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Insects
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Insecticide Resistance in Disease Vectors: Mechanisms, Surveillance, and Control Perspectives
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Insecticide Resistance in Disease Vectors: Mechanisms, Surveillance, and Control Perspectives

A special issue of Insects (ISSN 2075-4450). This special issue belongs to the section "Insect Pest and Vector Management".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (31 July 2026) | Viewed by 7276

Editor

Dr. Ademir J. Martins

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Laboratóro de Biologia, Controle e Vigilância de Insetos Vetores, Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, FIORUZ, Rio de Janeiro CEP 21040-360, RJ, Brazil
Interests: vector control; entomology; public health; genetics; evolutionary biology

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Insecticide resistance is a growing global concern that threatens the effectiveness of vector control programs, particularly in regions where vector-borne diseases remain endemic and chemical control remains a cornerstone of public health efforts. Although promising alternative strategies—such as the release of sterile insects, the use of endosymbiotic bacteria, and entomopathogenic microorganisms—are being implemented worldwide, synthetic insecticides are still indispensable due to their rapid impact on vector populations and their cost-effectiveness in many tropical and subtropical countries.

Insecticide resistance is a complex and evolving phenomenon that intersects multiple scientific fields, including ecology, genetics, evolution, physiology, and biochemistry. Despite decades of study, numerous knowledge gaps remain, particularly regarding the effects of climate change and the interaction of new control strategies with resistant vector populations.

This Special Issue, “Insecticide Resistance in Disease Vectors: Mechanisms, Surveillance, and Control Perspectives”, seeks to gather innovative research and critical reviews from around the world on all aspects of insecticide resistance in vectors of public health importance. Contributions from all five continents are welcome, including original research, review articles, and opinion pieces. We encourage submissions on topics including, but not limited to:

  1. Molecular and physiological mechanisms of insecticide resistance in disease vectors;
  2. Evolutionary dynamics and genetic basis of resistance;
  3. Global and regional resistance monitoring and surveillance programs;
  4. Impact of environmental change and urbanization on resistance evolution;
  5. Interaction between new vector control tools and resistant populations;
  6. Modeling and risk assessment of resistance spread;
  7. Operational challenges and integrated strategies for managing resistance.

Dr. Ademir J. Martins
Guest Editor

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 250 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for assessment.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-anonymized peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Insects is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2600 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • insecticide resistance
  • genetic adaptations
  • behavioral changes
  • physiological alterations
  • insecticide target-site mutations
  • cuticle composition changes
  • surveillance and monitoring
  • climate change and vector ecology
  • alternative control strategies

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Published Papers (6 papers)

