Sensors

21 pages, 1066 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Resolving Mixed Algal Species in Hyperspectral Images

by Mehrube Mehrubeoglu^1,*, Ming Y. Teng¹ and Paul V. Zimba²

¹ Hyperspectral Optical Property Instrumentation (HOPI) Laboratory, School of Engineering and Computing Sciences, Texas A&M University-Corpus Christi, 6300 Ocean Dr., Corpus Christi, TX 78412-5797, USA

² Center for Coastal Studies, Texas A&M University-Corpus Christi, 6300 Ocean Dr., Corpus Christi, TX 78412-5866, USA

Sensors 2014, 14(1), 1-21; https://doi.org/10.3390/s140100001 - 19 Dec 2013

Cited by 24 | Viewed by 10433

Abstract

We investigated a lab-based hyperspectral imaging system’s response from pure (single) and mixed (two) algal cultures containing known algae types and volumetric combinations to characterize the system’s performance. The spectral response to volumetric changes in single and combinations of algal mixtures with known [...] Read more.

We investigated a lab-based hyperspectral imaging system’s response from pure (single) and mixed (two) algal cultures containing known algae types and volumetric combinations to characterize the system’s performance. The spectral response to volumetric changes in single and combinations of algal mixtures with known ratios were tested. Constrained linear spectral unmixing was applied to extract the algal content of the mixtures based on abundances that produced the lowest root mean square error. Percent prediction error was computed as the difference between actual percent volumetric content and abundances at minimum RMS error. Best prediction errors were computed as 0.4%, 0.4% and 6.3% for the mixed spectra from three independent experiments. The worst prediction errors were found as 5.6%, 5.4% and 13.4% for the same order of experiments. Additionally, Beer-Lambert’s law was utilized to relate transmittance to different volumes of pure algal suspensions demonstrating linear logarithmic trends for optical property measurements. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Spectral Imaging at the Microscale and Beyond)

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30 pages, 2017 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Performance Evaluation and Comparative Analysis of SubCarrier Modulation Wake-up Radio Systems for Energy-Efficient Wireless Sensor Networks

by Joaquim Oller^1,2, Ilker Demirkol^1,2,*, Jordi Casademont^1,2, Josep Paradells^1,2, Gerd Ulrich Gamm³ and Leonhard Reindl³

¹ Department of Telematics Engineering, Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya, C/Jordi Girona 1-3, Barcelona 08034, Spain

² Fundació i2Cat, C/Gran Capità 2, Barcelona 08034, Spain

³ Institut für Mikrosystemtechnik—IMTEK, Albert-Ludwigs-Universität Freiburg, Georges-Köhler-Allee 103, Freiburg 79110, Germany

Sensors 2014, 14(1), 22-51; https://doi.org/10.3390/s140100022 - 19 Dec 2013

Cited by 44 | Viewed by 13526

Abstract

Energy-efficient communication is one of the main concerns of wireless sensor networks nowadays. A commonly employed approach for achieving energy efficiency has been the use of duty-cycled operation of the radio, where the node’s transceiver is turned off and on regularly, listening to [...] Read more.

Energy-efficient communication is one of the main concerns of wireless sensor networks nowadays. A commonly employed approach for achieving energy efficiency has been the use of duty-cycled operation of the radio, where the node’s transceiver is turned off and on regularly, listening to the radio channel for possible incoming communication during its on-state. Nonetheless, such a paradigm performs poorly for scenarios of low or bursty traffic because of unnecessary activations of the radio transceiver. As an alternative technology, Wake-up Radio (WuR) systems present a promising energy-efficient network operation, where target devices are only activated in an on-demand fashion by means of a special radio signal and a WuR receiver. In this paper, we analyze a novel wake-up radio approach that integrates both data communication and wake-up functionalities into one platform, providing a reconfigurable radio operation. Through physical experiments, we characterize the delay, current consumption and overall operational range performance of this approach under different transmit power levels. We also present an actual single-hop WuR application scenario, as well as demonstrate the first true multi-hop capabilities of a WuR platform and simulate its performance in a multi-hop scenario. Finally, by thorough qualitative comparisons to the most relevant WuR proposals in the literature, we state that the proposed WuR system stands out as a strong candidate for any application requiring energy-efficient wireless sensor node communications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Sensor Networks)

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16 pages, 828 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Dimension Reduction of Multivariable Optical Emission Spectrometer Datasets for Industrial Plasma Processes

by Jie Yang^*, Conor McArdle and Stephen Daniels

Energy Design Lab, Faculty of Engineering and Computing, Dublin City University, Glasnevin, Dublin 9, Ireland

Sensors 2014, 14(1), 52-67; https://doi.org/10.3390/s140100052 - 19 Dec 2013

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 6565

Abstract

A new data dimension-reduction method, called Internal Information Redundancy Reduction (IIRR), is proposed for application to Optical Emission Spectroscopy (OES) datasets obtained from industrial plasma processes. For example in a semiconductor manufacturing environment, real-time spectral emission data is potentially very useful for inferring [...] Read more.

A new data dimension-reduction method, called Internal Information Redundancy Reduction (IIRR), is proposed for application to Optical Emission Spectroscopy (OES) datasets obtained from industrial plasma processes. For example in a semiconductor manufacturing environment, real-time spectral emission data is potentially very useful for inferring information about critical process parameters such as wafer etch rates, however, the relationship between the spectral sensor data gathered over the duration of an etching process step and the target process output parameters is complex. OES sensor data has high dimensionality (fine wavelength resolution is required in spectral emission measurements in order to capture data on all chemical species involved in plasma reactions) and full spectrum samples are taken at frequent time points, so that dynamic process changes can be captured. To maximise the utility of the gathered dataset, it is essential that information redundancy is minimised, but with the important requirement that the resulting reduced dataset remains in a form that is amenable to direct interpretation of the physical process. To meet this requirement and to achieve a high reduction in dimension with little information loss, the IIRR method proposed in this paper operates directly in the original variable space, identifying peak wavelength emissions and the correlative relationships between them. A new statistic, Mean Determination Ratio (MDR), is proposed to quantify the information loss after dimension reduction and the effectiveness of IIRR is demonstrated using an actual semiconductor manufacturing dataset. As an example of the application of IIRR in process monitoring/control, we also show how etch rates can be accurately predicted from IIRR dimension-reduced spectral data. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Physical Sensors)

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27 pages, 440 KiB

Open AccessArticle

RAZOR: A Compression and Classification Solution for the Internet of Things

by Matteo Danieletto^1,*, Nicola Bui² and Michele Zorzi^1,3

¹ Department of Information Engineering (DEI), University of Padova, Via Gradenigo, n.6b, 35131 Padova, Italy

² Institute IMDEA Networks, Av. del Mar Mediterraneo, 22, 28918 Leganes, Madrid, Spain

³ Consorzio Ferrara Ricerche, Via Saragat, 1-Block B-1st Floor, 44122 Ferrara, Italy

Sensors 2014, 14(1), 68-94; https://doi.org/10.3390/s140100068 - 19 Dec 2013

Cited by 16 | Viewed by 6598

Abstract

The Internet of Things is expected to increase the amount of data produced and exchanged in the network, due to the huge number of smart objects that will interact with one another. The related information management and transmission costs are increasing and becoming [...] Read more.

