Traditional On-Farm Agrobiodiversity in Transition: Diversity, Genetic Erosion, and Conservation in North-Western Maharashtra, India

Abstract

The hilly agroecosystems of north-western Maharashtra harbor rich agrobiodiversity, but agricultural intensification and widespread adoption of improved cultivars are accelerating the erosion of traditional crop landraces. However, comprehensive information on the current status of on-farm agrobiodiversity and the extent of ongoing genetic erosion in these tribal-dominated landscapes remains limited. This study assessed on-farm agri-horticultural diversity, landrace prevalence, genetic erosion, and indigenous conservation practices across Akole, Igatpuri, Shahada, and Dhadgaon. Field surveys, household interviews, and focus group discussions documented traditional crop landraces, wild edible species, and farmer-led conservation practices. Agrobiodiversity was evaluated using the Prevalence Index, Berger–Parker Index, Menhinick’s Diversity Index, and Shannon Diversity Index. More than 150 traditional landraces representing cereals, millets, pulses, oilseeds, vegetables, fruits, and legumes, together with over 35 wild edible plant species, were recorded. Hyacinth bean (PI = 10.00), mango (PI = 5.35), groundnut (PI = 5.25) and wheat (PI = 4.17) showed the highest prevalence in Akole–Igatpuri, whereas cowpea (PI = 2.50) and pigeonpea (PI = 2.33) predominated in Shahada–Dhadgaon. Shannon diversity values ranged from 0.69 to 3.01 and 1.01 to 2.17, indicating substantial variation in landrace diversity. Community seed banks and farmer-managed seed systems continue to support the conservation of locally adapted landraces despite ongoing varietal replacement. This study provides a comprehensive baseline for understanding the status of on-farm agrobiodiversity in north-western Maharashtra. It highlights the importance of integrating indigenous knowledge with community-based and policy-driven conservation strategies to strengthen the long-term resilience and sustainability of traditional farming systems.

1. Introduction

Global food systems are increasingly challenged by the combined impacts of climate change, rapid population growth, and the accelerating erosion of agrobiodiversity. Among these drivers, the loss of agrobiodiversity represents one of the most critical yet underappreciated threats to long-term food security, particularly in developing countries such as India, where agriculture remains strongly dependent on diverse traditional crop genetic resources [1].

Agrobiodiversity plays a fundamental role in enhancing food security, agricultural resilience, and the provision of ecosystem services. Diverse agroecological production systems enable farming communities to sustain agricultural productivity while adapting to climatic variability, economic uncertainties, and energy-related constraints [2]. By integrating advances in agricultural science with indigenous knowledge systems, such farming systems maintain a broad spectrum of crop diversity and management practices, thereby reducing vulnerability to pests, diseases, and environmental disturbances. Furthermore, agrobiodiversity contributes significantly to ecosystem functioning through the conservation of soil and water resources, maintenance of ecological balance, and enhancement of the long-term sustainability of agricultural production systems [3]. Consequently, the restoration and conservation of agrobiodiversity are increasingly recognized as essential components of resilient and sustainable food systems, necessitating substantial reforms in agricultural policies, research priorities, and resource management institutions.

The conservation of agrobiodiversity is intrinsically linked to traditional farming systems, which have historically served as dynamic reservoirs of crop genetic diversity. Through farmer-led processes such as cultivation, selection, storage, and exchange of seeds, traditional agricultural communities have continuously shaped and maintained locally adapted crop populations. These practices facilitate ongoing interactions between farmers and their environments, resulting in the evolution of farmer-developed varieties that constitute valuable genetic resources for adaptation to changing environmental conditions [4]. Indigenous and smallholder farming communities remain the principal custodians of traditional crop diversity. Their agricultural practices not only preserve genetic variation within crop species but also safeguard cultural traditions and ecological knowledge systems that underpin sustainable natural resource management [5].

India is globally recognized as a major center of crop diversity, with the Western Ghats representing one of its most ecologically significant and biodiversity-rich agroecological regions. The landscape supports extensive diversity of cultivated crops, crop wild relatives, and traditional agricultural systems. The hilly and tribal regions of the Western Ghats continue to maintain diversified farming systems comprising cereals, millets, pulses, vegetables, fruit crops, and medicinal plants. These agroecosystems function as important centers for the conservation, adaptation, and ongoing evolution of traditional crop landraces [6,7].

Despite their ecological and socioeconomic significance, traditional farming systems are undergoing rapid transformation. Agricultural modernization, widespread adoption of high-yielding cultivars, expansion of market-oriented agriculture, labor shortages, and increasing rural-to-urban migration have accelerated the replacement of traditional crop varieties. Simultaneously, climate variability and changing land-use patterns are intensifying genetic erosion and contributing to the progressive loss of indigenous knowledge associated with traditional agricultural practices [8].

In response to these challenges, on-farm conservation has emerged as a promising strategy for safeguarding crop genetic resources. It is increasingly recognized as a complementary approach to ex situ conservation, allowing crop populations to continue evolving under natural selection and farmer management while ensuring the long-term conservation of genetic resources [9]. Unlike ex situ conservation approaches, which preserve genetic materials outside their natural production environments, on-farm conservation enables landraces to continue evolving under local ecological and management conditions. This dynamic conservation approach simultaneously preserves genetic diversity, farmer knowledge, and community participation, thereby offering a holistic framework for maintaining agrobiodiversity in biodiversity-rich tribal landscapes [10,11].