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Research

Jump to: Review

17 pages, 935 KB  
Article
Allelic Survey and Population Genomics in a Hotspot of Diflubenzuron Resistance in the Mosquito Culex pipiens
by Flavio Piras, Valentina Lucchesi, Arianna Puggioli, Romeo Bellini, Daniele Porretta and Valentina Mastrantonio
Insects 2026, 17(8), 877; https://doi.org/10.3390/insects17080877 - 21 Aug 2026
Abstract
The long-term efficacy of vector control programs is seriously hampered by the evolution of insecticide resistance. In this scenario, assessing the distribution, frequency, and drivers of resistance spread is crucial to planning effective control programs. Here, we addressed these issues in the mosquito [...] Read more.
The long-term efficacy of vector control programs is seriously hampered by the evolution of insecticide resistance. In this scenario, assessing the distribution, frequency, and drivers of resistance spread is crucial to planning effective control programs. Here, we addressed these issues in the mosquito Culex pipiens, focusing on the Emilia-Romagna region (Italy), a known hotspot of diflubenzuron (DFB) resistance. First, Cx. pipiens larvae were screened for point mutations conferring DFB resistance to capture the distribution and frequency of resistance-associated alleles across the region. To this end, a fragment of the chitin synthase 1 gene spanning the mutated site was sequenced. Then, by using population genomics, we investigated the vector population structure in this area. Our findings revealed that resistance-associated alleles maintain a focal geographic distribution in the region, with higher mutation frequencies in the central-eastern than in the western provinces. Also, we observed that the populations of Cx. pipiens are a highly homogeneous gene pool and can be interconnected across the region, highlighting the risk of resistance alleles spread across Emilia-Romagna. Overall, this study stresses the importance of systematically surveying resistance-associated alleles and their integration with population genomic data to gain relevant information for resistance management. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Insecticide Resistance in Disease Vectors: Mechanisms, Surveillance, and Control Perspectives)
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11 pages, 3083 KB  
Article
Establishment of a Stable Anopheles melas Laboratory Colony for the First Time and Characterization of Its Pyrethroid Resistance Profile in Senegal
by Mohamed Abderemane Nourdine, Pape Cheikh Sarr, Abdoulaye Niang, Assane Ndiaye, Lina Ibrahim Abdallah, Idrissa Yèro Sarr, Lassana Konaté, Ousmane Faye, Oumar Gaye, Ellen M. Dotson, El Hadji Amadou Niang and Ousmane Sy
Insects 2026, 17(8), 763; https://doi.org/10.3390/insects17080763 - 25 Jul 2026
Viewed by 515
Abstract
In Senegal, scaling up vector control has significantly reduced malaria, but coastal transmission remains a challenge due to secondary vectors like Anopheles melas. This exophilic and zoophilic species evades conventional indoor interventions, yet its bionomics and insecticide resistance profiles remain poorly characterized [...] Read more.
In Senegal, scaling up vector control has significantly reduced malaria, but coastal transmission remains a challenge due to secondary vectors like Anopheles melas. This exophilic and zoophilic species evades conventional indoor interventions, yet its bionomics and insecticide resistance profiles remain poorly characterized due to difficulties in laboratory colonization. Anopheles melas larvae were collected from brackish breeding sites in Mbine Coly (Mbour District). A laboratory colony was established from 26 PCR-confirmed founder females and stabilized up to the F17 generation by optimizing water salinity (10 g/L) and transitioning to communal oviposition. Standardized WHO tube bioassays were conducted on generations F2 to F9 to evaluate susceptibility to pyrethroids, organophosphates, and carbamates, alongside synergist tests using 4% piperonyl butoxide (PBO). The colony showed confirmed resistance to alpha-cypermethrin (81.7% mortality) and suspected resistance to deltamethrin (91.3%) and permethrin (94.3%). Pre-exposure to PBO fully restored susceptibility to deltamethrin and permethrin (100%), and significantly increased alpha-cypermethrin mortality to 96.3% (p < 0.001). While metabolic resistance typically involves multiple enzyme families including cytochrome P450s, glutathione S-transferases (GSTs), and esterases, these synergist results demonstrate a predominant role of cytochrome P450-mediated detoxification pathways in this population. Moderate-intensity resistance was confirmed for alpha-cypermethrin at 5× diagnostic doses. Conversely, the population was 100% susceptible to pirimiphos-methyl and bendiocarb. This study reports the successful long-term colonization of a wild An. melas strain for the first time and provides the first comprehensive evidence of multi-insecticide resistance in this population. The presence of high-intensity, metabolic pyrethroid resistance strongly justifies the immediate deployment of next-generation PBO-LLINs and the integration of organophosphates or carbamates in indoor residual spraying rotations to manage resistance in coastal Senegal. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Insecticide Resistance in Disease Vectors: Mechanisms, Surveillance, and Control Perspectives)
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18 pages, 797 KB  
Article
Evaluation of Insecticide Resistance in Aedes albopictus Population from Algiers, Algeria
by Rym Bouledroua, Amira Nebbak, Nicolas Gomez, Zakaria Abdellahoum, Mustapha Mounir Bouhenna, Slimane Boukraa, Khaldoun Bachari, Philippe Parola, Sébastien Briolant and Lionel Almeras
Insects 2026, 17(7), 696; https://doi.org/10.3390/insects17070696 - 4 Jul 2026
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Abstract
Since its first detection in 2010, Aedes albopictus has spread across northern Algeria, where vector control relies on the use of chemical insecticides. This study aimed to evaluate the susceptibility of Ae. albopictus populations from Algiers to commonly used larvicides and adulticides, as [...] Read more.
