Abstract
Eucalyptus camaldulensis Dehnh plantations have expanded widely across northern Pakistan because of their rapid growth and economic value, yet their perceived ecological consequences and local ethnobotanical knowledge remain poorly understood. In this context, our research focuses on the ecosystem services associated with Eucalyptus plantations in Malakand Division (Hindukush region) of Pakistan, with specific importance given to provisioning service, livelihood outcomes, and ethnomedicinal resources as well as regulatory ecosystem services. The study highlights the socio-economic effects, biodiversity loss, and usage of natural traditional medicinal plants in Eucalyptus-dominated areas as gauged through household surveys (n = 212). Results suggest that respondents observe a decrease in the native flora, especially, medicinal plants, alongside a reduction in agricultural productivity, increase in water scarcity, and loss of soil fertility as a result of Eucalyptus plantations. Respondents identified several native tree species, particularly fruit-bearing taxa, as ecologically suitable alternatives for replacing the existing Eucalyptus plantation. Olive trees were particularly highlighted for their economically valuable oil-bearing fruits and relatively low water requirements. As ecologically sound in tropical and temperate regions, Olive trees were strongly recommended due to their high support for local biodiversity and their nutrient-dense fruits, representing an important food source for wildlife. The study showed an important gap in current forestry frameworks, especially where policy makers support exotic plantations over native species. Integrating traditional ecological knowledge into community-led forest management is essential for promoting biodiversity restoration and enhancing ecosystems.