Although agrobiodiversity has been documented across several regions of India, comprehensive assessments of on-farm agri-horticultural diversity in the tribal-dominated hilly agroecosystems of north-western Maharashtra remain scarce. Previous studies have largely focused on documenting crop landraces, individual crop diversity, or indigenous knowledge in isolation, with limited attention to the dynamics of crop diversity maintained by tribal communities, the relationships between cultivated landraces and wild edible plant resources, and the community-based mechanisms that sustain their conservation. Furthermore, systematic evaluations integrating landrace prevalence, ecological diversity indices, genetic erosion, and indigenous conservation practices are lacking for this region. Addressing these knowledge gaps is essential for developing evidence-based conservation strategies and strengthening the sustainable management of traditional crop genetic resources.

Against this backdrop, the present study was undertaken in the hilly agroecosystems of Ahmednagar, Nashik, and Nandurbar districts of Maharashtra to provide a comprehensive assessment of on-farm agri-horticultural diversity and its conservation. Specifically, the study aimed to: (i) evaluate the spatial distribution and prevalence of crop landrace diversity; (ii) quantify diversity, richness, and dominance using ecological diversity indices; (iii) identify the major socio-economic and agroecological factors contributing to genetic erosion; and (iv) document indigenous knowledge associated with crop landraces, wild edible species and traditional conservation practices. By integrating ecological diversity assessment with indigenous knowledge and community-based conservation practices, this study provides a comprehensive baseline for understanding the status of on-farm agrobiodiversity in north-western Maharashtra and offers scientific evidence to support conservation planning and sustainable agricultural policies.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Research Methods: Sampling and Data Collection

The present study was conducted in two village clusters comprising of 10 villages each from the Akole subdivision of Ahmednagar and the Igatpuri subdivision of Nashik, along with five villages each from Shahada and Dhadgaon subdivisions of Nandurbar district, Maharashtra (Figure 1). All GIS maps of the study areas were prepared using ArcGIS Pro version 3.6.0. To collect primary data, structured questionnaires were developed and administered through focus group discussions (FGDs) and household (HH) surveys to document agrobiodiversity resources, plant diversity dynamics, drivers of genetic erosion, and socioeconomic characteristics of farming communities and biodiversity custodians. Focus group discussions were conducted in each village with 25–30 participants, including women farmers, custodian farmers, and elderly community members possessing extensive traditional ecological knowledge. These discussions facilitated the documentation of traditional landraces, farmer-developed crop varieties, seed management practices, and local perceptions regarding changes in agrobiodiversity. In addition, household surveys covering approximately 10% of the total households in each village were undertaken to collect detailed information on demographic attributes, landholding patterns, cropping systems, crop and varietal diversity, seed sourcing and exchange mechanisms, household food security, indigenous traditional knowledge (ITK) and socioeconomic and agroecological factors influencing plant genetic resource (PGR) erosion and the adoption of agricultural technologies (Figure 2).

Figure 1. Location of the study sites across three districts of Maharashtra, India.

Figure 2. (a) Study workflow and village-wise implementation of FGDs and household surveys; (b) Focus group discussions, mother trials and traditional agrobiodiversity conservation practices.

2.2. Description of the Study Area

The study areas in Ahmednagar and Nandurbar districts are characterized by hilly, undulating terrain with deep valleys and elevated hill ranges. Agricultural landholdings are small (0.1–0.5 acre) and highly fragmented. Akole and Igatpuri subdivisions lie within the Sahyadri Hills and receive high monsoonal rainfall, whereas Shahada and Dhadgaon subdivisions are located in the Satpura Range of northwestern Maharashtra [12].

2.3. Statistical Analysis

The distribution and diversity of crop landraces documented through household surveys and focus group discussions were evaluated using established ecological diversity metrics, including the Shannon Diversity Index, Berger–Parker Index, and Menhinick’s Index.

The Shannon Diversity Index (H′) was used to estimate species diversity and was calculated as:

$$H=-{\sum }_{i=1}^s{p}_i\ln \left(p_i\right)$$

where p_i represents the proportion of individuals belonging to the i^th landrace and S is the total number of landraces recorded [13].

The Berger–Parker Index was used to determine species dominance and was estimated as follows:

$$d={\displaystyle \frac{Nmax}{N}}$$

where Nmax is the abundance of the most dominant landrace, and N is the total abundance of all recorded landraces [14].

Species richness was evaluated using Menhinick’s Index, calculated as follows:

$$D={\displaystyle \frac{s}{\sqrt{N}}}$$

where s denotes the total number of landraces and N represents the total number of observations [15].

The prevalence and distribution of landraces were determined based on their frequency of occurrence across households and villages. Landrace prevalence was expressed as the percentage of households cultivating a particular landrace relative to the total households surveyed, while spatial distribution was assessed across different agroecological locations within the study area.

$$PI={\displaystyle \frac{H_l}{H_t}}\times 100$$

where PI is the prevalence of a landrace (%), H_l is the number of households cultivating a particular landrace, and H_t is the total number of households surveyed [16].

3. Results and Discussion

3.1. Socio-Ecological Characteristics of Study Area

The surveyed regions of Akole (Ahmednagar district) and Shahada (Nandurbar district) represent distinct yet complementary hilly agro-ecosystems of north-western Maharashtra. Akole is predominantly inhabited by tribal communities, particularly Bhil and Thakar tribes, whose livelihoods largely depend on subsistence agriculture supplemented by livestock rearing and the collection of minor forest products. The region experiences a predominantly hot and dry climate, with most rainfall received during the south-west monsoon season, while the higher elevations remain relatively cooler during summer.

Shahada, the largest tehsil in Nandurbar district, is situated within the Tapi River basin and forms part of the northern Deccan Plateau. The region is characterized by a generally dry climate, interrupted by monsoon rainfall and a relatively mild winter season extending from December to February. Fertile black cotton soils dominate much of the landscape, supporting diverse agricultural activities. Agriculture constitutes the primary source of livelihood, complemented by dairy farming and small ruminant husbandry.