Since its first detection in 2010, Aedes albopictus has spread across northern Algeria, where vector control relies on the use of chemical insecticides. This study aimed to evaluate the susceptibility of Ae. albopictus populations from Algiers to commonly used larvicides and adulticides, as well as to characterize the underlying resistance mechanisms. Eggs were collected from three sites in Algiers. The susceptibility of larvae to temephos and Bacillus thuringiensis israelensis (Bti), as well as that of adults to permethrin, deltamethrin, malathion, and bendiocarb was evaluated using WHO bioassays. Genotyping of knockdown resistance (kdr) mutations was performed via PCR and sequencing. Metabolic resistance mechanisms were investigated using CDC bottle bioassays. The larvae were found to be susceptible to temephos and Bti. Bioassays on adults demonstrated susceptibility to deltamethrin, suspected resistance to permethrin, and resistance to malathion and bendiocarb. Genotyping revealed low frequencies of heterozygous kdr mutations (V1016G, I1532T, F1534C/S). Synergist assays highlighted the key role of esterases in malathion resistance, a minimal involvement of glutathione S-transferases and an unexpected antagonistic effect of cytochrome P450 monooxygenases. Although larvicides remain effective, resistance to organophosphates, carbamates, as well as suspected resistance to permethrin, has been detected. Esterase-mediated metabolic resistance and kdr mutations may contribute to this profile. These findings highlight the need for resistance monitoring and integrated vector control to ensure sustainable control of Ae. albopictus. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Insecticide Resistance in Disease Vectors: Mechanisms, Surveillance, and Control Perspectives)
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12 pages, 1652 KB  
Article
Resistance to S-Methoprene Correlates with Pyriproxyfen Resistance in Field-Collected Culex pipiens
by Kristina Lopez, Patrick Irwin, Lyric C. Bartholomay and Mark E. Clifton
Insects 2026, 17(3), 241; https://doi.org/10.3390/insects17030241 - 26 Feb 2026
Viewed by 1436
Abstract
The increasing prevalence of insecticide resistance threatens the efficacy of Integrated Mosquito Management (IMM) programs, particularly in regions reliant on chemical control for vector-borne disease prevention. Cross-resistance between active ingredients severely complicates essential resistance management strategies like product rotation. The previous literature suggests [...] Read more.
The increasing prevalence of insecticide resistance threatens the efficacy of Integrated Mosquito Management (IMM) programs, particularly in regions reliant on chemical control for vector-borne disease prevention. Cross-resistance between active ingredients severely complicates essential resistance management strategies like product rotation. The previous literature suggests that laboratory-induced S-methoprene-resistant Culex species may be somewhat cross-resistant to pyriproxyfen, another juvenile hormone analog. This is a critical concern in the Chicago, IL, USA metropolitan area, where pyriproxyfen is used against mosquitoes with reduced susceptibility to S-methoprene. To determine if S-methoprene-resistant Culex pipiens are cross-resistant to pyriproxyfen in nature, we assessed 31 field-collected populations with significant S-methoprene exposure but varying histories of pyriproxyfen use by dose–response bioassays. Culex pipiens from all 31 sites exhibited high resistance to S-methoprene (RR50 > 10), and 84% were at least moderately resistant to pyriproxyfen (RR50 > 5). Reduced susceptibility to pyriproxyfen was confirmed in pyriproxyfen-unexposed populations, demonstrating potential S-methoprene-mediated cross-resistance. The level of S-methoprene resistance and the level of pyriproxyfen exposure significantly correlated with the level of pyriproxyfen resistance. We report the first widespread, high-level pyriproxyfen resistance in any medically significant mosquito species, underscoring the critical need for routine resistance surveillance and the adoption of integrated resistance management tactics utilizing larvicides with distinct modes of action. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Insecticide Resistance in Disease Vectors: Mechanisms, Surveillance, and Control Perspectives)
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23 pages, 6763 KB  
Article
First Insights into the Comparative Transcriptomic Response of Field and Laboratory Aedes aegypti Strains to Partial-Mortality Concentration (<50%) Imidacloprid and Broflanilide Exposure
by Gerardo Trujillo-Rodríguez, Mariana Lizbeth Jiménez-Martínez, José Alfonso Flores Leal, Roberto Emmanuel Huerta García, María de Lourdes Ramírez Ahuja, Iram P. Rodríguez Sanchez and Margarita L. Martínez Fierro
Insects 2026, 17(2), 217; https://doi.org/10.3390/insects17020217 - 19 Feb 2026
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1289
Abstract
Insecticide resistance in Aedes aegypti (Linnaeus, 1762), the primary vector of several arboviruses, threatens vector control efficacy and motivates evaluation of current and candidate public health insecticides, such as imidacloprid and broflanilide, and their molecular impacts. Here, we used RNA sequencing (RNA-seq) to [...] Read more.
Insecticide resistance in Aedes aegypti (Linnaeus, 1762), the primary vector of several arboviruses, threatens vector control efficacy and motivates evaluation of current and candidate public health insecticides, such as imidacloprid and broflanilide, and their molecular impacts. Here, we used RNA sequencing (RNA-seq) to characterize the transcriptomic response to one-hour acute exposure to an operational partial-mortality concentration (<50%) of imidacloprid and broflanilide in two Ae. aegypti strains: a field-derived, pyrethroid-resistant population from San Nicolás and a susceptible laboratory strain (New Orleans). Adults were exposed for 1 h to partial-mortality concentration (<50%) doses of each insecticide or acetone control, and differential gene expression and Gene Ontology (GO) enrichment were assessed with DESeq2-based workflows. We detected pronounced baseline transcriptomic differences between strains and extensive activation of gene expression after insecticide exposure, with a strong bias toward up-regulation. A shared transcriptional core involving proteolysis, transmembrane transport, detoxification pathways, and structural remodeling of the cuticle and cytoskeleton was identified across contrasts. Despite these common elements, broflanilide elicited largely conserved early responses between strains, whereas imidacloprid amplified pre-existing divergence and produced marked population-specific transcriptional signatures. These findings suggest greater transcriptional changes in the field-derived strain, particularly in response to imidacloprid, and highlight the importance of integrating population-specific molecular information when designing insecticide rotation schemes and resistance management strategies targeting Ae. aegypti. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Insecticide Resistance in Disease Vectors: Mechanisms, Surveillance, and Control Perspectives)
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Review

