Insects

5 pages, 160 KB

Open AccessEditorial

Advances in the Health, Behavior, and Physiology of Honeybees and Other Pollinators

by Giovanni Formato and Franco Mutinelli

Insects 2026, 17(2), 231; https://doi.org/10.3390/insects17020231 - 23 Feb 2026

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The health, behavior, and physiology of honeybees and other pollinators are critical areas of research with profound implications for biodiversity, agriculture, and ecosystem stability [...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in the Health, Behavior, and Physiology of Honeybees and Other Pollinators)

14 pages, 2374 KB

Open AccessArticle

Characterization of BmCeP, a Salivary Gland-Predominant Expression Promoter in the Silkworm Bombyx mori

by Ling Ran, Jing Wang, Jinyu Pan, Jie Yang, Shuozheng Mei, Shuyi Lei, Ying He, Fanglin Zhou, Qingyou Xia and Genhong Wang

Insects 2026, 17(2), 230; https://doi.org/10.3390/insects17020230 - 23 Feb 2026

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Abstract

The salivary gland is a key organ in insects that plays essential roles in food digestion, nutrient absorption, and energy metabolism, thereby highlighting the importance of studying salivary gland function for gaining a better understanding of nutritional utilization and insect–plant interactions. To date, [...] Read more.

The salivary gland is a key organ in insects that plays essential roles in food digestion, nutrient absorption, and energy metabolism, thereby highlighting the importance of studying salivary gland function for gaining a better understanding of nutritional utilization and insect–plant interactions. To date, however, a lack of salivary gland-specific promoters has limited functional analyses of salivary gland genes in Lepidoptera. In this study, based on microarray and salivary gland transcriptome data, we identified nine candidate genes characterized by high salivary gland expression. Semi-quantitative PCR analysis confirmed cholinesterase (BmCe, BGIBMGA010988) as the optimal candidate for promoter cloning. Temporal expression analysis revealed that the expression of BmCe reaches a peak during days 2–4 of the fifth larval instar. A 2152 bp fragment upstream of the transcription initiation site of BmCe was selected as the putative promoter sequence (designated BmCeP) and cloned to construct a piggyBac transgenic vector driving DsRed expression. Transgenic silkworms were obtained via embryonic microinjection and tissue expression analysis on day three of fifth-instar larvae revealed the predominant localization of DsRed expression in the salivary glands. In this study, we thus identified a gene promoter characterized by salivary gland-predominant expression in Bombyx mori, which we believe could serve as a valuable genetic tool for investigating the molecular mechanisms underlying silkworm nutritional utilization and interactions with its host plant, mulberry. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Genomics and Molecular Biology in Silkworm)

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16 pages, 18162 KB

Open AccessArticle

Simple and Rapid Detection of Salivary Sheaths at Philaenus spumarius Feeding Points

by Aziza Husein, Valdete Sefa, Francesca Garganese, Ugo Picciotti, Giovanni Luigi Bruno, Maria Letizia Gargano and Francesco Porcelli

Insects 2026, 17(2), 229; https://doi.org/10.3390/insects17020229 - 22 Feb 2026

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Abstract

Hemipteran plant sap feeders acquire food by inserting their piercing–sucking mouthparts into the apoplast (xylem sap feeders) or symplast (phloem sap feeders). When feeding, these insects seal their stylets inside the plant with a salivary sheath, minimising embolisms. The main impact of the [...] Read more.

Hemipteran plant sap feeders acquire food by inserting their piercing–sucking mouthparts into the apoplast (xylem sap feeders) or symplast (phloem sap feeders). When feeding, these insects seal their stylets inside the plant with a salivary sheath, minimising embolisms. The main impact of the insect on the host or food plant consists of sucking plant sap, transmitting phytopathogenic agents, or triggering galls as hypertrophic and/or hyperplastic neoformations. This paper proposes a rapid method for locating and counting the salivary sheaths of Philaenus spumarius (the Meadow Spittlebug), the primary Italian vector of Xylella fastidiosa, at the feeding point on its host or food plants. Hand-sliced stems of herbs hosting juveniles and olive twigs or leaves feeding the adult spittlebug, preserved while mounted in 75% ethanol (v/v), show the salivary sheaths. Alternative dyeing with acid fuchsin, chlorazol black, or phloroglucinol, and diaphanisation with Essig’s fluid alone or in combination with benzyl alcohol, may help with observations. The 75% EtOH solution provides a better compromise, yielding rapid evidence. The other methods offer similar outcomes but require more time and effort and expose the operator to harmful dyes. Assessing vectors’ access to plants may enable us to quantify the potential number of pathogen transmission events or to spot rejecting clones, thereby advancing the development of robust, effective control strategies that incorporate resistance. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Insect Pest and Vector Management)

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16 pages, 2688 KB

Open AccessArticle

Binding Mechanism of PsauPBP3 to Sex Pheromones in Peridroma saucia: Insights from Computational and Experimental Approaches

by Xiaoqian Yao, Shuai Chang, Mingshan Wang, Junfeng Dong, Shaoli Wang and Yalan Sun

Insects 2026, 17(2), 228; https://doi.org/10.3390/insects17020228 - 22 Feb 2026

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Abstract

The variegated cutworm Peridroma saucia Hübner, a recently emerged polyphagous pest in China’s Huang-Huai River Basin, uses sex pheromones (Z)-11-hexadecenyl acetate (Z11-16: Ac) and (Z)-9-tetradecenyl acetate (Z9-14: Ac) for mate finding. Insect pheromone-binding proteins (PBPs) serve as the primary filter for detecting specific [...] Read more.

The variegated cutworm Peridroma saucia Hübner, a recently emerged polyphagous pest in China’s Huang-Huai River Basin, uses sex pheromones (Z)-11-hexadecenyl acetate (Z11-16: Ac) and (Z)-9-tetradecenyl acetate (Z9-14: Ac) for mate finding. Insect pheromone-binding proteins (PBPs) serve as the primary filter for detecting specific sex pheromones. Although comprehensive functional analyses of PBPs exist, their binding mechanisms remain poorly characterized. In this study, we elucidated the binding properties and mechanisms of PsauPBP3 in sex pheromone recognition by computational and experimental approaches. PsauPBP3, predominantly expressed in male P. saucia antennae, showed high binding affinity for both Z11-16: Ac and Z9-14: Ac, as demonstrated by binding-free-energy calculations and fluorescence binding assays. Molecular dynamics simulations and docking studies identified five key residues (Thr-10, Phe-13, Ile-53, Ile-95, and Phe-119) that consistently interact with these pheromones, indicating their critical role in ligand binding. Computational alanine scanning further demonstrated that all five residues act as binding determinants, with Phe-13 and Ile-95 making particularly significant contributions to ligand affinity. The results were further validated by site-directed mutagenesis and fluorescence binding assays. This work provides insights into the function and binding mechanisms of PBPs in sex pheromone recognition and supports the development of targeted mating disruption strategies for P. saucia control. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Insect Sensory Biology—2nd Edition)

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12 pages, 1319 KB

Open AccessArticle

Rainfall Timing as a Key Driver of Cicada Peak Emergence in Urban Habitats

by Jae-Yeon Kang, Yong-Su Kwon, Heejo Lee and Yikweon Jang

Insects 2026, 17(2), 226; https://doi.org/10.3390/insects17020226 - 22 Feb 2026

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Abstract

Synchronous emergence is a widespread adaptive strategy in cicadas, yet the proximate cues governing its timing in urban environments remain poorly understood. We examined the emergence phenology of three common urban cicada species (Cryptotympana atrata, Hyalessa maculaticollis, Graptopsaltria nigrofuscata) [...] Read more.