The Internet of Things is expected to increase the amount of data produced and exchanged in the network, due to the huge number of smart objects that will interact with one another. The related information management and transmission costs are increasing and becoming an almost unbearable burden, due to the unprecedented number of data sources and the intrinsic vastness and variety of the datasets. In this paper, we propose RAZOR, a novel lightweight algorithm for data compression and classification, which is expected to alleviate both aspects by leveraging the advantages offered by data mining methods for optimizing communications and by enhancing information transmission to simplify data classification. In particular, RAZOR leverages the concept of motifs, recurrent features used for signal categorization, in order to compress data streams: in such a way, it is possible to achieve compression levels of up to an order of magnitude, while maintaining the signal distortion within acceptable bounds and allowing for simple lightweight distributed classification. In addition, RAZOR is designed to keep the computational complexity low, in order to allow its implementation in the most constrained devices. The paper provides results about the algorithm configuration and a performance comparison against state-of-the-art signal processing techniques. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Sensor Networks)

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22 pages, 2503 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Uniform Energy Consumption Algorithm for Wireless Sensor and Actuator Networks Based on Dynamic Polling Point Selection

by Shuo Li¹, Jun Peng^1,*, Weirong Liu¹, Zhengfa Zhu¹ and Kuo-Chi Lin²

¹ School of Information Science and Engineering, Central South University, Changsha 410075, China

² Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, University of Central Florida, Orlando, FL 32816, USA

Sensors 2014, 14(1), 95-116; https://doi.org/10.3390/s140100095 - 19 Dec 2013

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 6457

Abstract

Recent research has indicated that using the mobility of the actuator in wireless sensor and actuator networks (WSANs) to achieve mobile data collection can greatly increase the sensor network lifetime. However, mobile data collection may result in unacceptable collection delays in the network [...] Read more.

Recent research has indicated that using the mobility of the actuator in wireless sensor and actuator networks (WSANs) to achieve mobile data collection can greatly increase the sensor network lifetime. However, mobile data collection may result in unacceptable collection delays in the network if the path of the actuator is too long. Because real-time network applications require meeting data collection delay constraints, planning the path of the actuator is a very important issue to balance the prolongation of the network lifetime and the reduction of the data collection delay. In this paper, a multi-hop routing mobile data collection algorithm is proposed based on dynamic polling point selection with delay constraints to address this issue. The algorithm can actively update the selection of the actuator’s polling points according to the sensor nodes’ residual energies and their locations while also considering the collection delay constraint. It also dynamically constructs the multi-hop routing trees rooted by these polling points to balance the sensor node energy consumption and the extension of the network lifetime. The effectiveness of the algorithm is validated by simulation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Sensor Networks)

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12 pages, 1038 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Development of a Multi-Channel Piezoelectric Acoustic Sensor Based on an Artificial Basilar Membrane

by Youngdo Jung, Jun-Hyuk Kwak, Young Hwa Lee, Wan Doo Kim and Shin Hur^*

Department of Nature-Inspired Nanoconvergence Systems, Korea Institute of Machinery and Materials, 156 Gajeongbuk-ro, Yuseong-gu, Daejeon 304-343, Korea

Sensors 2014, 14(1), 117-128; https://doi.org/10.3390/s140100117 - 20 Dec 2013

Cited by 44 | Viewed by 10633

Abstract

In this research, we have developed a multi-channel piezoelectric acoustic sensor (McPAS) that mimics the function of the natural basilar membrane capable of separating incoming acoustic signals mechanically by their frequency and generating corresponding electrical signals. The McPAS operates without an external energy [...] Read more.

In this research, we have developed a multi-channel piezoelectric acoustic sensor (McPAS) that mimics the function of the natural basilar membrane capable of separating incoming acoustic signals mechanically by their frequency and generating corresponding electrical signals. The McPAS operates without an external energy source and signal processing unit with a vibrating piezoelectric thin film membrane. The shape of the vibrating membrane was chosen to be trapezoidal such that different locations of membrane have different local resonance frequencies. The length of the membrane is 28 mm and the width of the membrane varies from 1 mm to 8 mm. Multiphysics finite element analysis (FEA) was carried out to predict and design the mechanical behaviors and piezoelectric response of the McPAS model. The designed McPAS was fabricated with a MEMS fabrication process based on the simulated results. The fabricated device was tested with a mouth simulator to measure its mechanical and piezoelectrical frequency response with a laser Doppler vibrometer and acoustic signal analyzer. The experimental results show that the as fabricated McPAS can successfully separate incoming acoustic signals within the 2.5 kHz–13.5 kHz range and the maximum electrical signal output upon acoustic signal input of 94 dBSPL was 6.33 mVpp. The performance of the fabricated McPAS coincided well with the designed parameters. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymeric Micro Sensors and Actuators)

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15 pages, 910 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Self-Timed Multipurpose Delay Sensor for Field Programmable Gate Arrays (FPGAs)

by Carlos Gómez Osuna, Pablo Ituero^* and Marisa López-Vallejo

Dpto. de Ingeniería Electrónica, ETSI Telecomunicación, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, Avenida Complutense 30, Madrid 28040, Spain

Sensors 2014, 14(1), 129-143; https://doi.org/10.3390/s140100129 - 20 Dec 2013

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 7357

Abstract

This paper presents a novel self-timed multi-purpose sensor especially conceived for Field Programmable Gate Arrays (FPGAs). The aim of the sensor is to measure performance variations during the life-cycle of the device, such as process variability, critical path timing and temperature variations. The [...] Read more.