The coexistence of irrigated, rainfed and hill agroecosystems within the study region creates a highly heterogeneous agricultural landscape that appears to underpin the persistence of agri-horticultural diversity. Variations in climate, soil properties, topography and farmer management practices generate a mosaic of ecological niches that favor the maintenance of indigenous landraces and locally adapted crop populations. Such socio-ecological complexity likely promotes the continuous adaptation, evolution and conservation of traditional crop genetic resources, highlighting the critical role of on-farm management systems in sustaining agrobiodiversity under changing environmental conditions [17].

3.2. Existing On-Farm Conservation Efforts and Germplasm Status

The present study revealed dynamic patterns of agrobiodiversity change characterized by the simultaneous occurrence of conservation, varietal replacement, and genetic erosion. The overall landrace erosion status observed across the study area is summarized in Figure 3, while crop-wise details are provided in Supplementary file S1.

Figure 3. Crops and varietal diversity, erosion of landraces and replacement of varieties in Akole/Igatpuri (Ahmednagar) and Shahada/Dhadgaon (Nandurbar).

Persistence index analysis demonstrated marked differences among crop groups, with rice, wheat, groundnut, and pigeonpea retaining only 50% of their documented landrace diversity (PI = 0.50), whereas the traditional sorghum variety was completely lost from cultivation. Rice exhibited the highest replacement ratio (RR = 2.0), indicating a substantial shift from traditional landraces to improved cultivars. Similar, albeit less pronounced, replacement trends were observed in wheat and groundnut. Beyond varietal substitution, the study also documented broader transformation of cropping systems, evidenced by the disappearance of climate-resilient crops such as barnyard millet, foxtail millet, proso millet, sesame, and safflower, alongside the introduction of market-oriented crops including strawberry, cherry tomato, mushroom, and spineless cactus. In contrast, traditional millets, pulses and indigenous mango varieties displayed complete persistence (PI = 1.0), underscoring the important role of farmer-managed production systems in maintaining locally adapted crop genetic resources. These findings highlight the dual influence of agricultural modernization and traditional stewardship in shaping the contemporary agrobiodiversity landscape of the studied region.

Community-based conservation initiatives were evident in the study area through the operation of seed banks at Jahagirdarwadi and Sainit villages. The Kalsubai Biryane Sanvardhan Samiti and the community seed bank managed by Genome Saviour Award recipient Mrs. Mamta Bai Bhamre have been actively involved in the conservation, multiplication, and exchange of traditional crop varieties. Similar observations have been reported by earlier studies in the region, which highlighted the role of community seed banks in safeguarding local genetic resources and facilitating farmer-to-farmer seed exchange [18,19]. Comparable community-based seed conservation initiatives have also been reported from Nepal, Ethiopia, and Ghana, where farmer-managed seed systems play a central role in conserving locally adapted landraces, strengthening seed security, and enhancing resilience to climatic and socio-economic changes [18,19,20,21]. The consistency of these findings across diverse smallholder farming systems suggests that community-led conservation approaches have broad applicability beyond the present study region. The continued functioning of these institutions further highlights their importance in strengthening on-farm conservation and enhancing the resilience of traditional farming systems.

Farmer-led experimentation and participatory conservation efforts were also evident in the study area. For example, Mrs. Manda Bai Bharat Padmare was actively conducting mother trials involving traditional rice and millet landraces, along with nutrient and fertilizer evaluation trials in rice. Similar farmer-participatory approaches have been reported to play an important role in the identification, evaluation, and conservation of locally adapted crop genetic resources under on-farm conditions [20,22].

The presence of community seed banks, traditional seed management practices, and farmer-led varietal evaluations demonstrates that on-farm conservation remains an active and dynamic process in the study region.

On-farm conservation in the study area complements ex-situ conservation rather than functioning as an independent system. Community seed banks maintain dynamic conservation through continued cultivation, seed multiplication, and farmer-to-farmer seed exchange, while long-term conservation of crop genetic resources is strengthened through their collection and storage in formal ex situ repositories such as the Indian National Gene Bank (ICAR-NBPGR). Technical support for maintaining seed quality, varietal purity, and documentation is provided through the BAIF Development Research Foundation funded by Alliance Bioversity and CIAT. These complementary approaches collectively contribute to the long-term conservation of crop genetic diversity [9].

3.3. Germplasm Exploration and Spatial Distribution of Crop Diversity

Prior to undertaking germplasm exploration, a gap analysis was conducted using records of previous collection missions in the studied districts to avoid duplication of accessions in the National Genebank and optimize collection efforts. The analysis revealed limited representation of the region’s agri-horticultural diversity, with only 44 accessions representing 19 crop species conserved from the project area (Table 1). To strengthen ex situ conservation, systematic germplasm exploration was undertaken across the study area. The ex-situ conservation status of the traditional landraces documented during the present study is summarized in Figure 4, which illustrates the proportion of landraces already collected and conserved in the Indian National Gene Bank (ICAR-NBPGR), thereby complementing ongoing on-farm conservation efforts.

Table 1. Spatial distribution of agri-horticultural crop diversity across surveyed villages of north-western Maharashtra.