Synchronous emergence is a widespread adaptive strategy in cicadas, yet the proximate cues governing its timing in urban environments remain poorly understood. We examined the emergence phenology of three common urban cicada species (Cryptotympana atrata, Hyalessa maculaticollis, Graptopsaltria nigrofuscata) across two urban parks with contrasting habitat structure (a closed-canopy urban forest park vs. an open urban park) in Seoul, South Korea, over three summers (2015–2017). Despite interannual variation in rainfall amount and timing, peak emergence consistently occurred about two weeks after the monsoon rainfall peak. Poisson generalized estimating equation (GEE) analyses confirmed that antecedent precipitation at a 2–3-week lag significantly increased emergence counts across all three species, while precipitation one week prior had no significant effect. Emergence synchrony varied among species and habitat conditions, but the rainfall–emergence lag relationship was robust across years and sites. These findings demonstrate that precipitation timing is a key driver of peak cicada emergence in urban habitats. As East Asia experiences increasingly variable monsoon rainfall under climate change, understanding precipitation-based phenological cues will be essential for predicting the dynamics of urban insect populations. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Insect Ecology, Diversity and Conservation)

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17 pages, 4609 KB

Open AccessArticle

Laboratory and Field Soil Tunneling/Tubing by Subterranean Termites in Response to 2-Phenoxyethanol

by Luke Prescott, Roberto Pereira, Rebecca Baldwin, Allen Fugler and Philip Koehler

Insects 2026, 17(2), 227; https://doi.org/10.3390/insects17020227 - 21 Feb 2026

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Abstract

The chemical 2-phenoxyethanol (2-PE) has been found to elicit trail following responses in subterranean termites and could have potential use as an enhancement to termite treatments. In this paper, similar glycol ethers to 2-phenoxyethanol were found to elicit significant trail following compared to [...] Read more.

The chemical 2-phenoxyethanol (2-PE) has been found to elicit trail following responses in subterranean termites and could have potential use as an enhancement to termite treatments. In this paper, similar glycol ethers to 2-phenoxyethanol were found to elicit significant trail following compared to the control, but they were not as effective as 2-phenoxyethanol. Significantly more shelter tubes were built over 2-phenoxyethanol treatment lines applied to vinyl tile compared to water controls. Eastern subterranean termites chose a food source with 2-PE applied to the surrounding soil over water controls in a choice test. The termites also tunneled along a soil treatment line significantly further, and with less deviation than the water controls, in sand. During field trials, there was termite activity only at 2-PE-treated detection stations beginning at 4 months after initial installation. 2-phenoxyethanol is relatively inexpensive, considered safe for the environment, and easy to mix in large batches. 2-PE is a simple and efficient way to guide termites to specific locations in the field for collection and other purposes. These factors should facilitate adoption in future pest management practices. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Insect Behavior and Pathology)

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25 pages, 17528 KB

Open AccessArticle

A Circular Bioeconomy Model for Oaxaca: Integrating Entomophagy and Zootechnical Validation in Small-Scale Tilapia Farming

by Tamara Aquino-Aguilar, Yolanda Donají Ortiz-Hernández, Marco Aurelio Acevedo-Ortiz, Teodulfo Aquino-Bolaños, Gema Lugo-Espinosa, Jesús Andrés Morales-López and Salatiel Velasco-Pérez

Insects 2026, 17(2), 225; https://doi.org/10.3390/insects17020225 - 21 Feb 2026

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Abstract

Global population growth necessitates sustainable food systems, positioning Circular Bioeconomy as a key transition framework. In Oaxaca, Mexico, semi-intensive tilapia aquaculture faces economic viability issues due to a critical reliance on expensive external commercial feeds. This study proposes a “Backyard Integrated System” specifically [...] Read more.

Global population growth necessitates sustainable food systems, positioning Circular Bioeconomy as a key transition framework. In Oaxaca, Mexico, semi-intensive tilapia aquaculture faces economic viability issues due to a critical reliance on expensive external commercial feeds. This study proposes a “Backyard Integrated System” specifically designed for rural contexts with limited capitalization, connecting traditional entomophagy with aquaculture to reduce operational costs and close nutrient cycles. Using a mixed-method approach, we first conducted a sociocultural diagnosis (n = 140), revealing a 97.14% acceptance of insect consumption. Subsequently, to validate technical viability, a long-term (280-day) feeding trial was conducted using standardized insect meals (Tenebrio molitor and Acheta domesticus) as total substitutes (100%) for commercial feed in Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) diets. Results showed a Feed Conversion Ratio (FCR) of 1.61–1.62, comparable to the commercial control (p > 0.05), while significantly enhancing fillet protein content. Crucially, microbiological analysis confirmed the absence of pathogens in the final product, empirically validating the safety of the waste-to-feed cycle. Consequently, this strategy ensures food sovereignty, decouples producers from volatile external markets, and offers a scalable solution for community resilience without compromising food safety. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Insects: A Unique Bioresource for Agriculture and Humanity)

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17 pages, 7414 KB

Open AccessArticle

Deacetylation of BmHSP90 at Lysines 550/567 Stimulates Its Chaperone Function and Actin Polymerization to Drive the Proliferation of Bombyx mori Nucleopolyhedrovirus

by Yang-Jing-Wen Wu, Jia-Qi Li, Si-Yi Yang, Fei Ma, Xiao-Fang Shi and Wei Yu

Insects 2026, 17(2), 224; https://doi.org/10.3390/insects17020224 - 21 Feb 2026

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Abstract

The silkworm, Bombyx mori, is a model organism with significant agricultural and economic importance, but it is threatened by Bombyx mori nucleopolyhedrovirus (BmNPV). A crucial chaperone, heat shock protein 90 (HSP90), can also facilitate the proliferation of viruses, and our previous quantitative [...] Read more.

The silkworm, Bombyx mori, is a model organism with significant agricultural and economic importance, but it is threatened by Bombyx mori nucleopolyhedrovirus (BmNPV). A crucial chaperone, heat shock protein 90 (HSP90), can also facilitate the proliferation of viruses, and our previous quantitative acetylome analysis revealed that lysines 550 and 567 in the carboxyl-terminal domain (CTD) of Bombyx mori HSP90 (BmHSP90) were significantly deacetylated following BmNPV infection, but the underlying mechanism remained unknown. In this study, deacetylation-mimetic (K to R) mutants of BmHSP90 exhibited increased dimerization and chaperone activity compared with the wild-type. In addition, the mutants also exhibited higher affinity for actin, promoting F-actin polymerization. Collectively, these changes facilitated BmNPV replication and progeny virion production. This study reveals that the deacetylation of BmHSP90 at K550 and K567 mediates crucial host–virus interactions, providing novel insights into potential antiviral strategies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Insect Molecular Biology and Genomics)

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16 pages, 695 KB

Open AccessArticle

Diversity of Phytoplasmas Infecting Plants and Insects in Iran Reveals Two Novel Ribosomal Subgroups

by Valeria Trivellone, Wardah Noor Syeda, Maryam Ghayeb Zamharir and Christopher H. Dietrich

Insects 2026, 17(2), 223; https://doi.org/10.3390/insects17020223 - 21 Feb 2026

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Abstract

Phytoplasmas are obligate bacterial pathogens transmitted by phloem-feeding insects and responsible for severe diseases in numerous crops worldwide. In Iran, insect-associated phytoplasma transmission pathways remain poorly resolved, particularly at fine phylogenetic and vector-specific scales. Here, we investigated phytoplasma strains detected in four plant [...] Read more.