This paper presents a novel self-timed multi-purpose sensor especially conceived for Field Programmable Gate Arrays (FPGAs). The aim of the sensor is to measure performance variations during the life-cycle of the device, such as process variability, critical path timing and temperature variations. The proposed topology, through the use of both combinational and sequential FPGA elements, amplifies the time of a signal traversing a delay chain to produce a pulse whose width is the sensor’s measurement. The sensor is fully self-timed, avoiding the need for clock distribution networks and eliminating the limitations imposed by the system clock. One single off- or on-chip time-to-digital converter is able to perform digitization of several sensors in a single operation. These features allow for a simplified approach for designers wanting to intertwine a multi-purpose sensor network with their application logic. Employed as a temperature sensor, it has been measured to have an error of ±0.67 °C, over the range of 20–100 °C, employing 20 logic elements with a 2-point calibration. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue State-of-the-Art Sensors Technology in Spain 2013)

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26 pages, 2573 KiB

Open AccessReview

High-Temperature Piezoelectric Sensing

by Xiaoning Jiang^1,*, Kyungrim Kim¹, Shujun Zhang², Joseph Johnson¹ and Giovanni Salazar¹

¹ Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC 27695, USA

² Materials Research Institute, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802, USA

Sensors 2014, 14(1), 144-169; https://doi.org/10.3390/s140100144 - 20 Dec 2013

Cited by 369 | Viewed by 27521

Abstract

Piezoelectric sensing is of increasing interest for high-temperature applications in aerospace, automotive, power plants and material processing due to its low cost, compact sensor size and simple signal conditioning, in comparison with other high-temperature sensing techniques. This paper presented an overview of high-temperature [...] Read more.

Piezoelectric sensing is of increasing interest for high-temperature applications in aerospace, automotive, power plants and material processing due to its low cost, compact sensor size and simple signal conditioning, in comparison with other high-temperature sensing techniques. This paper presented an overview of high-temperature piezoelectric sensing techniques. Firstly, different types of high-temperature piezoelectric single crystals, electrode materials, and their pros and cons are discussed. Secondly, recent work on high-temperature piezoelectric sensors including accelerometer, surface acoustic wave sensor, ultrasound transducer, acoustic emission sensor, gas sensor, and pressure sensor for temperatures up to 1,250 °C were reviewed. Finally, discussions of existing challenges and future work for high-temperature piezoelectric sensing are presented. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sensors for Harsh-Environment Applications)

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18 pages, 1448 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Enhanced Sensitivity of Anti-Symmetrically Structured Surface Plasmon Resonance Sensors with Zinc Oxide Intermediate Layers

by Nan-Fu Chiu^*, Yi-Chen Tu and Teng-Yi Huang

Institute of Electro-Optical Science and Technology, National Taiwan Normal University, No. 88, Sec. 4, Ting-Chou Road, Taipei 11677, Taiwan

Sensors 2014, 14(1), 170-187; https://doi.org/10.3390/s140100170 - 20 Dec 2013

Cited by 45 | Viewed by 9154

Abstract

We report a novel design wherein high-refractive-index zinc oxide (ZnO) intermediary layers are used in anti-symmetrically structured surface plasmon resonance (SPR) devices to enhance signal quality and improve the full width at half maximum (FWHM) of the SPR reflectivity curve. The surface plasmon [...] Read more.

We report a novel design wherein high-refractive-index zinc oxide (ZnO) intermediary layers are used in anti-symmetrically structured surface plasmon resonance (SPR) devices to enhance signal quality and improve the full width at half maximum (FWHM) of the SPR reflectivity curve. The surface plasmon (SP) modes of the ZnO intermediary layer were excited by irradiating both sides of the Au film, thus inducing a high electric field at the Au/ZnO interface. We demonstrated that an improvement in the ZnO (002) crystal orientation led to a decrease in the FWHM of the SPR reflectivity curves. We optimized the design of ZnO thin films using different parameters and performed analytical comparisons of the ZnO with conventional chromium (Cr) and indium tin oxide (ITO) intermediary layers. The present study is based on application of the Fresnel equation, which provides an explanation and verification for the observed narrow SPR reflectivity curve and optical transmittance spectra exhibited by (ZnO/Au), (Cr/Au), and (ITO/Au) devices. On exposure to ethanol, the anti-symmetrically structured showed a huge electric field at the Au/ZnO interface and a 2-fold decrease in the FWHM value and a 1.3-fold larger shift in angle interrogation and a 4.5-fold high-sensitivity shift in intensity interrogation. The anti-symmetrically structured of ZnO intermediate layers exhibited a wider linearity range and much higher sensitivity. It also exhibited a good linear relationship between the incident angle and ethanol concentration in the tested range. Thus, we demonstrated a novel and simple method for fabricating high-sensitivity, high-resolution SPR biosensors that provide high accuracy and precision over relevant ranges of analyte measurement. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Chemical Sensors)

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24 pages, 1714 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Efficiency Enhancement of a Cantilever-Based Vibration Energy Harvester

by Ali E. Kubba^1,* and Kyle Jiang²

¹ Fusion Innovations Ltd., Research and Innovation Services, Birmingham Research Park, Vincent Drive, Edgbaston, Birmingham, B15 2SQ, UK

² School of Mechanical Engineering, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, Birmingham, B15 2TT, UK

Sensors 2014, 14(1), 188-211; https://doi.org/10.3390/s140100188 - 23 Dec 2013

Cited by 42 | Viewed by 8576

Abstract

Extracting energy from ambient vibration to power wireless sensor nodes has been an attractive area of research, particularly in the automotive monitoring field. This article reports the design, analysis and testing of a vibration energy harvesting device based on a miniature asymmetric air-spaced [...] Read more.