Village	Major Crop Groups Represented	Representative Landraces Recorded
Panjre (Akole)	Millets, oilseeds	Safed Nagali, Kali Nagali, Mutki, Barai, Kala Barai, Pata Sarson
Pendshet (Akole)	Millets, pulses, oilseeds	Safed Nagali, Kali Nagali, Mutki, Kuleeth, Rajgira, Khurasini, Kala Watana
Manhare (Akole)	Millets, pulses, oilseeds	Safed Nagali, Kali Nagali, Mutki, Kuleeth, Kala Watana, Harbara
Chichondi (Akole)	Pulses, oilseeds	Kuleeth, Khulto, Rajgira, Khurasini, Kala Watana, Moong
Bari (Akole)	Cereals and wild relatives	Uttawali, Jangli Kheera and associated wild species
Murshet (Akole)	Pulses	Math
Arhankhuri (Dhadgaon)	Millets, vegetables, cereals	Nilay Bajri, Dudhakya, Kanteri, Tohwa Kakdi, Doodhmogra
Ukhlapani (Shahada)	Millets, vegetables	Barti, Tohwa Kakdi, Longi Mirchi, Kachra
Jhunipimprani (Shahada)	Cereals, pulses, vegetables	Makka, Singdya, Tapkiri, Doodhmogra
Sablapani (Shahada)	Pulses and medicinal plants	Sausarya, Tulsi, Bor
Kot Bandhani (Shahada)	Cereals	Doodhmogra, Mothi Jowar

Figure 4. Spatial distribution of crops/varietal diversity and germplasm status (Crop group wise) at the project site.

This highlighted the need for systematic exploration of hilly agroecosystems of north-western Maharashtra. Field surveys revealed considerable spatial variation in crop diversity across villages. The Akole region exhibited higher representation of traditional millets, pulses, and oilseeds, whereas Shahada and Dhadgaon maintained diverse landraces of sorghum, maize, millets, and vegetable crops (Table 1). Finger millet, little millet, horsegram, niger, and chickpea were frequently grown in hilly villages of Akole, while sorghum, maize, blackgram, and cucumber landraces were more prominent in Shahada and Dhadgaon. A complete inventory of crop species and vernacular landraces documented during the survey is provided in Supplementary File S2. The observed distribution patterns reflect adaptation to local agroecological conditions and the influence of farmer-managed seed systems.

3.4. Characterization of Unique Landraces

The survey documented a diverse assemblage of traditional landraces characterized by unique adaptive, culinary, and socio-cultural attributes (Table 2 and Table 3). Sustained through generations of farmer-mediated selection and adaptation to local agroecological environments, these landraces represent important reservoirs of crop genetic diversity and locally adapted germplasm. Many of these traditional landraces represent underutilized genetic resources that remain largely absent from formal crop improvement programs despite possessing valuable adaptive, nutritional, and cultural attributes. Their continued cultivation contributes not only to crop genetic diversity but also to the conservation of regional biocultural diversity.

Table 2. Selected unique landraces documented in Akole taluk and their notable traits.

Crop	Landrace	Key Traits and Farmer-Reported Uses
Rice	Kaal Bhaat	Aromatic, black husk with white grain, preferred for kheer and idli preparation
	Kolpi (Hari/Gari)	Low water requirement, climate resilient, yield comparable to HYVs
	Nazarbhat/Devbhat	Purple plant; associated with indigenous beliefs for crop protection
	Kamod	Aromatic grain, preferred for sweets, kheer and roti
	Takia	Early maturing (70–75 days), low water requirement
	Raibhog	Highly aromatic, preferred for traditional foods
Wheat	Kathiya	Drought tolerant, suitable for daliya preparation
Sorghum	Utavali	Good grain quality, preferred taste, excellent fodder value
Little millet	Halvi, Ghari, Ghosi	Early and late-maturing forms, relatively high yielding
Finger millet	Mutaki	Adapted to low rainfall conditions
Niger	Khurachani	Pest resistant, cultivated on bunds, multipurpose oilseed
Horse gram	Lal Hulga	Good taste, rainfed adaptation, used for traditional foods
	Safed Hulga	Early maturing, adapted to medium-light soils
Hyacinth bean	Kodwal	Water-stress tolerant, pest resistant, high market value
	Godwal	Pest resistant, suitable for dal preparation
Field bean	Gavati Ghevda	Perennial, drought tolerant, dual-purpose (vegetable and pulse)
	Patadya Ghevda	Perennial, pest resistant, vegetable and grain use
Chickpea	Gouthee	Red-seeded traditional landrace
Pigeonpea	Pandari Tur	White-seeded, tree-type growth habit
Groundnut	Ghungrya	Early maturing, high market preference
	Khandwa	High yielding, large pods, high oil content
Black gram	Udadi	Low water requirement, nutritious, rainfed adaptation
	Udid	Large-seeded, suitable for dal and papad preparation

Table 3. Selected unique landraces documented in Shahada and Dhadgaon taluks and their notable traits.

Crop	Landrace	Key Traits and Farmer-Reported Uses
Sorghum	Mani Jowar	Good taste, lodging tolerant, drought tolerant, good fodder
	Safed Chikni Jowar	Preferred for papad preparation, high market value
	Lal Chikni Jowar	Used for preparation of traditional sweet dishes
	Safed Mothi	Tall stature, compact panicle
	Jhajhari Jowar	Preferred fodder type
	Dudhmogri	White grain, used in traditional foods
	Olmund	Drought tolerant, valued for fodder
	Oda Doda	Low water requirement, preferred taste
Maize	Mothaduda	Sweet taste, high yielding
	Kehri Mukai	Red cob, sticky grains, used in sweet preparations
	Odhaduda	High yielding, large cob size
	Black Maize	Long storage life, ritual significance
Finger millet	Pekhri	White grains, compact curved fingers
Foxtail millet	Ratli/Rala	Awned, white grains
	Bhadi	Awnless, white grains
Proso millet	Kalimor	Black grains
Barnyard millet	Sakali	Traditional local landrace
	Mothi Barti	White grains, non-tillering
	Lahan Barti	White grains, multiple tillers
Sem bean	Lal Walpapdi	Traditional vegetable type
	Safed Walpapdi	Preferred vegetable type
Black gram	Motly Urid	Good taste, sticky grains
	Aytulee Urid	Early maturing (70 days)
	Chota Udadya	Preferred for papad and wada preparation
Pigeonpea	Safed Tur	Good taste, annual dwarf type
Chickpea	Kharrya	Small-seeded traditional type
	Sukhadya	Smooth grain surface
Cucumber	Ohakya	Long fruits, early maturity
	Peeli Mothi	Yellow flesh, preferred taste