Phytoplasmas are obligate bacterial pathogens transmitted by phloem-feeding insects and responsible for severe diseases in numerous crops worldwide. In Iran, insect-associated phytoplasma transmission pathways remain poorly resolved, particularly at fine phylogenetic and vector-specific scales. Here, we investigated phytoplasma strains detected in four plant species, grapevine (Vitis vinifera), soybean (Glycine max), barberry (Berberis vulgaris), and the weed Conyza canadensis, and in three potential insect vectors (Tropidocephala prasina, Eysarcoris ventralis, and Nysius graminicola) collected from distinct agroecosystems across Iran. Phytoplasmas were characterized by using nearly full-length 16S rRNA gene sequences and a multilocus dataset of protein-coding genes obtained through a targeted next-generation sequencing approach. Five phytoplasma strains belonging to ribosomal groups 16SrI, 16SrVI, 16SrIX, and 16SrXII were identified, including two novel ribosomal subgroups, 16SrI-AS and 16SrIX-K. Several previously unreported plant–phytoplasma and insect–phytoplasma associations were documented. Comparative phylogenetic analyses revealed that ribosomal and multilocus markers capture complementary evolutionary signals, with protein-coding genes providing additional resolution beyond 16S-based classification. These findings highlight the potential role of diverse hosts and polyphagous insects, not yet confirmed as vectors, in phytoplasma circulation and underscore how high-throughput next-generation sequencing and multilocus approaches advance our understanding of phytoplasma diversity and evolution. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Insect Pest and Vector Management)

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21 pages, 4386 KB

Open AccessArticle

Developmental and Reproductive Impacts of Arsenophonus Symbiont on the Population of Nilaparvata lugens

by Qian-Qian Li, Salah M. Mohamed, Yi-Le Hu, Yong-Mao Lian, Adams Ibrahim, Xiang-Zhen Zhu, Feng Chen and Sheng Lin

Insects 2026, 17(2), 222; https://doi.org/10.3390/insects17020222 - 20 Feb 2026

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Abstract

The Brown Planthopper, Nilaparvata lugens (Stål.) (Hemiptera: Delphinidae), is one of the most destructive pests of rice. Its reproductive and developmental traits are influenced by various environmental and biological factors including endosymbiotic microorganisms. Arsenophonus, a widespread endosymbiotic bacterium of insects, can affect [...] Read more.

The Brown Planthopper, Nilaparvata lugens (Stål.) (Hemiptera: Delphinidae), is one of the most destructive pests of rice. Its reproductive and developmental traits are influenced by various environmental and biological factors including endosymbiotic microorganisms. Arsenophonus, a widespread endosymbiotic bacterium of insects, can affect host fitness and metabolic processes. This study investigates the role of Arsenophonus in modulating the developmental and reproductive traits of N. lugens fed on transgenic cry30Fa1 rice (KF30-14) and its parent variety Minghui 86 (MH86). Life table analysis revealed that Arsenophonus infection (Ars⁺) increased the development time and reduced the reproductive capacity of N. lugens, especially those feeding on KF30-14. The first-instar nymphs in MH86 Ars⁺ (infected) exhibited slower development compared to MH86 Ars⁻ (uninfected). Similarly, the third and fourth-instar nymphs in KF30-14 Ars⁺ exhibited prolonged development time compared to KF30-14 Ars⁻. In addition, KF30-14 Ars⁺ females had significantly reduced reproductive capacity, smaller ovarian tubules and lower relative expression levels of reproduction-related genes including Trehalose transporter (Tret), Vitellogenin (Vg) and Cytochrome P450 hydroxylase (cyp314a1), while Juvenile hormone acid methyltransferase (JHAMT) expression was upregulated. RNA sequencing and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) pathway analysis revealed significant enrichment of genes involved in lipid, amino acid, and vitamin metabolisms, with Long-chain acyl-CoA synthetase implicated as a key regulator of lipid metabolism and reproductive fitness. These results highlight the complex interactions between endosymbionts, host plants and pest biology, offering a solid foundation for sustainable approaches to control N. lugens in rice production systems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Insect Molecular Biology: From Bioinformatics to Pest Management Applications)

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15 pages, 256 KB

Open AccessArticle

The Impact of Energy and Protein Levels on Yellow Mealworm Growth and Chemical Composition

by Marko Vukadinović, Mirko Ivković, Dejan Beuković, Miloš Petrović, Miroslava Polovinski Horvatović, Nikola Laćarac, Saša Krstović and Igor Jajić

Insects 2026, 17(2), 221; https://doi.org/10.3390/insects17020221 - 20 Feb 2026

Viewed by 403

Abstract

To maximize protein production from insects, it is essential to understand their nutritional requirements, production characteristics, and the chemical properties of the resulting feed, along with how these factors depend on the insects’ diets. This research involved the use of nine different insect [...] Read more.

To maximize protein production from insects, it is essential to understand their nutritional requirements, production characteristics, and the chemical properties of the resulting feed, along with how these factors depend on the insects’ diets. This research involved the use of nine different insect diets, all based on wheat bran. Corn and soybean meal were included to enhance the energy and protein content. The weight gain of larvae was significantly affected by the level of protein in their feed; however, the energy level did not have a significant impact on the weight gain measured in grams per day per tray. This gain ranged from 0.57 g/day per tray for insects fed low-energy, low-protein diets to 0.71 g/day per tray for those fed high-protein, medium-energy diets. Feed conversion ranged from 1.83 to 2.34 and was significantly influenced by energy and protein levels. The chemical composition of reared insects showed significant differences, particularly in fat content. The fat content ranged from 38.5% with a low-protein diet to just 26.9% with a high-protein diet. In contrast to fat content, the variability in protein content was smaller, ranging from 44.8% in a low-protein, high-energy diet to 51.9% in a high-protein, high-energy diet. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Insect Physiology, Reproduction and Development)

14 pages, 1923 KB

Open AccessArticle

Mitochondrial Gene Expression as a Novel Biomarker for Detecting and Discriminating Neurotoxic Pesticide Exposure in Ramulus phyllodeus (Chen & He, 2008)

by Tong Lin, Fanqi Gan, Yiying Chen, Siqi Meng, Jingyi He, Danna Yu and Jiayong Zhang

Insects 2026, 17(2), 220; https://doi.org/10.3390/insects17020220 - 20 Feb 2026

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Abstract

This study investigates the mitochondrial transcriptomic responses of Ramulus phyllodeus (Chen & He, 2008); Phasmatodea: Phasmatidae) to acute exposure to four widely used neurotoxic insecticides: chlorpyrifos, cyfluthrin, emamectin benzoate, and acetamiprid. Using quantitative real-time PCR (qRT-PCR), we quantified transcriptional changes in 10 mitochondrial [...] Read more.

This study investigates the mitochondrial transcriptomic responses of Ramulus phyllodeus (Chen & He, 2008); Phasmatodea: Phasmatidae) to acute exposure to four widely used neurotoxic insecticides: chlorpyrifos, cyfluthrin, emamectin benzoate, and acetamiprid. Using quantitative real-time PCR (qRT-PCR), we quantified transcriptional changes in 10 mitochondrial protein-coding genes, which showed significant transcriptional changes (p < 0.05) when the insect was exposed to four commonly used pesticides (each at a concentration of 5 μg/L) for 24 h. Exposure to chlorpyrifos induced significant upregulation of ND2 (2.08 ± 0.048) and ND5 (1.38 ± 0.15). Cyfluthrin triggered coordinated upregulation across seven genes: ND1 (1.71 ± 0.07), ND2 (2.33 ± 0.38), ND3 (1.74 ± 0.25), ND5 (1.65 ± 0.38), COX1 (2.91 ± 0.40), COX3 (1.69 ± 0.18), and Cytb (2.81 ± 0.53). Emamectin benzoate induced the upregulation of ND1 (1.98 ± 0.21), ND2 (3.04 ± 0.41), ND3 (1.82 ± 0.26), ND4 (2.79 ± 0.64), COX1 (2.36 ± 0.34), ATP6 (3.26 ± 0.61), and Cytb (2.39 ± 0.81). Acetamiprid induced more selective upregulation, affecting only ND1 (1.67 ± 0.18), ND4 (1.43 ± 0.16), and ND5 (1.66 ± 0.10). Critically, each insecticide elicited a distinct, non-overlapping transcriptional signature, defined by both the identity and magnitude of responsive genes, indicating compound-specific modulation of mitochondrial gene expression. Notably, no gene exhibited significant downregulation under any single-compound treatment, and all differentially expressed genes were upregulated exclusively in response to individual pesticides. This absence of transcriptional suppression suggests that these neurotoxicants converge on shared upstream stress-response pathways that preferentially activate mitochondrial biogenesis or compensatory transcription, rather than inducing global transcriptional repression. Collectively, these findings establish mitochondrial protein-coding genes in R. phyllodeus as sensitive, mechanistically grounded molecular sentinels for neurotoxic pesticide exposure. The compound-specific transcriptional profiles further suggest potential utility in multiplex detection strategies for environmental monitoring, enabling discrimination among individual residues. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Insect Physiology, Reproduction and Development)