Extracting energy from ambient vibration to power wireless sensor nodes has been an attractive area of research, particularly in the automotive monitoring field. This article reports the design, analysis and testing of a vibration energy harvesting device based on a miniature asymmetric air-spaced cantilever. The developed design offers high power density, and delivers electric power that is sufficient to support most wireless sensor nodes for structural health monitoring (SHM) applications. The optimized design underwent three evolutionary steps, starting from a simple cantilever design, going through an air-spaced cantilever, and ending up with an optimized air-spaced geometry with boosted power density level. Finite Element Analysis (FEA) was used as an initial tool to compare the three geometries’ stiffness (K), output open-circuit voltage (V_ave), and average normal strain in the piezoelectric transducer (ε_ave) that directly affect its output voltage. Experimental tests were also carried out in order to examine the energy harvesting level in each of the three designs. The experimental results show how to boost the power output level in a thin air-spaced cantilever beam for energy within the same space envelope. The developed thin air-spaced cantilever (8.37 cm³), has a maximum power output of 2.05 mW (H = 29.29 μJ/cycle). Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Sensor Networks)

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17 pages, 355 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Set Up of an Automatic Water Quality Sampling System in Irrigation Agriculture

by Emanuel Heinz^1,*, Philipp Kraft¹

, Caroline Buchen^1,†, Hans-Georg Frede¹, Eugenio Aquino² and Lutz Breuer¹

¹ Institute for Landscape Ecology and Resources Management, Research Centre for BioSystems, Land Use and Nutrition (IFZ), University Giessen, Heinrich-Buff-Ring 26, Giessen 35392, Germany

² International Rice Research Institute, Los Baños 4030, Philippines

^† Present address: Thünen Institute of Climate-Smart Agriculture, Bundesallee 50, Braunschweig 38116, Germany

Sensors 2014, 14(1), 212-228; https://doi.org/10.3390/s140100212 - 23 Dec 2013

Cited by 25 | Viewed by 11159

Abstract

We have developed a high-resolution automatic sampling system for continuous in situ measurements of stable water isotopic composition and nitrogen solutes along with hydrological information. The system facilitates concurrent monitoring of a large number of water and nutrient fluxes (ground, surface, irrigation and [...] Read more.

We have developed a high-resolution automatic sampling system for continuous in situ measurements of stable water isotopic composition and nitrogen solutes along with hydrological information. The system facilitates concurrent monitoring of a large number of water and nutrient fluxes (ground, surface, irrigation and rain water) in irrigated agriculture. For this purpose we couple an automatic sampling system with a Wavelength-Scanned Cavity Ring Down Spectrometry System (WS-CRDS) for stable water isotope analysis (δ²H and δ¹⁸O), a reagentless hyperspectral UV photometer (ProPS) for monitoring nitrate content and various water level sensors for hydrometric information. The automatic sampling system consists of different sampling stations equipped with pumps, a switch cabinet for valve and pump control and a computer operating the system. The complete system is operated via internet-based control software, allowing supervision from nearly anywhere. The system is currently set up at the International Rice Research Institute (Los Baños, The Philippines) in a diversified rice growing system to continuously monitor water and nutrient fluxes. Here we present the system’s technical set-up and provide initial proof-of-concept with results for the isotopic composition of different water sources and nitrate values from the 2012 dry season. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Sensor Networks)

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16 pages, 1079 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Integrated Cantilever-Based Flow Sensors with Tunable Sensitivity for In-Line Monitoring of Flow Fluctuations in Microfluidic Systems

by Nadine Noeth, Stephan Sylvest Keller^* and Anja Boisen

Department of Micro- and Nanotechnology, Technical University of Denmark, DTU Nanotech, Building 345E, DK-2800 Kgs. Lyngby, Denmark

Sensors 2014, 14(1), 229-244; https://doi.org/10.3390/s140100229 - 23 Dec 2013

Cited by 34 | Viewed by 8801

Abstract

For devices such as bio-/chemical sensors in microfluidic systems, flow fluctuations result in noise in the sensor output. Here, we demonstrate in-line monitoring of flow fluctuations with a cantilever-like sensor integrated in a microfluidic channel. The cantilevers are fabricated in different materials (SU-8 [...] Read more.

For devices such as bio-/chemical sensors in microfluidic systems, flow fluctuations result in noise in the sensor output. Here, we demonstrate in-line monitoring of flow fluctuations with a cantilever-like sensor integrated in a microfluidic channel. The cantilevers are fabricated in different materials (SU-8 and SiN) and with different thicknesses. The integration of arrays of holes with different hole size and number of holes allows the modification of device sensitivity, theoretical detection limit and measurement range. For an average flow in the microliter range, the cantilever deflection is directly proportional to the flow rate fluctuations in the microfluidic channel. The SiN cantilevers show a detection limit below 1 nL/min and the thinnest SU-8 cantilevers a detection limit below 5 nL/min. Finally, the sensor is applied for in-line monitoring of flow fluctuations generated by external pumps connected to the microfluidic system. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Nanomechanical Sensors)

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27 pages, 1329 KiB

Open AccessReview

Silicon Nanowire‐Based Devices for Gas-Phase Sensing

by Anping Cao, Ernst J.R. Sudhölter and Louis C.P.M. De Smet^*

Department of Chemical Engineering, Delft University of Technology, Julianalaan 136, Delft 2628 BL, The Netherlands

Sensors 2014, 14(1), 245-271; https://doi.org/10.3390/s140100245 - 24 Dec 2013

Cited by 132 | Viewed by 17643

Abstract

Since their introduction in 2001, SiNW-based sensor devices have attracted considerable interest as a general platform for ultra-sensitive, electrical detection of biological and chemical species. Most studies focus on detecting, sensing and monitoring analytes in aqueous solution, but the number of studies on [...] Read more.

Since their introduction in 2001, SiNW-based sensor devices have attracted considerable interest as a general platform for ultra-sensitive, electrical detection of biological and chemical species. Most studies focus on detecting, sensing and monitoring analytes in aqueous solution, but the number of studies on sensing gases and vapors using SiNW-based devices is increasing. This review gives an overview of selected research papers related to the application of electrical SiNW-based devices in the gas phase that have been reported over the past 10 years. Special attention is given to surface modification strategies and the sensing principles involved. In addition, future steps and technological challenges in this field are addressed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Gas Sensors - 2013)

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11 pages, 710 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Optical Sensing Using Dark Mode Excitation in an Asymmetric Dimer Metamaterial

by Ndubuisi E. J. Omaghali¹, Volodymyr Tkachenko², Antonello Andreone^1,* and Giancarlo Abbate¹

¹ CNR-SPIN and Physics Department, University of Naples Federico II, via Cinthia, Monte S. Angelo 80126, Napoli, Italy

² CNR-SPIN, via Cinthia, Monte S. Angelo 80126, Napoli, Italy

Sensors 2014, 14(1), 272-282; https://doi.org/10.3390/s140100272 - 24 Dec 2013

Cited by 43 | Viewed by 8660

Abstract

We study the presence of dark and bright modes in a planar metamaterial with a double rod unit cell introducing geometric asymmetry in rod lengths. The dark mode displays a Fano-type resonance with a sharp asymmetric profile, rendering it far more sensitive than [...] Read more.