3.4.1. Climate-Resilient and Stress-Tolerant Landraces

Several traditional landraces were identified by farmers as possessing traits associated with adaptation to marginal environments and climatic stresses. Rice landraces such as Kolpi and Takia were reported to perform well under low-moisture conditions and require relatively less water. Similarly, Kathiya wheat was recognized for its drought tolerance, Mutaki finger millet for its suitability to low-rainfall environments, and Kodwal hyacinth bean for its tolerance to water stress. In Shahada and Dhadgaon regions, traditional sorghum landraces such as Olmund and Mani Jowar were reported to be cultivated under drought-prone and severe moisture-deficit conditions. These observations highlight the potential of farmer-maintained landraces as valuable sources of climate-resilient traits. However, systematic phenotypic and genetic evaluations are required to validate their adaptive potential and facilitate their utilization in climate-resilient crop improvement programs. Similar patterns have been documented across traditional agroecosystems, including Nepal, where farmer-maintained rice landraces possess valuable drought-adaptive traits and function as dynamic reservoirs of adaptive genetic diversity, thereby strengthening the resilience of farming systems to climatic variability and environmental stressors [23,24].

3.4.2. Landraces with Nutritional and Culinary Importance

Culinary preferences and perceived nutritional qualities are widely recognized as important determinants of cultivation and conservation of traditional crop varieties in indigenous farming systems [25]. The survey revealed that several landraces continue to be maintained because of their superior taste, processing qualities, and cultural significance. Among rice landraces, Kaal Bhaat, Kamod, and Raibhog were highly valued for their aroma, taste, and suitability for preparing traditional foods such as kheer, sweets, and fermented products. Similarly, indigenous horse gram landraces (Lal Hulga and Safed Hulga) were preferred for traditional culinary preparations, while groundnut landraces such as Ghungrya and Pundya were appreciated for their desirable taste and market acceptability. The continued cultivation of these landraces highlights the significant role of farmer preferences, local food cultures, and traditional dietary practices in sustaining on-farm agrobiodiversity. Similar observations have been reported in Nepal, where neglected and underutilized crops continue to provide nutritional security while conserving valuable crop genetic resources adapted to marginal environments [26].

3.4.3. Socio-Cultural and Traditional Significance of Landraces

In addition to agronomic performance, adaptive traits and culinary value, several traditional landraces continue to be maintained because of their cultural and spiritual significance within local communities. Survey revealed that rice landrace named as Nazarbhat is traditionally cultivated owing to indigenous beliefs regarding its ability to protect crops from diseases and other negtaive influences. Similarly, black maize was reported to play an important role in ritual and ceremonial practices, particularly during Pitrapaksha. Despite widespread availability of improved cultivars, these culturally important landraces have been conserved across generations, highlighting influence of traditional knowledge systems, cultural values and customary practices on maintenance of crop genetic diversity. These findings reinforce the view that sociocultural factors can serve as important drivers of on-farm conservation alongside agronomic and economic considerations [23,27].

3.5. Indigenous Traditional Knowledge and Utilization of Wild Edible Plants

The indigenous communities inhabiting Akole and Igatpuri regions, including Pawara, Bhil, Thakar and Koli tribes, possess rich indigenous traditional knowledge (ITK) related to identification, collection, and utilization of wild edible species. These communities continue to rely on surrounding forest ecosystems for food, healthcare, and other livelihood needs. The present study documented 38 wild edible plant species that are commonly utilized by local communities for diverse nutritional, medicinal, and subsistence purposes (Table 4), highlighting the important role of traditional ecological knowledge in sustaining food security and biodiversity conservation.

Table 4. Indigenous traditional knowledge associated with selected wild edible and medicinal plant species recorded in Akole and Igatpuri.

S. No.	Botanical Name	Local Name	ITK
1	Abelmoschus manihot	Ranbhedi	Fruit paste is applied on skin diseases
2	Achyranthes aspera	Aghada	Leaves as vegetable. Leaves are also used in treatment of fever
3	Adhatoda zeylanica	Adusha	Leaves in cough
4	Aegle marmelos	Bael	Young leaves are given with honey to cure diarrhea and dysentery.
5	Amaranthus spinosus	Kate—mat	Young shoots and leaves are used as vegetable
6	Amaranthus viridis	Mathalo	Young shoots as vegetable
7	Arisaema murrayi	Badada	Boiled tubers are eaten also as raw.
8	Aristolochia bracteolata	Kidmari	Fruits are used to kill worms in
9			animals
10	Bombax cieba	Kate-sawar	Latex is applied on tooth ache
11	Buchananaia lanzan	Chironji	Ripe fruits edible
12	Carissa carandas	Karvand	Ripe fruits edible
13	Celosia argentia	Kurdu,	Young shoots and leaves are used as vegetable
14	Cissampelos pareira	Bhajan Bhaji	Leaves are cooked as vegetable
15	Corchorus capsularis	Chuncha	Leaves cooked as vegetable
16	Cordia dichotma	Bhokar	Young and ripe fruits eaten
17	Cucumis sativus var. hardwickii	Karit	Fruits used for preparation of pickle
18	Dioscorea hispida	Vaskand	Tubers are cooked as vegetable
19	Diospyros melanoxylon	Temburni	Ripe fruits eaten raw
20	Gauruga pinnata		Leaves as vegetable
21	Gymnopetalum cochinchinense	Gometi	Young fruits as vegetable
22	Madhuca indica	Moha	Ripe fruits wall is used as vegetable; oil from seeds is used as cooking oil. Flowers are collected for alcohol fermentation
23	Momordica dioica	Kantole	Young fruits as vegetable
24	Moringa oleifera	Shevga	Young pods and flowers as vegetable
25	Mucuna pruriens		Young pods as vegetable
26	Portulaca oleracea	Ghol	Entire plant cooked as vegetable
27	Phylanthus emblica	Aonla	Raw fruits eaten
28	Schleichera oleosa	Kusum	Ripe fruits edible
29	Schrebera swietenioides	Mokha	Young leaves as vegetable
30	Solanum anguivi	Chechurde, ranvangi	Young fruits as vegetable
31	Terminalia bellirica	Hirda	Seeds in indigestion
32	Terminalia chebula	Baheda	Seeds in cough
33	Tinospora cordifolia	Gudvel	Extract from crushed stem is used in fever and stomach disorder
34	Tribulus terrestris	Sarata	Whole plant is cooked as vegetable
35	Urginia indica	Baman-kand	Paste of corms/roots is used on boils
36	Ziziphus rugosa	Toran	Ripe fruits and nuts eaten raw