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21 pages, 28780 KB

Open AccessArticle

DNA Barcodes and Morphology Reveal Five New Species of Phanerotoma (Hymenoptera, Braconidae, Cheloninae) from China

by Yu Fang, Wenjuan Luo, Cornelis van Achterberg, Xuexin Chen and Pu Tang

Insects 2026, 17(2), 219; https://doi.org/10.3390/insects17020219 - 20 Feb 2026

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Abstract

The genus Phanerotoma Wesmael, 1838 (Hymenoptera, Braconidae, Cheloninae, Phane- rotomini) is distributed across all six major zoogeographical regions, with the highest species diversity recorded in the Palaearctic Region. DNA barcoding provides a robust method for species identification, yet its effectiveness for the genus [...] Read more.

The genus Phanerotoma Wesmael, 1838 (Hymenoptera, Braconidae, Cheloninae, Phane- rotomini) is distributed across all six major zoogeographical regions, with the highest species diversity recorded in the Palaearctic Region. DNA barcoding provides a robust method for species identification, yet its effectiveness for the genus Phanerotoma is limited by the scarcity of reliable, species-level data from specific regions in public databases. This gap makes it essential to contribute comprehensive genetic resources to advance taxonomic research. This study presents a comprehensive COI dataset of 92 sequences for the genus Phanerotoma, employing both the Automatic Barcode Gap Discovery (ABGD) method for species delimitation and the bPTP model for phylogenetic inference. The integrated analytical approach revealed 18 distinct species, including five new species; all species new to science are described and illustrated, and updates of the most recent key to the Chinese species are included. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Taxonomy and Phylogeny and Evolution of Parasitic Hymenoptera and Biological Control)

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24 pages, 6756 KB

Open AccessArticle

Aerial Trajectories and Meteorological Drivers of Transboundary Loxostege sticticalis Migration Across Northern China and Mongolia, 2022

by Xing-Yue Pu, Yi-Yang Zhang, Hai-Bin Gu, Rui Zhong, Gui-Jun Wan, Fa-Jun Chen and Qiu-Lin Wu

Insects 2026, 17(2), 218; https://doi.org/10.3390/insects17020218 - 19 Feb 2026

Viewed by 454

Abstract

Clarifying migration pathways and the source area–destination relationships of the domestic and foreign beet webworm Loxostege sticticalis (Linnaeus) populations, as well as understanding the meteorological mechanisms shaping these processes, is pivotal for remote, accurate, and location-specific pest early warning and forecasting. Based on [...] Read more.

Clarifying migration pathways and the source area–destination relationships of the domestic and foreign beet webworm Loxostege sticticalis (Linnaeus) populations, as well as understanding the meteorological mechanisms shaping these processes, is pivotal for remote, accurate, and location-specific pest early warning and forecasting. Based on light trap data from northern China and field survey data from Mongolia in 2022, we simulated the migration trajectories, source regions, and primary landing areas of L. sticticalis by using the HYSPLIT model and analyzed the synoptic systems, processes and conditions during its migration. The results indicate the frequent exchange of L. sticticalis populations between China and Mongolia in 2022. The L. sticticalis migrants initiating their flights from Mongolia primarily undertook a southeastward migration pathway, supplemented by eastward ‘cyclonic’ and southwestward paths. The main landing areas were located in North China and Northeast China, with migration events potentially extending to the Shandong, Heilongjiang, and Xinjiang provinces. Populations originating from North China exhibited a capacity for migrating into Northeast China and Mongolia through 1–5 consecutive nights of flight. During this period, the Northeast China Cold Vortex (NCCV) and the Mongolian Cyclone alternately regulated the synoptic circulation pattern governing the migration of L. sticticalis. The spatiotemporal distributions and intensities of these systems were key determinants of the transboundary migration routes and distances of L. sticticalis. The NCCV dominated, and the precipitation and downdrafts it induced were crucial for the massive landing of L. sticticalis in northern China. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Global and Regional Patterns of Insect Biodiversity)

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23 pages, 6763 KB

Open AccessArticle

First Insights into the Comparative Transcriptomic Response of Field and Laboratory Aedes aegypti Strains to Partial-Mortality Concentration (<50%) Imidacloprid and Broflanilide Exposure

by Gerardo Trujillo-Rodríguez, Mariana Lizbeth Jiménez-Martínez, José Alfonso Flores Leal, Roberto Emmanuel Huerta García, María de Lourdes Ramírez Ahuja, Iram P. Rodríguez Sanchez and Margarita L. Martínez Fierro

Insects 2026, 17(2), 217; https://doi.org/10.3390/insects17020217 - 19 Feb 2026

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Abstract

Insecticide resistance in Aedes aegypti (Linnaeus, 1762), the primary vector of several arboviruses, threatens vector control efficacy and motivates evaluation of current and candidate public health insecticides, such as imidacloprid and broflanilide, and their molecular impacts. Here, we used RNA sequencing (RNA-seq) to [...] Read more.

Insecticide resistance in Aedes aegypti (Linnaeus, 1762), the primary vector of several arboviruses, threatens vector control efficacy and motivates evaluation of current and candidate public health insecticides, such as imidacloprid and broflanilide, and their molecular impacts. Here, we used RNA sequencing (RNA-seq) to characterize the transcriptomic response to one-hour acute exposure to an operational partial-mortality concentration (<50%) of imidacloprid and broflanilide in two Ae. aegypti strains: a field-derived, pyrethroid-resistant population from San Nicolás and a susceptible laboratory strain (New Orleans). Adults were exposed for 1 h to partial-mortality concentration (<50%) doses of each insecticide or acetone control, and differential gene expression and Gene Ontology (GO) enrichment were assessed with DESeq2-based workflows. We detected pronounced baseline transcriptomic differences between strains and extensive activation of gene expression after insecticide exposure, with a strong bias toward up-regulation. A shared transcriptional core involving proteolysis, transmembrane transport, detoxification pathways, and structural remodeling of the cuticle and cytoskeleton was identified across contrasts. Despite these common elements, broflanilide elicited largely conserved early responses between strains, whereas imidacloprid amplified pre-existing divergence and produced marked population-specific transcriptional signatures. These findings suggest greater transcriptional changes in the field-derived strain, particularly in response to imidacloprid, and highlight the importance of integrating population-specific molecular information when designing insecticide rotation schemes and resistance management strategies targeting Ae. aegypti. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Insecticide Resistance in Disease Vectors: Mechanisms, Surveillance, and Control Perspectives)

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17 pages, 2288 KB

Open AccessArticle

Life History Traits and Developmental Duration of the Yellow Coster Telchinia issoria Hübner, 1819 (Lepidoptera: Nymphalidae) Under Laboratory Conditions

by Liuliu Dong, Xin Yang, Xiaoxiao Jin, Xujie Liu, Min Gao and Jie Fang

Insects 2026, 17(2), 216; https://doi.org/10.3390/insects17020216 - 19 Feb 2026

Viewed by 366

Abstract

Understanding a species’ life history is essential for assessing its adaptability and resource trade-offs under environmental stress. Given their diversity and ecological significance, Lepidoptera represent an ideal model system for studying such adaptive responses. Under controlled laboratory conditions, we quantified the life history [...] Read more.