We study the presence of dark and bright modes in a planar metamaterial with a double rod unit cell introducing geometric asymmetry in rod lengths. The dark mode displays a Fano-type resonance with a sharp asymmetric profile, rendering it far more sensitive than the bright mode to slight variations of the dielectric environment. This peculiar feature may envisage the possible application of the asymmetric dimer metamaterial as an optical sensor for chemical or biological analysis, provided that the effect of material losses on the dark mode quality factor is properly taken into account. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Physical Sensors)

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16 pages, 720 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Fault Detection of Roller-Bearings Using Signal Processing and Optimization Algorithms

by Dae-Ho Kwak, Dong-Han Lee, Jong-Hyo Ahn and Bong-Hwan Koh^*

Department of Mechanical, Robotics and Energy Engineering, Dongguk University-Seoul, 30 Pildong-ro, 1-gil, Jung-gu, Seoul 100-715, Korea

Sensors 2014, 14(1), 283-298; https://doi.org/10.3390/s140100283 - 24 Dec 2013

Cited by 27 | Viewed by 7733

Abstract

This study presents a fault detection of roller bearings through signal processing and optimization techniques. After the occurrence of scratch-type defects on the inner race of bearings, variations of kurtosis values are investigated in terms of two different data processing techniques: minimum entropy [...] Read more.

This study presents a fault detection of roller bearings through signal processing and optimization techniques. After the occurrence of scratch-type defects on the inner race of bearings, variations of kurtosis values are investigated in terms of two different data processing techniques: minimum entropy deconvolution (MED), and the Teager-Kaiser Energy Operator (TKEO). MED and the TKEO are employed to qualitatively enhance the discrimination of defect-induced repeating peaks on bearing vibration data with measurement noise. Given the perspective of the execution sequence of MED and the TKEO, the study found that the kurtosis sensitivity towards a defect on bearings could be highly improved. Also, the vibration signal from both healthy and damaged bearings is decomposed into multiple intrinsic mode functions (IMFs), through empirical mode decomposition (EMD). The weight vectors of IMFs become design variables for a genetic algorithm (GA). The weights of each IMF can be optimized through the genetic algorithm, to enhance the sensitivity of kurtosis on damaged bearing signals. Experimental results show that the EMD-GA approach successfully improved the resolution of detectability between a roller bearing with defect, and an intact system. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Sensor Networks)

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47 pages, 981 KiB

Open AccessReview

Bio-Mimic Optimization Strategies in Wireless Sensor Networks: A Survey

by Md. Akhtaruzzaman Adnan^1,*, Mohammd Abdur Razzaque¹, Ishtiaque Ahmed² and Ismail Fauzi Isnin¹

¹ Faculty of Computing, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 81310 Skudai, Johor, Malaysia

² Faculty of Civil Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 81310 Skudai, Johor, Malaysia

Sensors 2014, 14(1), 299-345; https://doi.org/10.3390/s140100299 - 24 Dec 2013

Cited by 106 | Viewed by 14351

Abstract

For the past 20 years, many authors have focused their investigations on wireless sensor networks. Various issues related to wireless sensor networks such as energy minimization (optimization), compression schemes, self-organizing network algorithms, routing protocols, quality of service management, security, energy harvesting, etc., [...] Read more.

For the past 20 years, many authors have focused their investigations on wireless sensor networks. Various issues related to wireless sensor networks such as energy minimization (optimization), compression schemes, self-organizing network algorithms, routing protocols, quality of service management, security, energy harvesting, etc., have been extensively explored. The three most important issues among these are energy efficiency, quality of service and security management. To get the best possible results in one or more of these issues in wireless sensor networks optimization is necessary. Furthermore, in number of applications (e.g., body area sensor networks, vehicular ad hoc networks) these issues might conflict and require a trade-off amongst them. Due to the high energy consumption and data processing requirements, the use of classical algorithms has historically been disregarded. In this context contemporary researchers started using bio-mimetic strategy-based optimization techniques in the field of wireless sensor networks. These techniques are diverse and involve many different optimization algorithms. As far as we know, most existing works tend to focus only on optimization of one specific issue of the three mentioned above. It is high time that these individual efforts are put into perspective and a more holistic view is taken. In this paper we take a step in that direction by presenting a survey of the literature in the area of wireless sensor network optimization concentrating especially on the three most widely used bio-mimetic algorithms, namely, particle swarm optimization, ant colony optimization and genetic algorithm. In addition, to stimulate new research and development interests in this field, open research issues, challenges and future research directions are highlighted. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Sensor Networks)

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10 pages, 407 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Development of an Antigen-DNAzyme Based Probe for a Direct Antibody-Antigen Assay Using the Intrinsic DNAzyme Activity of a Daunomycin Aptamer

by Noorsharmimi Omar¹, Qiuting Loh¹, Gee Jun Tye¹, Yee Siew Choong¹

, Rahmah Noordin¹, Jörn Glökler² and Theam Soon Lim^1,*

¹ Institute for Research in Molecular Medicine, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Minden 11800, Penang, Malaysia

² Department of Molecular Biotechnology and Functional Genomics, Technical University of Applied Sciences Wildau, Bahnhofstr. 1, Wildau 15745, Germany

Sensors 2014, 14(1), 346-355; https://doi.org/10.3390/s140100346 - 27 Dec 2013

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 7688

Abstract

G-Quadruplex (G-4) structures are formed when G-rich DNA sequences fold into intra- or intermolecular four-stranded structures in the presence of metal ions. G-4-hemin complexes are often effective peroxidase-mimicking DNAzymes that are applied in many detection systems. This work reports the application of a [...] Read more.

G-Quadruplex (G-4) structures are formed when G-rich DNA sequences fold into intra- or intermolecular four-stranded structures in the presence of metal ions. G-4-hemin complexes are often effective peroxidase-mimicking DNAzymes that are applied in many detection systems. This work reports the application of a G-rich daunomycin-specific aptamer for the development of an antibody-antigen detection assay. We investigated the ability of the daunomycin aptamer to efficiently catalyze the hemin-dependent peroxidase activity independent of daunomycin. A reporter probe consisting of biotinylated antigen and daunomycin aptamer coupled to streptavidin gold nanoparticles was successfully used to generate a colorimetric readout. In conclusion, the daunomycin aptamer can function as a robust alternative DNAzyme for the development of colorimetric assays. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Aptasensors)

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14 pages, 785 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Continuous Monitoring of Turning in Patients with Movement Disability

by Mahmoud El-Gohary^1,*, Sean Pearson¹, James McNames¹, Martina Mancini², Fay Horak², Sabato Mellone³

and Lorenzo Chiari³

¹ APDM, Inc., Portland, OR 97201, USA

² Oregon Health & Science University, Portland, OR 97239, USA

³ University of Bologna, Bologna 40126, Italy

Sensors 2014, 14(1), 356-369; https://doi.org/10.3390/s140100356 - 27 Dec 2013

Cited by 207 | Viewed by 14973

Abstract

Difficulty with turning is a major contributor to mobility disability and falls in people with movement disorders, such as Parkinson’s disease (PD). Turning often results in freezing and/or falling in patients with PD. However, asking a patient to execute a turn in the [...] Read more.