The study area harbored a rich diversity of wild edible vegetables, reflecting extensive ethnobotanical knowledge preserved by tribal communities. A total of 33 wild edible vegetable species representing diverse taxonomic groups were documented during the survey. Prominent species included Momordica dioica, Celosia argentea, Amaranthus spinosus, Garuga pinnata, Achyranthes aspera, Corchorus olitorius, and Dioscorea hispida. These species constitute an important component of local food systems, providing seasonal dietary supplements, particularly in remote areas where access to cultivated vegetables is often limited.

Classification based on edible plant parts indicated that fruit-bearing species constituted the largest category (45%), followed by leafy vegetables (25%), while roots/tubers and whole plants each accounted for 15% of the recorded species (Table 5). Leafy vegetables such as Amaranthus spinosus, Celosia argentea, Portulaca oleracea and Achyranthes aspera are widely consumed as cooked greens and serve as valuable sources of micronutrients. Similarly, fruit-bearing species including Momordica dioica, Carissa carandas, Solanum anguivi and several wild cucurbits contribute substantially to dietary diversity and seasonal nutrition. Tuberous species such as Dioscorea bulbifera, Dioscorea hispida and Arisaema murrayi function as important supplementary food resources, particularly during periods of food scarcity.

Table 5. Classification of documented wild edible vegetable species by edible plant parts.

Edible Plant Part	No. of Species	Percentage (%)	Wild Edible Species
Leaves	12	35.3	Smithia conferta, Smithia bigemina, Amaranthus cruentus, Amaranthus spinosus, Senna tora, Celosia argentea, Portulaca oleracea, Marsilea quadrifolia, Dioscorea pentaphylla, Achyranthes aspera, Agave americana, Amorphophallus paeoniifolius
Fruits	12	35.3	Radermachera xylocarpa, Cucumis hardwickii, Cucumis setosus, Cucumis maderaspatanus, Momordica dioica, Solanum anguivi, Solena amplexicaulis, Wild Vigna sp., Carissa carandas, Dillenia pentagyna, Ipomoea muricata, Meyna laxiflora
Shoots	1	2.9	Wrightia tinctoria
Tubers	3	8.8	Dioscorea bulbifera, Dioscorea hispida, Arisaema murrayi
Flowers	6	17.6	Bauhinia racemosa, Cassia fistula, Wrightia tinctoria, Commelina benghalensis, Rivea hypocrateriformis, Amorphophallus commutatus

The continued utilization of wild edible vegetables underscores their critical role in enhancing household food and nutritional security among tribal communities. The predominance of fruit- and leafy vegetable species highlights their contribution to dietary diversification and seasonal nutrient supplementation. Similar patterns have been reported from other tribal and forest-dependent regions, where wild edible plants provide essential vitamins, minerals, antioxidants, and other bioactive compounds, particularly during agricultural lean periods and episodes of food shortage [28,29,30]. The sustained use of species such as Momordica dioica, Amaranthus spinosus, Celosia argentea and Dioscorea spp. further demonstrates the enduring importance of indigenous knowledge systems in supporting nutritional resilience and the conservation of biocultural diversity. Together with traditional crop landraces, these wild edible species form an integral component of the region’s biocultural diversity, illustrating the close interdependence between biological resources, indigenous knowledge and traditional food systems. This finding is consistent with studies from indigenous farming systems in the Bolivian Andes, where native crops and traditional food systems have been shown to strengthen resilience to climate change while conserving biocultural diversity [31]. Comparable observations have also been reported from mountain farming communities in Nepal and Ethiopia, where wild edible plants contribute substantially to dietary diversity, micronutrient intake, and livelihood resilience, further reinforcing the broader relevance of integrated biocultural conservation across smallholder agricultural systems [26,32].

3.6. Prevalence and Distribution of Crop Landraces

The prevalence index (PI) was calculated to assess distribution and occurrence of crop landraces across surveyed villages. Since crop composition differed considerably between Akole–Igatpuri and Shahada–Dhadgaon regions, prevalence patterns were analysed separately for these two agroecological zones (Table 6). Ten villages distributed across four administrative blocks, Akole (Ahmednagar district), Igatpuri (Nashik district), and Dhadgaon and Shahada (Nandurbar district), were surveyed to assess the prevalence of traditional crop landraces. Owing to differences in cropping patterns and varietal preferences between Akole–Igatpuri and Shahada–Dhadgaon, prevalence indices (PI) were calculated separately for the two regions.

Table 6. Distribution and Prevalence of landraces in major crops across surveyed regions.