Understanding a species’ life history is essential for assessing its adaptability and resource trade-offs under environmental stress. Given their diversity and ecological significance, Lepidoptera represent an ideal model system for studying such adaptive responses. Under controlled laboratory conditions, we quantified the life history traits of Telchinia issoria and examined their associations with key abiotic factors—temperature, humidity, and light intensity—across all developmental stages. The results showed that: (1) the complete developmental duration from egg to adult was first quantified, establishing a crucial baseline for understanding its life history strategy; (2) the egg stage exhibited the highest survival rate, whereas the eighth-instar larval stage showed the lowest; and (3) correlations with abiotic factors differed markedly across stages, indicating stage-specific environmental sensitivity. Faster larval development may be associated with higher temperature, humidity, and light intensity; pupal development with high humidity and low light; and adult lifespan with low temperature, high humidity, and dim light. These findings advance our understanding of insect developmental plasticity, supporting more accurate population models and informing insect management and biodiversity conservation under climate change. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Insect Physiology, Reproduction and Development)

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11 pages, 481 KB

Open AccessArticle

Impacts of Common Milkweed (Asclepias syriaca) Leaf Age on Larval Monarch (Danaus plexippus) Survival, Growth, Development, and Feeding Behavior

by Kelsey E. Fisher, Caleb B. Bryan, Cody Acevedo, Kevin E. Anderson, Kira M. Goldman, Karena Kulakowski, Samantha N. Shimota and Steven P. Bradbury

Insects 2026, 17(2), 215; https://doi.org/10.3390/insects17020215 - 19 Feb 2026

Viewed by 405

Abstract

Milkweed (Asclepias spp.) is the sole host plant for monarch butterfly (Danaus plexippus) larvae, yet its quality varies within and among individual plants. This study examined how leaf position, used as a proxy for leaf age, on Asclepias syriaca influences [...] Read more.

Milkweed (Asclepias spp.) is the sole host plant for monarch butterfly (Danaus plexippus) larvae, yet its quality varies within and among individual plants. This study examined how leaf position, used as a proxy for leaf age, on Asclepias syriaca influences monarch larval performance and feeding behavior. We found that younger leaves from the tops of milkweed stems had higher nitrogen levels and were easier to consume than older, lower leaves. Larvae that fed on top leaves grew larger, developed faster, and exhibited consistently higher survival rates, although the magnitude of these effects was modest. In choice bioassays, both neonates and third instars showed preference for younger leaf tissue, suggesting larvae can differentiate leaf types. These findings indicate that within-plant variation in milkweed quality can affect monarch fitness. Because milkweed quality declines as plants mature, periodic disturbance (e.g., mowing or burning) that promotes regrowth may improve leaf quality and larval performance. However, such practices involve trade-offs, including potential impacts on other species and potential disruption or diapause cues and migration timing. Selective or rotational mowing may offer a more sustainable approach by balancing regrowth benefits with preservation of natural phenological cues. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Ecology, Diversity and Conservation of Butterflies)

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19 pages, 4016 KB

Open AccessArticle

Species Composition, Natural Enemies, and Population Density of Pests in Greenhouse Banana Plantations of the Western Mediterranean Region of Türkiye

by Nurdan Topakcı

Insects 2026, 17(2), 214; https://doi.org/10.3390/insects17020214 - 18 Feb 2026

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Abstract

Banana (Musa spp.) is an economically important crop whose relevance is steadily increasing in greenhouse-based production systems. This study aimed to determine pest and natural enemy species, and pest population densities in greenhouse banana fields in the Western Mediterranean Region of Türkiye. [...] Read more.

Banana (Musa spp.) is an economically important crop whose relevance is steadily increasing in greenhouse-based production systems. This study aimed to determine pest and natural enemy species, and pest population densities in greenhouse banana fields in the Western Mediterranean Region of Türkiye. Periodic studies were conducted every 15 days in 2.4 hectares for two consecutive years (2022–2023), while nonperiodic studies covered 128.9 hectares. Species were collected through visual inspection, sticky traps, and plant sampling. Seventeen pest species from four orders and eight families were recorded: Frankliniella intonsa (Trybom 1895), Thrips hawaiiensis (Morgan), Thrips tabaci Lindeman Hercinothrips femoralis (Reuter), Pentalonia nigronervosa Coquerel, Rhopalosiphum maidis (Fitch), Brachycaudus helichrysi (Kaltenbach), Tetranychus turkestani Ugarov & Nycolsky, Tetranychus urticae Koch, Spodoptera littoralis (Boisduval), Bemisia tabaci (Gennadius), Aleyrodes sp., Planococcus citri (Risso), Dysmicoccus brevipes (Cockerell), Ceroplastes rusci (L.), Coccus hesperidum L., and Chrysomphalus aonidum (L.). Twenty-two natural enemies from six orders and thirteen families were identified. This study also provides the first Turkish records of parasitoid Coccophagus shillongensis Hayat and Singh from C. hesperidum and Encarsia aurantii (Howard) from C. aonidum. The data showed that spider mites were the most abundant pests, while phytoseiid mites were their most abundant natural enemies. This study represents an important contribution to the scarce literature on insect and mite fauna associated with banana greenhouses in the Western Mediterranean Region. The findings are expected to contribute to the development of effective and sustainable pest management strategies for greenhouse banana production. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Insect Pest and Vector Management)

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16 pages, 542 KB

Open AccessArticle

Initial Sublethal Exposure to an Argentine Bacillus thuringiensis Strain Induces Chronic Toxicity and Delayed Mortality in Alphitobius diaperinus (Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae)

by Gisele Ivonne Antonuccio, Lucas Candás and Diego Herman Sauka

Insects 2026, 17(2), 213; https://doi.org/10.3390/insects17020213 - 18 Feb 2026

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Abstract

Bacillus thuringiensis is the most extensively studied entomopathogenic bacterium worldwide; however, its sublethal effects on beetles remain poorly characterized. The aim of this study was to evaluate the toxicity of a previously selected Argentine strain of B. thuringiensis on second-instar Alphitobius diaperinus larvae [...] Read more.

Bacillus thuringiensis is the most extensively studied entomopathogenic bacterium worldwide; however, its sublethal effects on beetles remain poorly characterized. The aim of this study was to evaluate the toxicity of a previously selected Argentine strain of B. thuringiensis on second-instar Alphitobius diaperinus larvae during an initial 14 days of exposure, and to assess its effects at day 14 and throughout the remainder of the life cycle until death. Three treatments were applied: control, LC₃₀, and LC₅₀. Larval, pupal, and adult weight and body surface area were recorded, and nutritional composition was quantified using colorimetric methods. Insect status was monitored every 48–72 h over a total period of 540 days, until the death of the last individual. Among the evaluated variables, statistically significant differences between control and treatment groups were detected in larval area and weight, in the survival analysis and in two nutritional components: total protein and lipid content per larva. Overall, the results demonstrate that initial sublethal exposure to B. thuringiensis induces chronic lethal effects with delayed mortality in A. diaperinus, indicating irreversible physiological damage. This provides valuable information not only for understanding the biology of this insect but also for stakeholders involved in the productive scaling of beetle-targeted bioinputs. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Selected Papers from the Second International Electronic Conference on Entomology)

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22 pages, 16264 KB

Open AccessArticle

Consequences of the Loss of the Clicking Mechanism: A Study of Thoracic Functional Morphology in Plastocerus thoracicus Fleutiaux, 1918 (Coleoptera: Elateridae)

by Liya Ma, Kexin Sun, Yongying Ruan, Mengna Zhang, Robin Kundrata, Lei Liu, Lu Qiu, Vincent A. D. Hervet and Yang Liu

Insects 2026, 17(2), 212; https://doi.org/10.3390/insects17020212 - 18 Feb 2026

Viewed by 373

Abstract

Elateridae (Coleoptera: Elateroidea) are renowned for their clicking mechanism. However, several lineages exhibit body softening that compromises this mechanism, particularly within Plastocerini, Drilini, and Omalisinae. It remains unclear how this body softening is anatomically achieved and which specific structures are degraded in relation [...] Read more.