Difficulty with turning is a major contributor to mobility disability and falls in people with movement disorders, such as Parkinson’s disease (PD). Turning often results in freezing and/or falling in patients with PD. However, asking a patient to execute a turn in the clinic often does not reveal their impairments. Continuous monitoring of turning with wearable sensors during spontaneous daily activities may help clinicians and patients determine who is at risk of falls and could benefit from preventative interventions. In this study, we show that continuous monitoring of natural turning with wearable sensors during daily activities inside and outside the home is feasible for people with PD and elderly people. We developed an algorithm to detect and characterize turns during gait, using wearable inertial sensors. First, we validate the turning algorithm in the laboratory against a Motion Analysis system and against a video analysis of 21 PD patients and 19 control (CT) subjects wearing an inertial sensor on the pelvis. Compared to Motion Analysis and video, the algorithm maintained a sensitivity of 0.90 and 0.76 and a specificity of 0.75 and 0.65, respectively. Second, we apply the turning algorithm to data collected in the home from 12 PD and 18 CT subjects. The algorithm successfully detects turn characteristics, and the results show that, compared to controls, PD subjects tend to take shorter turns with smaller turn angles and more steps. Furthermore, PD subjects show more variability in all turn metrics throughout the day and the week. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Wearable Gait Sensors)

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12 pages, 3072 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Integration of Human Walking Gyroscopic Data Using Empirical Mode Decomposition

by Vincent Bonnet^1,*, Sofiane Ramdani¹, Christine Azevedo-Coste^2,3, Philippe Fraisse², Claudia Mazzà^4,5 and Aurelio Cappozzo⁵

¹ Movement to Health (M2H) Laboratory, EuroMov, University of Montpellier 1, Montpellier 34090, France

² LIRMM, University of Montpellier 2, Montpellier 34090, France

³ INRIA, DEMAR-LIRMM, Montpellier 34090, France

⁴ Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Sheffield, Sheffield S13JD, UK

⁵ Department of Movement, Human and Health Sciences, University of Rome "Foro Italico", Rome 00135, Italy

Sensors 2014, 14(1), 370-381; https://doi.org/10.3390/s140100370 - 27 Dec 2013

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 8004

Abstract

The present study was aimed at evaluating the Empirical Mode Decomposition (EMD) method to estimate the 3D orientation of the lower trunk during walking using the angular velocity signals generated by a wearable inertial measurement unit (IMU) and notably flawed by drift. The [...] Read more.

The present study was aimed at evaluating the Empirical Mode Decomposition (EMD) method to estimate the 3D orientation of the lower trunk during walking using the angular velocity signals generated by a wearable inertial measurement unit (IMU) and notably flawed by drift. The IMU was mounted on the lower trunk (L4-L5) with its active axes aligned with the relevant anatomical axes. The proposed method performs an offline analysis, but has the advantage of not requiring any parameter tuning. The method was validated in two groups of 15 subjects, one during overground walking, with 180° turns, and the other during treadmill walking, both for steady-state and transient speeds, using stereophotogrammetric data. Comparative analysis of the results showed that the IMU/EMD method is able to successfully detrend the integrated angular velocities and estimate lateral bending, flexion-extension as well as axial rotations of the lower trunk during walking with RMS errors of 1 deg for straight walking and lower than 2.5 deg for walking with turns. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Wearable Gait Sensors)

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21 pages, 1791 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Vibration Sensor Data Denoising Using a Time-Frequency Manifold for Machinery Fault Diagnosis

by Qingbo He^1,*, Xiangxiang Wang¹ and Qiang Zhou²

¹ Department of Precision Machinery and Precision Instrumentation, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei 230026, China

² Department of Systems Engineering and Engineering Management, City University of Hong Kong, Tat Chee Avenue, Hong Kong, China

Sensors 2014, 14(1), 382-402; https://doi.org/10.3390/s140100382 - 27 Dec 2013

Cited by 45 | Viewed by 10808

Abstract

Vibration sensor data from a mechanical system are often associated with important measurement information useful for machinery fault diagnosis. However, in practice the existence of background noise makes it difficult to identify the fault signature from the sensing data. This paper introduces the [...] Read more.

Vibration sensor data from a mechanical system are often associated with important measurement information useful for machinery fault diagnosis. However, in practice the existence of background noise makes it difficult to identify the fault signature from the sensing data. This paper introduces the time-frequency manifold (TFM) concept into sensor data denoising and proposes a novel denoising method for reliable machinery fault diagnosis. The TFM signature reflects the intrinsic time-frequency structure of a non-stationary signal. The proposed method intends to realize data denoising by synthesizing the TFM using time-frequency synthesis and phase space reconstruction (PSR) synthesis. Due to the merits of the TFM in noise suppression and resolution enhancement, the denoised signal would have satisfactory denoising effects, as well as inherent time-frequency structure keeping. Moreover, this paper presents a clustering-based statistical parameter to evaluate the proposed method, and also presents a new diagnostic approach, called frequency probability time series (FPTS) spectral analysis, to show its effectiveness in fault diagnosis. The proposed TFM-based data denoising method has been employed to deal with a set of vibration sensor data from defective bearings, and the results verify that for machinery fault diagnosis the method is superior to two traditional denoising methods. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Physical Sensors)

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13 pages, 1004 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Physical Characterization and Effect of Effective Surface Area on the Sensing Properties of Tin Dioxide Thin Solid Films in a Propane Atmosphere

by Heberto Gómez-Pozos¹, José Luis González-Vidal¹, Gonzalo Alberto Torres¹, María De la Luz Olvera² and Luis Castañeda^3,*

¹ Académica de Computación, ICBI, Universidad Autónoma del Estado de Hidalgo, Mineral de la Reforma, 56092 Hidalgo, Mexico

² Departamento de Ingeniería Eléctrica-SEES, Centro de Investigación y de Estudios Avanzados del Instituto Politécnico Nacional, CINVESTAV-IPN, Apartado postal 14740, México D.F. 07000, Mexico

³ Escuela Superior de Ingeniería Mecánica y Eléctrica Unidad Ticomán, Instituto Politécnico Nacional, 07340 México, D.F., Mexico

Sensors 2014, 14(1), 403-415; https://doi.org/10.3390/s140100403 - 27 Dec 2013

Cited by 30 | Viewed by 6274

Abstract

The physical properties and the effect of effective surface area (ESA) on the sensing properties of tin dioxide [SnO₂] thin films in air and propane [C₃H₈] atmosphere as a function of operating temperature and gas concentration have [...] Read more.