Surveyed Areas	Crop	No. of Distinct Landraces	Total Frequency of Occurrence	Prevalence Index (PI)
Akole & Igaturi	Sorghum	12	23	1.92
	Maize	18	22	1.22
	Barnyard millet	7	8	1.14
	Foxtail millet	9	14	1.56
	Little millet	5	5	1
	Pigeon pea	3	7	2.33
	Blackgram	6	7	1.17
	Cowpea	4	10	2.5
	Chickpea	5	8	1.6
	Rice	6	11	1.83
Dhadgaon & Sahada	Rice	10	43	2.69
	Wheat	8	25	4.17
	Little millet	7	23	3.29
	Finger millet	8	26	3.71
	Pigeonpea	6	13	2.17
	Groundnut	7	21	5.25
	Hyacinth bean	10	20	10
	Mango	12	91	5.35

In Shahada and Dhadgaon, cowpea and pigeonpea exhibited the highest prevalence (PI > 2), with landraces such as Mothi Chowlya and Gavrani Safed Tuar occurring across multiple villages, indicating broad adaptation and local importance. Moderate prevalence (PI ≈ 1.5–2.0) was recorded for rice, sorghum, chickpea, finger millet and foxtail millet, represented by landraces such as Halbhat, Doodhmogra and Mani Jowar. In contrast, little millet, barnyard millet, maize and blackgram displayed low prevalence (PI ≈ 1.0–1.2), with landraces restricted to one or two locations, suggesting localized distribution and greater vulnerability to genetic erosion.

In Akole and Igatpuri, the highest prevalence indices (PI ≥ 4) were observed for groundnut, mango, and hyacinth bean. Landraces such as Godwal, Kodwal, Dongarya, Gotee, Lal Gotee, and Ghungariya were recorded across most surveyed villages, reflecting their wide adaptability, farmer preference, and cultural significance. Rice, wheat, finger millet, and little millet exhibited moderate prevalence (PI = 3.0–3.7), with distinct landraces dominating individual villages, indicating strong local adaptation and village-specific selection. Pigeonpea showed relatively low prevalence (PI = 2.17), suggesting a narrower distribution and potential susceptibility to genetic erosion. Similar observations were reported by Puneeth et al. [22] in the Central Western Ghats, where many landraces occurred at only one or a few conservation sites, indicating that prevalence is an important indicator of conservation status. The restricted distribution of several landraces in the present study likewise suggests increased vulnerability to genetic erosion and underscores the importance of community-based conservation initiatives.

3.7. Diversity Patterns of Crop Landraces Across Surveyed Regions

To understand the structure of on-farm agrobiodiversity, multiple diversity indices were calculated for the documented landraces of studied crops across surveyed regions. The Berger-Parker Index was used to assess landrace dominance, while Menhinick’s Diversity Index and Shannon Diversity Index were used to evaluate richness and overall diversity, respectively. Together, these indices provide complementary insights into the distribution, abundance, and conservation status of traditional crop landraces (Table 7).

Table 7. Diversity assessment of major crops across surveyed areas using multiple diversity indices.

Surveyed Areas	Prevalent Crops	Most Frequent Landrace	Berger-Parker Index (d)	Menhinick’s Diversity Index (Dmn)	Shannon Diversity Index (H′)
Akole & Igatpuri	Rice	Kaalbhaat	0.21	2.5	2.14
	Wheat	Bodkya	0.32	0.89	3.01
	Little millet	Ghari	0.3	1.41	1.55
	Finger millet	Mutki	0.31	0.87	1.37
	Pigeonpea	Gouthee	0.54	1.41	1.2
	Groundnut	Ghungariya	0.43	1.58	1.04
	Hyacinth bean	Kodwal	0.5	0.45	0.91
	Mango	Dongarya	0.088	1.78	0.69
Dhadgaon and Sahada	Sorghum	Mani jowar	0.17	2.5	2.17
	Maize	Oda duda	0.083	3.84	2
	Barnyard millet	Mothi Barti	0.25	2.47	1.95
	Foxtail millet	Chikani/Chikni badi	0.21	2.41	2.08
	Little millet	Gavrani mor	0.2	2.24	1.61
	Pigeonpea	Gavrani safed Tuar	0.57	1.13	1.01
	Blackgram	Udadya	0.29	2.27	1.79
	Cowpea	Mothi Chowlya	0.4	1.26	1.36
	Chickpea	Mothi Chowlya/Gavrani Harbhara	0.5	1.77	1.91
	Rice	Kaalbhaat	0.21	1.81	1.79

3.7.1. Landrace Dominance (Berger-Parker Index)

Identifying dominant landraces is an important step in prioritizing crop genetic resources for conservation [33]. Accordingly, the Berger–Parker Index (d) was used to assess the dominance structure of major crop landraces across the study area [14]. In Akole and Igatpuri, pigeonpea, groundnut and hyacinth bean exhibited high dominance (d > 0.40), indicating the predominance of a single landrace and a relatively uneven distribution. Wheat, finger millet and little millet showed intermediate dominance (d ≈ 0.30), whereas rice and mango displayed lower dominance values (d < 0.25), reflecting greater landrace diversity and more even distribution. In Shahada and Dhadgaon, pigeonpea (d = 0.57) and chickpea (d = 0.50) were highly dominated by a single landrace, suggesting strong farmer preference, local adaptation, or economic importance. Cowpea exhibited moderate dominance (d = 0.40), while rice, foxtail millet, sorghum, and little millet showed comparatively low dominance values (d = 0.17–0.21), indicating the maintenance of multiple landraces within farming systems. Blackgram and barnyard millet displayed intermediate dominance (d = 0.25–0.29).

The observed variation in dominance patterns highlights substantial differences in the distribution and conservation status of crop landraces across regions. High dominance values may indicate reduced intra-crop diversity and greater vulnerability to genetic erosion, whereas lower dominance values suggest the continued maintenance of diverse landrace assemblages driven by local adaptation, cultural preferences, and multiple end uses. Nevertheless, the Berger–Parker Index captures only the abundance of the most dominant landrace; therefore, additional diversity indices are required to provide a more comprehensive assessment of landrace diversity and distribution patterns (Table 7).