Elateridae (Coleoptera: Elateroidea) are renowned for their clicking mechanism. However, several lineages exhibit body softening that compromises this mechanism, particularly within Plastocerini, Drilini, and Omalisinae. It remains unclear how this body softening is anatomically achieved and which specific structures are degraded in relation to the loss of clicking function. To elucidate the internal morphological adaptations and distinguish them from hard-bodied clicking elateroids, we employed micro-CT to scan Plastocerus thoracicus and reconstruct its thoracic morphology in 3D and quantified key muscle ratios (e.g., M2/M60, M4/M60). Based on our study of P. thoracicus, a detailed comparison was made with previously reported data on Campsosternus auratus (Elateridae) and Cerophytum lii (Cerophytidae). Three-dimensional reconstructions revealed significant structural divergences in P. thoracicus: (1) the clicking-related muscles M4 are markedly weaker than those in Ca. auratus and Ce. Lii. (2) the prosternal process (PP) is extremely narrow. The posterior part of the pronotum exhibits underdeveloped regions, including the posterodorsal evagination (PdE) and the posteromedial process (PmPr). (3) the mesonotum (i.e., the “biological spring” identified in previous studies) is greatly flattened and weakened. (4) the flight muscles (M60, M64) and walking muscles (M74, M75) exhibited significantly bigger volume than Ca. auratus and Ce. lii. These findings provide critical data for understanding the morphological evolution of Elateridae and offer insights into the functional adaptations of the clicking mechanism through comparative anatomy. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Revival of a Prominent Taxonomy of Insects—2nd Edition)

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22 pages, 3781 KB

Open AccessArticle

Mowing Enhances Insect Resistance in Glycyrrhiza uralensis by Reprogramming Volatile Profiles and Inducing Flavonoid Accumulation

by Zhenghui Guan, Wenjia Gao, Hui Duan and Xiushuang Wang

Insects 2026, 17(2), 211; https://doi.org/10.3390/insects17020211 - 17 Feb 2026

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Abstract

Mowing is a widely used agricultural management practice, yet its role in shaping plant–insect interactions remains largely unexplored. In this study, we investigated how mowing influences resistance of licorice (Glycyrrhiza uralensis) to the whitefly Bemisia tabaci by integrating behavioral assays with [...] Read more.

Mowing is a widely used agricultural management practice, yet its role in shaping plant–insect interactions remains largely unexplored. In this study, we investigated how mowing influences resistance of licorice (Glycyrrhiza uralensis) to the whitefly Bemisia tabaci by integrating behavioral assays with volatile analysis, transcriptomics, and metabolomics. Feeding preference assays showed that adult whiteflies strongly preferred new plants over mowed plants. Developmental assays further revealed that whiteflies exhibited a prolonged egg stage and extended egg-to-adult developmental duration on mowed plants, while adult longevity was not significantly affected. Gas chromatography–mass spectrometry analysis identified 31 volatile compounds in licorice, with alcohols dominating the volatile profile of new plants and terpenoids dominating that of mowed plants. Whitefly infestation significantly increased ester compounds in both plant types. Differential volatile analysis highlighted cis-3-hexen-1-ol and trans-3-hexen-1-ol as dominant compounds in new plants, whereas 3-carene and β-pinene were predominant in mowed plants. Transcriptomic analysis revealed that mowing primarily affected genes associated with primary metabolism and ribosome-related pathways, whereas whitefly infestation induced extensive transcriptional reprogramming, including activation of flavonoid biosynthesis, flavone and flavonol biosynthesis, MAPK signaling, and plant circadian rhythm pathways. Metabolomic profiling identified substantial accumulation of flavonoids, flavonols, and isoflavonoids following whitefly feeding. Integrated multi-omics analysis identified flavonol biosynthesis as a core pathway underlying licorice defense against B. tabaci. Overall, this study demonstrates that mowing primes G. uralensis for enhanced resistance to whitefly infestation by reshaping volatile emissions, activating secondary metabolite biosynthesis, and inducing coordinated defense signaling networks. These findings provide new insights into plant–insect interactions and highlight mowing as a potential component of sustainable pest management strategies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Insect Pest and Vector Management)

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17 pages, 2474 KB

Open AccessArticle

Endophytic Beauveria bassiana Blastospores Enhance Susceptibility of Ostrinia furnacalis to Chlorantraniliprole via Modulating Immune-Related Pathways

by Xiaohui Dong, Yafeng Zhang, Li Sui, Qiyun Li and Zhengkun Zhang

Insects 2026, 17(2), 210; https://doi.org/10.3390/insects17020210 - 17 Feb 2026

Viewed by 388

Abstract

Endophytic colonization by entomopathogenic fungi represents a promising sustainable pest management strategy. This study investigated the physiological and molecular effects of maize endophytically colonized by Beauveria bassiana (strain BbOFDH1-5) conidia and blastospores on the Asian corn borer, Ostrinia furnacalis. We evaluated larval [...] Read more.

Endophytic colonization by entomopathogenic fungi represents a promising sustainable pest management strategy. This study investigated the physiological and molecular effects of maize endophytically colonized by Beauveria bassiana (strain BbOFDH1-5) conidia and blastospores on the Asian corn borer, Ostrinia furnacalis. We evaluated larval development, protective enzyme activities, and subsequent susceptibility to the insecticide chlorantraniliprole, utilizing gut transcriptomic analysis to elucidate the underlying mechanism. Results demonstrated that larvae fed on maize colonized by either spore type, particularly blastospores, exhibited significantly reduced food consumption, body weight, and survival rates. Additionally, the activities of protective enzymes (SOD, POD, CAT) were markedly suppressed. Feeding on blastospore-colonized maize significantly increased larval susceptibility to chlorantraniliprole. Transcriptomic analysis revealed that this enhanced sensitivity is linked to the downregulation of detoxification-related genes, ABCC4, and the upregulation of stress-response genes such as HSP70. These findings confirm that B. bassiana blastospores can synergistically enhance the efficacy of chemical insecticides by impairing larval physiology and suppressing gut-associated resistance mechanisms, providing a novel basis for integrated pest management. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Insect Pest and Vector Management)

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14 pages, 5003 KB

Open AccessArticle

Single-Cell Deconvolution Reveals Phenotype-Associated Cellular States in the Silk Glands of Bombyx mori and Its Wild Ancestor

by Yan Ma, Zhiyong Zhang, Zhou Fang, Yiyun Tang, Zehui Ma, Lin Cheng, Xin Yu, Dena Jiang, Xiao Li and Hanfu Xu

Insects 2026, 17(2), 209; https://doi.org/10.3390/insects17020209 - 17 Feb 2026

Viewed by 376

Abstract

Silk production is a classic example of a domestication trait, yet the cell-type-specific driver of its enhancement in the silkworm Bombyx mori remains unresolved. To address this, we integrated extensive bulk RNA-seq data with a single-nucleus RNA-seq atlas of silk glands (SGs) from [...] Read more.