The physical properties and the effect of effective surface area (ESA) on the sensing properties of tin dioxide [SnO₂] thin films in air and propane [C₃H₈] atmosphere as a function of operating temperature and gas concentration have been studied in this paper. SnO₂ thin films with different estimated thicknesses (50, 100 and 200 nm) were deposited on glass substrates by the chemical spray technique. Besides, they were prepared at two different deposition temperatures (400 and 475 °C). Tin chloride [SnCl₄∙5H₂O] with 0.2 M concentration value and ethanol [C₂H₆O] were used as tin precursor and solvent, respectively. The morphological, and structural properties of the as-prepared films were analyzed by AFM and XRD, respectively. Gas sensing characteristics of SnO₂ thin solid films were measured at operating temperatures of 22, 100, 200, and 300 °C, and at propane concentration levels (0, 5, 50, 100, 200, 300, 400, and 500 ppm). ESA values were calculated for each sample. It was found that the ESA increased with the increasing thickness of the films. The results demonstrated the importance of the achieving of a large effective surface area for improving gas sensing performance. SnO₂ thin films deposited by spray chemical were chosen to study the ESA effect on gas sensing properties because their very rough surfaces were appropriate for this application. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Physical Sensors)

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15 pages, 600 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A FPGA Embedded Web Server for Remote Monitoring and Control of Smart Sensors Networks

by Eduardo Magdaleno^1,*, Manuel Rodríguez¹, Fernando Pérez², David Hernández¹ and Enrique García¹

¹ Department of Fundamental and Experimental Electronic, Physics and Systems, Universidad de La Laguna, Avd. Francisco Sanchez s/n, 38203 La Laguna, Spain

² Department of Statistics, Operations Research and Computation, Universidad de La Laguna, Avd. Francisco Sanchez s/n, 38203 La Laguna, Spain

Sensors 2014, 14(1), 416-430; https://doi.org/10.3390/s140100416 - 27 Dec 2013

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 8912

Abstract

This article describes the implementation of a web server using an embedded Altera NIOS II IP core, a general purpose and configurable RISC processor which is embedded in a Cyclone FPGA. The processor uses the μCLinux operating system to support a Boa web [...] Read more.

This article describes the implementation of a web server using an embedded Altera NIOS II IP core, a general purpose and configurable RISC processor which is embedded in a Cyclone FPGA. The processor uses the μCLinux operating system to support a Boa web server of dynamic pages using Common Gateway Interface (CGI). The FPGA is configured to act like the master node of a network, and also to control and monitor a network of smart sensors or instruments. In order to develop a totally functional system, the FPGA also includes an implementation of the time-triggered protocol (TTP/A). Thus, the implemented master node has two interfaces, the webserver that acts as an Internet interface and the other to control the network. This protocol is widely used to connecting smart sensors and actuators and microsystems in embedded real-time systems in different application domains, e.g., industrial, automotive, domotic, etc., although this protocol can be easily replaced by any other because of the inherent characteristics of the FPGA-based technology. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue State-of-the-Art Sensors Technology in Spain 2013)

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12 pages, 764 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Performance Analysis of Distributed Brillouin Corrosion Sensors for Steel Reinforced Concrete Structures

by Heming Wei¹, Xuefeng Zhao^2,*,†, Xianglong Kong³, Pinglei Zhang¹, Yanjun Cui² and Changsen Sun^1,*,†

¹ College of Physics and Optoelectronic Engineering, Dalian University of Technology, Dalian 116024, China

² Department of Civil Engineering, Dalian University of Technology, Dalian 116024, China

³ Power Plant Life Management Research Center, Suzhou Nuclear Power Research Institute, Suzhou 215004, China

^† Xuefeng Zhao for corrosion monitoring, Changsen Sun for optical methods.

Sensors 2014, 14(1), 431-442; https://doi.org/10.3390/s140100431 - 27 Dec 2013

Cited by 36 | Viewed by 7808

Abstract

The Brillouin optical time-domain analysis (BOTDA)-based optical fiber method has been proposed to measure strain variations caused by corrosion expansion. Spatial resolutions of 1 m can be achieved with this kind of Brillouin sensor for detecting the distributed strain. However, when the sensing [...] Read more.

The Brillouin optical time-domain analysis (BOTDA)-based optical fiber method has been proposed to measure strain variations caused by corrosion expansion. Spatial resolutions of 1 m can be achieved with this kind of Brillouin sensor for detecting the distributed strain. However, when the sensing fiber is wound around the steel rebar in a number of circles in a range of several meters, this spatial resolution still has limitations for corrosion monitoring. Here, we employed a low-coherent fiber-optic strain sensor (LCFS) to survey the performance of Brillouin sensors based on the fact that the deformation measured by the LCFS equals the integral of the strains obtained from Brillouin sensors. An electrochemical accelerated corrosion experiment was carried out and the corrosion expansion was monitored by both BOTDA and the LCFS. Results demonstrated that the BOTDA can only measure the expansion strain of about 1,000 με, which was generated by the 18 mm steel rebar corrosion, but, the LCFS had high sensitivity from the beginning of corrosion to the destruction of the structure, and no obvious difference in expansion speed was observed during the acceleration stage of the corrosion developed in the reinforced concrete (RC) specimens. These results proved that the BOTDA method could only be employed to monitor the corrosion inside the structure in the early stage. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Photonic Sensors for Industrial, Environmental and Health Monitoring)

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15 pages, 940 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Gait and Foot Clearance Parameters Obtained Using Shoe-Worn Inertial Sensors in a Large-Population Sample of Older Adults

by Farzin Dadashi^1,*, Benoit Mariani¹, Stephane Rochat², Christophe J. Büla², Brigitte Santos-Eggimann³ and Kamiar Aminian^1,*

¹ Laboratory of Movement Analysis and Measurement, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), Lausanne 1015, Switzerland

² Service of Geriatric Medicine and Geriatric Rehabilitation, University of Lausanne Medical Center, Epalinges 1066, Switzerland

³ Institute of Social and Preventive Medicine (IUMSP), University of Lausanne Medical Center, Lausanne 1010, Switzerland

Sensors 2014, 14(1), 443-457; https://doi.org/10.3390/s140100443 - 27 Dec 2013

Cited by 143 | Viewed by 15144

Abstract

In order to distinguish dysfunctional gait, clinicians require a measure of reference gait parameters for each population. This study provided normative values for widely used parameters in more than 1,400 able-bodied adults over the age of 65. We also measured the foot clearance [...] Read more.