3.7.2. Landrace Richness (Menhinick’s Diversity Index)

Menhinick’s Diversity Index (Dmn) was calculated to estimate diversity among landraces of different crops across different sites in the Akole and Igatpuri blocks and Sahada block of Nandurbar. In the Akole and Igatpuri blocks, mango exhibited high diversity (1.78), with its landraces occurring across multiple sites, indicating rich genetic variability. Moderate diversity was observed in rice, little millet, pigeonpea and groundnut, reflecting several landraces with relatively balanced occurrences. Low diversity was recorded for wheat, finger millet and hyacinth bean, with hyacinth bean (0.45) particularly vulnerable to genetic erosion, as only a few landraces are widely distributed (Table 7). In Sahada, maize exhibited high diversity (3.84), indicating strong genetic variability. Moderate diversity was observed in sorghum, barnyard millet, foxtail millet, little millet, blackgram, chickpea, and rice, reflecting a reasonably balanced distribution of landraces across the surveyed sites. In contrast, pigeonpea (1.13) and cowpea (1.26) showed low diversity, indicating limited variation. Conservation efforts may be necessary for less diverse crops, as the risk of genetic erosion is higher for these, whereas moderately to highly diverse crops are comparatively less vulnerable [34].

3.7.3. Shannon Diversity Index

The Shannon Diversity Index (H′), which integrates both richness and evenness, is widely used to assess biological diversity and has been extensively applied in agrobiodiversity research to evaluate the conservation status and distribution of crop genetic resources [35]. Higher H′ values indicate greater diversity and a more equitable distribution of landraces within a crop.

In Akole and Igatpuri, H′ values ranged from 0.69 to 3.01, revealing substantial variation in landrace diversity among crops (Table 7). Wheat (H′ = 3.01) and rice (H′ = 2.14) exhibited the highest diversity, reflecting both high landrace richness and relatively even distribution. Finger millet (H′ = 1.37) and little millet (H′ = 1.55) displayed moderate diversity, whereas pigeonpea (H′ = 1.20), groundnut (H′ = 1.04), hyacinth bean (H′ = 0.91) and mango (H′ = 0.69) showed comparatively lower diversity, indicating dominance by a limited number of landraces. Overall, cereal crops maintained greater landrace diversity than legumes and fruit crops in the region.

A similar pattern was observed in Shahada and Dhadgaon, where H′ values ranged from 1.01 to 2.17. Sorghum (H′ = 2.17), foxtail millet (H′ = 2.08) and maize (H′ = 2.00) exhibited the highest diversity, indicating the maintenance of multiple landraces with relatively balanced distribution across cultivation sites. Barnyard millet (H′ = 1.95), chickpea (H′ = 1.91), blackgram (H′ = 1.79), rice (H′ = 1.79) and little millet (H′ = 1.61) displayed moderate diversity, suggesting the coexistence of several locally adapted landraces. In contrast, pigeonpea (H′ = 1.01) and cowpea (H′ = 1.36) showed lower diversity, reflecting the predominance of a few preferred landraces within local farming systems.

Overall, the higher Shannon diversity observed in cereals and millets highlights their importance as key reservoirs of on-farm genetic diversity. This pattern likely reflects the combined effects of local adaptation, farmer selection, traditional seed exchange and cultural preferences that collectively sustain landrace diversity within traditional farming systems. Comparable patterns have been reported from biodiversity-rich smallholder farming systems in India and other regions of the world, where traditional cereals, millets and other underutilized crops continue to maintain high levels of on-farm agrobiodiversity while enhancing resilience to climate variability and environmental change [11,22,36].

4. Conclusions

This study provides a comprehensive assessment of on-farm agri-horticultural diversity in the tribal-dominated hilly agroecosystems of north-western Maharashtra. The findings reveal that these farming systems continue to harbor a rich diversity of traditional landraces and wild edible plant species, supported by indigenous knowledge, community seed systems, and farmer-led conservation practices. However, agricultural modernization, varietal replacement, changing cropping patterns, and broader socio-economic transformations are accelerating the erosion of traditional crop genetic resources. The diversity analyses further demonstrated contrasting conservation patterns among crops, with some maintaining high genetic diversity while others exhibited restricted distribution and greater vulnerability to genetic erosion.

Overall, this research demonstrates that the region’s agrobiodiversity is being shaped by the dual forces of agricultural modernization and traditional farming systems, with community-led conservation serving as a critical mechanism for sustaining locally adapted crop diversity. Strengthening these community-based approaches will therefore be essential for enhancing the resilience of traditional farming systems and ensuring long-term agrobiodiversity conservation.

Based on these findings, the following actions are recommended:

Policy level: Strengthen support for community seed banks, recognize and register traditional landraces to safeguard farmers’ rights and promote climate-resilient traditional crops through targeted conservation and incentive programs.

Community level: Strengthen farmer-led seed exchange networks, encourage participatory conservation initiatives and integrate indigenous knowledge into conservation, extension and educational programs.

Research level: Expand the characterization and long-term monitoring of landrace diversity and genetic erosion, and promote value addition and niche markets for traditional landraces to enhance their conservation and sustainable utilization. Overall, these measures will strengthen community-centered conservation strategies and support resilient and sustainable food systems in the face of climate change and ongoing agricultural transformation. Although this study focuses on north-western Maharashtra, the findings have broader relevance for biodiversity-rich smallholder agroecosystems worldwide, highlighting the importance of integrating indigenous knowledge, underutilized crops and community-based conservation into agricultural policies to safeguard biocultural diversity and enhance long-term resilience.