Silk production is a classic example of a domestication trait, yet the cell-type-specific driver of its enhancement in the silkworm Bombyx mori remains unresolved. To address this, we integrated extensive bulk RNA-seq data with a single-nucleus RNA-seq atlas of silk glands (SGs) from domestic B. mori and wild B. mandarina for deconvolution analysis. This identified phenotype-associated cell subpopulations (Scissor+ and Scissor− cells) that enrich in B. mori and B. mandarina, respectively. Transcriptomic characterization revealed that B. mori SG cells exhibit a pervasive “pro-synthesis” transcriptional state, with concerted upregulation of silk protein genes and metabolic pathways. Conversely, B. mandarina cells maintained a “protective–adaptive” state, enriched for stress response and xenobiotic metabolism genes. Pseudotime analysis further delineated the cell state transitions, pinpointing key dynamic gene expression linked to high silk yield. Our findings demonstrate that domestication reshaped the silk gland cellular landscape, promoting a systemic shift toward a synthesis-optimized cell state. This study offers a new framework at the cellular level to elucidate the evolution of complex traits under selection. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Insect Transcriptomics)

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21 pages, 17214 KB

Open AccessArticle

Beyond Rensch’s Rule: Prevalent Female-Biased Size Dimorphism and Its Allometric Scaling in Cassidinae Beetles

by Jialong Wang, Yuru Yang, Chaokun Yang, Chengqing Liao, Jiasheng Xu, Qingyun Guo and Xiaohua Dai

Insects 2026, 17(2), 208; https://doi.org/10.3390/insects17020208 - 16 Feb 2026

Viewed by 470

Abstract

Body size is a key trait influencing life history and ecological adaptation, and sexual size dimorphism (SSD) reflects divergent selective pressures acting on males and females. In morphologically conserved insect groups such as Cassidinae leaf beetles, the external similarity between sexes often impedes [...] Read more.

Body size is a key trait influencing life history and ecological adaptation, and sexual size dimorphism (SSD) reflects divergent selective pressures acting on males and females. In morphologically conserved insect groups such as Cassidinae leaf beetles, the external similarity between sexes often impedes accurate dimorphism assessment. To address this, we conducted a systematic morphometric study of ten Cassidinae species from the Nanling Mountains—the largest east–west mountain system in southern China—where we definitively assigned sex via genital dissection. We measured body weight, body length, body width, length–width ratio, and corresponding wing traits. Across all species, SSD was consistently female biased, with statistically significant but subtle differences in most traits; body weight exhibited the greatest relative disparity. While this pattern aligns with the fecundity advantage hypothesis, direct fecundity data were not collected. Crucially, interspecific allometric analyses revealed that the scaling of male and female body sizes was statistically indistinguishable from that of isometry, providing no significant support for Rensch’s rule in this female-biased system. Our findings offer foundational insights into SSD evolution in cryptically dimorphic, herbivorous beetles and highlight the need for phylogenetically informed studies across broader geographic and taxonomic scales. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Beetles: Biology, Ecology, and Integrated Management)

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35 pages, 3301 KB

Open AccessReview

Exploring the Structure–Activity Relationships and Molecular Mechanisms of Black Soldier Fly-Derived Antimicrobial Peptides with AI Insights

by Muhammad Raheel Tariq, Hui Wang, Shaojuan Liu, Ilaria Armenia, Gianluca Tettamanti, Shakal Khan Korai, Haiwen Lin, Chaozhong Zheng, Yanwen Liang, Jianguang Qin, Youming Liu, Muhammad Qasim, Muhammad Asif Ismail and Fei Wang

Insects 2026, 17(2), 207; https://doi.org/10.3390/insects17020207 - 15 Feb 2026

Viewed by 572

Abstract

Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) was associated with 4.95 million deaths in 2019 and may cause 10 million deaths annually by 2050. We synthesize evidence on how the black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens) has evolved an expanded antimicrobial peptide (AMP) repertoire, which structural [...] Read more.

Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) was associated with 4.95 million deaths in 2019 and may cause 10 million deaths annually by 2050. We synthesize evidence on how the black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens) has evolved an expanded antimicrobial peptide (AMP) repertoire, which structural features drive family-specific activity, what mechanisms are directly demonstrated in H. illucens, and how AI contributes. PubMed, Web of Science, and Scopus (plus targeted Google Scholar) were searched from inception to 1 February 2026; studies were included when they reported BSF peptide identities, expression/proteomics, evolutionary analyses, quantitative activity, mechanistic assays, or BSF-focused computation, and claims were tiered as predicted, expression-supported, or experimentally supported. The literature supports 50–80 BSF AMP genes, plausibly shaped by gene duplication and balancing/diversifying selection in microbe-rich substrates, with marked induction plasticity across tissues, development, diet, and challenge. SAR is family-dependent: defensin-like peptides rely on disulfide-stabilized CSαβ folds and cationic surface topology; cecropin-like peptides on amphipathic α-helices with selectivity trade-offs; attacin-like peptides on β-architecture where charge-based heuristics are weak; and diptericin/proline-rich peptides remain largely inference-driven in BSF. Mechanistic evidence is strongest for membrane/envelope-centered killing by DLP4 and pore-associated envelope disruption by a recombinant attacin-like peptide, whereas pore geometry, oligomerization, intracellular targets, and broad “resistance-proof” claims remain unresolved. Key gaps include assay heterogeneity, salt/serum stability, selectivity/toxicity, resistance-risk testing, and limited in vivo validation, which must be addressed for credible AMR-relevant translation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Immunological Insights for Insect Mass Rearing, Biocontrol, and Monitoring of Environmental Changes)

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13 pages, 1276 KB

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DDX3 Regulates Reproduction in Locusta migratoria Potentially via Insulin/Insulin-like Growth Factor Signaling

by Yi Jin, Jiaying Xu, Zeming Yuan, Huazhang Zhao, Shijia Yang, Yutong Wang, Bin Tang, Junce Tian and Shigui Wang

Insects 2026, 17(2), 206; https://doi.org/10.3390/insects17020206 - 14 Feb 2026

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Abstract

Locusta migratoria (Orthoptera: Acrididae) is a major agricultural pest, characterized by its strong reproductive capacity and rapid reproduction rate. Consequently, identifying novel targets to control or reduce the fecundity of locusts is of significant practical importance. Insulin/insulin-like growth factor signaling (IIS) and the [...] Read more.

Locusta migratoria (Orthoptera: Acrididae) is a major agricultural pest, characterized by its strong reproductive capacity and rapid reproduction rate. Consequently, identifying novel targets to control or reduce the fecundity of locusts is of significant practical importance. Insulin/insulin-like growth factor signaling (IIS) and the DEAD-box RNA helicase 3 (DDX3) exhibit extensive functional convergence; both govern key life-history traits in insects, including lifespan, metabolic homeostasis, and fecundity. Strikingly, each pathway can influence oogenesis through Notch signaling. Thus, we hypothesize that DDX3 may modulate insect reproduction associated with this pathway. After silencing DDX3 through RNA interference (RNAi), we found that the key genes of IIS were significantly downregulated and the content of trehalose and glycogen decreased significantly, proving that DDX3 inhibits reproduction associated with IIS. In addition, DDX3 interference led to a marked reduction in the mRNA expression of Vgs (VgA/B) and JHAMT, which was accompanied by a significant decrease in ovarian development. Furthermore, integrating our previous findings, we posit that DDX3 engages in locust reproduction via the regulation of pivotal IIS pathway genes such as InR and FOXO, thereby completing the putative regulatory circuitry through which DDX3 modulates reproductive processes. Our findings deepen the understanding of the endogenous circuitry governing locust reproduction and provide novel theoretical justification for targeting DDX3 in locust management strategies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Insect Molecular Biology and Genomics)

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16 pages, 7916 KB

Open AccessArticle

Dopamine Enhances Healthspan and Locomotor Performance via Antioxidant Defense in Silkworms, Bombyx mori

by Songzhen He, Wenhao Yang, Hai Hu, Fangyin Dai and Xiaoling Tong

Insects 2026, 17(2), 205; https://doi.org/10.3390/insects17020205 - 14 Feb 2026

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Abstract

The impact of dopamine on aging is complex and context-dependent. This study systematically investigated the effects of dopamine levels on the lifespan and behavior of the silkworm moth by employing genetic mutants of the dopamine synthesis/metabolic pathway combined with pharmacological interventions. The results [...] Read more.