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28 pages, 1333 KB  
Review
Current Knowledge on Insecticide Resistance in Aedes albopictus (Skuse, 1894) in Latin America and the Caribbean Nations
by João Simão Silva Gonçalves, Ademir J. Martins, Vincent Corbel, Laura Harburguer, Christian R. Gonzalez, Cynara Melo Rodovalho and José Bento Pereira Lima
Insects 2026, 17(3), 264; https://doi.org/10.3390/insects17030264 - 1 Mar 2026
Viewed by 1868
Abstract
Aedes albopictus is an important vector of several arboviruses and has expanded its distribution throughout Latin America and the Caribbean in recent decades. Despite its increasing epidemiological relevance, data on insecticide resistance in this region remain limited compared to Aedes aegypti. This [...] Read more.
Aedes albopictus is an important vector of several arboviruses and has expanded its distribution throughout Latin America and the Caribbean in recent decades. Despite its increasing epidemiological relevance, data on insecticide resistance in this region remain limited compared to Aedes aegypti. This review compiled and analyzed the published evidence on this topic across the region. A literature search was conducted in PubMed, SciELO, Google Scholar, LILACS, and DOAJ, using combinations of the terms “insecticide resistance” or “insecticide susceptibility” plus “Aedes albopictus”, and the names of all countries recognized by the United Nations as part of the region. Studies published until May 2025 were considered, regardless of the publication year. Following the core PRISMA principles adapted for this review, 33 studies were identified, of which 17 met the inclusion criteria. Results indicate recurrent but uneven reports of resistance, with organophosphates being the most frequently evaluated insecticide (33.9%), followed by pyrethroids (27.7%) and carbamates (10.8%), and metabolic mechanisms being the most implicated. Evidence suggests that control actions focused on Ae. aegypti may also impose selective pressure over Ae. albopictus. Overall, the resistance found on Ae. albopictus emphasizes the need for expanded and standardized surveillance to support effective vector control across the Americas. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Insecticide Resistance in Disease Vectors: Mechanisms, Surveillance, and Control Perspectives)
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