Marin

Metals 2024, 14(8), 886; https://doi.org/10.3390/met14080886 - 2 Aug 2024

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 5350

Abstract

This review explores the critical role of powder quality in metal 3D printing and the importance of effective powder recycling strategies. It covers various metal 3D printing technologies, in particular Selective Laser Melting, Electron Beam Melting, Direct Energy Deposition, and Binder Jetting, and analyzes the impact of powder characteristics on the final part properties. This review highlights key challenges associated with powder recycling, including maintaining consistent particle size and shape, managing contamination, and mitigating degradation effects from repeated use, such as wear, fragmentation, and oxidation. Furthermore, it explores various recycling techniques, such as sieving, blending, plasma spheroidization, and powder conditioning, emphasizing their role in restoring powder quality and enabling reuse. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in 3D Printing Technologies of Metals—2nd Edition)

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