The impact of dopamine on aging is complex and context-dependent. This study systematically investigated the effects of dopamine levels on the lifespan and behavior of the silkworm moth by employing genetic mutants of the dopamine synthesis/metabolic pathway combined with pharmacological interventions. The results demonstrated a significant positive correlation between endogenous dopamine levels and adult lifespan. Reducing dopamine levels shortened lifespan, whereas a moderate peripheral administration significantly extended healthspan, improved locomotor activity, and restored motor vigor in aged moths, though an excessive dose was toxic. The lifespan-extending effect of dopamine was closely correlated with enhanced total antioxidant capacity, observed in both long-lived strains and dopamine-treated individuals. Dopamine’s effects also exhibited sexual dimorphism and age dependency. This research reveals that a moderate increase in systemic endogenous dopamine or peripheral dopamine administration exerts positive effects on lifespan and aging-related behaviors, an effect likely mediated by enhanced antioxidant defense. These findings not only advance our understanding of the role of dopamine in the aging process but also provide a novel theoretical framework for developing anti-aging therapies and breeding superior silkworm strains. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Insect Physiology, Reproduction and Development)

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17 pages, 18842 KB

Open AccessArticle

Did Cold Resistance Influence the Success of the Halobiont Darkling Beetle Centorus rufipes (Coleoptera, Tenebrionidae) During the Pleistocene?

by Roman Yu. Dudko, Anna A. Gurina, Arcady V. Alfimov, Natalia I. Agrikolyanskaya, Ilya I. Lyubechanskii, Ekaterina N. Meshcheryakova, Sergei V. Reshetnikov, Andrei A. Legalov and Daniil I. Berman

Insects 2026, 17(2), 204; https://doi.org/10.3390/insects17020204 - 14 Feb 2026

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Abstract

Centorus rufipes (Gebler, 1833) is the only tenebrionid beetle commonly found in late Pleistocene deposits of southern western Siberia. It is assumed that the reasons for its success during the Last Glacial Maximum could have been its cold resistance and/or the relatively mild [...] Read more.

Centorus rufipes (Gebler, 1833) is the only tenebrionid beetle commonly found in late Pleistocene deposits of southern western Siberia. It is assumed that the reasons for its success during the Last Glacial Maximum could have been its cold resistance and/or the relatively mild conditions of its habitat, the shores of salt lakes. The cold resistance parameters of C. rufipes and their overwintering conditions were studied near Kusgan Lake (Novosibirsk Oblast, Russia). Adults and larvae of this species used a supercooling mechanism to protect themselves from sub-zero temperatures and did not tolerate freezing, just like other steppe species of Tenebrionidae. The supercooling point (SCP) for most of the individuals was around −31 °C. Measurements of low lethal temperatures (LLT) showed that 50% of individuals died after 2 days of exposure to −27 °C. The measured SCP and LLT were at least 5 °C lower than darkling beetle species from the Chuya Depression of the Altai, which is known for its extreme winter temperatures. Thus, the hypothesis of increased cold resistance of C. rufipes was confirmed. No warming effect of its salt lakeside habitats was detected. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Insect Ecology, Diversity and Conservation)

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14 pages, 1187 KB

Open AccessArticle

Flight Characteristics of Bactrocera dorsalis Associated with Long-Distance Migration

by Naoya Hidaka, Kohei Nishiya, Yudai Masuoka, Akiya Jouraku, Yong-Jun Yang, Chia-Jung Ho, Yu-Bing Huang and Akira Otuka

Insects 2026, 17(2), 203; https://doi.org/10.3390/insects17020203 - 14 Feb 2026

Viewed by 411

Abstract

Recently, individuals of the oriental fruit fly and its relatives (Bactrocera dorsalis complex)—previously eradicated in Japan—have occasionally been captured in surveillance traps in the Kyushu District of western Japan, suggesting possible overseas migration. However, as this species generally is not considered capable [...] Read more.

Recently, individuals of the oriental fruit fly and its relatives (Bactrocera dorsalis complex)—previously eradicated in Japan—have occasionally been captured in surveillance traps in the Kyushu District of western Japan, suggesting possible overseas migration. However, as this species generally is not considered capable of long-distance flight, its potential for overseas migration remains largely unexplored. Moreover, this emerging situation in East Asia poses an increasing risk to agricultural industries, highlighting the need to develop a migration prediction model to provide early warnings of their arrival, for which understanding the species’ flight characteristics is essential. In this study, flight experiments were conducted using young first-generation adults that emerged from larvae collected in Taiwan. Outdoor observations revealed that B. dorsalis actively initiates flight around 10:00 and sunset. Flight mill experiments under varying temperature conditions indicated that flight activity ceased at temperatures between 16.2 and 16.5 °C. Furthermore, a 24-h flight test demonstrated that some individuals were capable of sustaining flight for over 7 h, suggesting a potential capacity for long-distance migration. These findings contribute to the development of a migration flight model and enhance our understanding of the flight behavior associated with long-distance migration in B. dorsalis. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fly Biology, Ecology, Behavior and Management—2nd Edition)

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34 pages, 1344 KB

Open AccessReview

Renaming the ‘OS-D/CSP’ Family (Part 1): ‘4-Cysteine Soluble Proteins’ (4CSPs)—Molecular Nomenclature, Structure, Expression, Evolution, Tissue-Distribution, and Pleiotropy

by Guoxia Liu, Botong Sun, Wei Fan, Shousong Yue, Qiuxia He and Jean-François Picimbon

Insects 2026, 17(2), 202; https://doi.org/10.3390/insects17020202 - 13 Feb 2026

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 407

Abstract

Chemosensory proteins (CSPs) are found in the olfactory sensory organs (antennae and maxillary palps) and/or gustatory sensory organs (labellum and legs) and have long been accepted to function through the binding of odorants. However, the same CSPs are also expressed in many tissues [...] Read more.

Chemosensory proteins (CSPs) are found in the olfactory sensory organs (antennae and maxillary palps) and/or gustatory sensory organs (labellum and legs) and have long been accepted to function through the binding of odorants. However, the same CSPs are also expressed in many tissues other than olfactory and gustatory organs, such as the gut, brain, fat body, wing, epidermis, Corpora allata, salivary gland, pheromone gland, prothoracic gland, etc. In this report, we suggest renaming the “chemosensory protein (CSP)” the “4-Cysteine Soluble Protein (4CSP)”. This paradigm and nomenclature shift is based on molecular characteristics, genomic mining, tissue distribution, and functional roles beyond those related to olfaction. We examined prior studies on this protein gene family to bolster the renaming, highlighting the most recent findings that we ascribe to “pleiotropic properties” and evolutionary relevance rather than smell. The scope of the report, per se, is broad, and this is especially true given the volume of data that has been gathered on 4CSP expressed in ways that are not consistent with the olfactory paradigm. Statements outlining the many chemosensory properties of 4CSPs, particularly how they activate olfactory receptor neurons (ORNs), are currently scarce, if they exist at all. Many debates currently focus on 4CSPs’ non-chemosensory functions, which are backed by a multitude of evidence, from gene evolution to tissue distribution. Therefore, strong arguments in favor of renaming chemosensory proteins are becoming evident here, outweighing the drawbacks. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Insect Physiology, Reproduction and Development)

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