In order to distinguish dysfunctional gait, clinicians require a measure of reference gait parameters for each population. This study provided normative values for widely used parameters in more than 1,400 able-bodied adults over the age of 65. We also measured the foot clearance parameters (i.e., height of the foot above ground during swing phase) that are crucial to understand the complex relationship between gait and falls as well as obstacle negotiation strategies. We used a shoe-worn inertial sensor on each foot and previously validated algorithms to extract the gait parameters during 20 m walking trials in a corridor at a self-selected pace. We investigated the difference of the gait parameters between male and female participants by considering the effect of age and height factors. Besides; we examined the inter-relation of the clearance parameters with the gait speed. The sample size and breadth of gait parameters provided in this study offer a unique reference resource for the researchers. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Wearable Gait Sensors)

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10 pages, 214 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Mycobacterium tuberculosis DNA Detection Using Surface Plasmon Resonance Modulated by Telecommunication Wavelength

by Shih-Hsiang Hsu¹, Yan-Yu Lin¹, Shao-Hsi Lu¹, I-Fang Tsai², Yen-Ta Lu^3,4 and Hsin-Tsung Ho^4,5,*

¹ Department of Electronic Engineering, National Taiwan University of Science and Technology, No. 43, Sec. 4, Keelung Rd., Taipei 10607, Taiwan

² Department of Medical Research, Mackay Memorial Hospital, Taipei 25160, Taiwan

³ Division of Chest Medicine, Department of Internal Medicine, Mackay Memorial Hospital, Taipei 10449, Taiwan

⁴ Department of Medicine, Mackay Medical College, 25245, New Taipei City, Taiwan

⁵ Department of Laboratory Medicine, Mackay Memorial Hospital, Taipei 25160, Taiwan

Sensors 2014, 14(1), 458-467; https://doi.org/10.3390/s140100458 - 27 Dec 2013

Cited by 19 | Viewed by 6567

Abstract

A surface plasmon resonance sensor for Mycobacterium tuberculosis (MTB) deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) is developed using repeatable telecommunication wavelength modulation based on optical fiber communications laser wavelength and stability. MTB DNA concentrations of 1 μg/mL and 10 μg/mL were successfully demonstrated to [...] Read more.

A surface plasmon resonance sensor for Mycobacterium tuberculosis (MTB) deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) is developed using repeatable telecommunication wavelength modulation based on optical fiber communications laser wavelength and stability. MTB DNA concentrations of 1 μg/mL and 10 μg/mL were successfully demonstrated to have the same spectral half-width in the dip for optimum coupling. The sensitivity was shown to be −0.087 dB/(μg/mL) at all applied telecommunication wavelengths and the highest sensitivity achieved was 115 ng/mL without thiolated DNA immobilization onto a gold plate, which is better than the sensor limit of 400 ng/mL possible with commercial biosensor equipment. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Biosensors)

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10 pages, 577 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Remote Management for Multipoint Sensing Systems Using Hetero-Core Spliced Optical Fiber Sensors

by Lee See Goh, Yuji Anoda, Watanabe Kazuhiro and Norihiko Shinomiya^*

Graduate School of Engineering, Soka University, 1-236, Tangi-machi, Hachioji-shi, Tokyo 192-8577, Japan

Sensors 2014, 14(1), 468-477; https://doi.org/10.3390/s140100468 - 27 Dec 2013

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 6744

Abstract

This paper describes the design and experimental verification of a multipoint sensing system with hetero-core spliced optical fiber sensors and its remote management using an internet-standard protocol. The study proposes two different types of design and conducts experiments to verify those systems’ feasibility. [...] Read more.

This paper describes the design and experimental verification of a multipoint sensing system with hetero-core spliced optical fiber sensors and its remote management using an internet-standard protocol. The study proposes two different types of design and conducts experiments to verify those systems’ feasibility. In order to manage the sensing systems remotely, the management method uses a standard operation and maintenance protocol for internet: the Simple Network Management Protocol is proposed. The purpose of this study is to construct a multipoint sensing system remote management tool by which the system can also determine the status and the identity of fiber optic sensors. The constructed sensing systems are verified and the results have demonstrated that the first proposed system can distinguish the responses from different hetero-core spliced optical fiber sensors remotely. The second proposed system shows that data communications are performed successfully while identifying the status of hetero-core spliced optical fiber sensors remotely. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Photonic Sensors for Industrial, Environmental and Health Monitoring)

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14 pages, 404 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Novel Assessment of Flexibility by Microcirculatory Signals

by Jian-Guo Bau¹, Taipau Chia², Yu-Fang Chung³, Kun-Hao Chen³ and Shyi-Kuen Wu^4,*

¹ Department of Biomedical Engineering, Hungkuang University, No. 1018, Sec. 6, Taiwan Boulevard, Taichung City 43302, Taiwan

² Department of Safety, Health and Environmental Engineering, Hungkuang University, No. 1018, Sec. 6, Taiwan Boulevard, Taichung City 43302, Taiwan

³ Department of Electrical Engineering, Tunghai University, No. 1727 Sec. 4, Taiwan Boulevard, Taichung City 40704, Taiwan

⁴ Department of Physical Therapy, Hungkuang University, No. 1018, Sec. 6, Taiwan Boulevard, Taichung City 43302, Taiwan

Sensors 2014, 14(1), 478-491; https://doi.org/10.3390/s140100478 - 30 Dec 2013

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 7177

Abstract

Flexibility testing is one of the most important fitness assessments. It is generally evaluated by measuring the range of motion (RoM) of body segments around a joint center. This study presents a novel assessment of flexibility in the microcirculatory aspect. Eighteen college students [...] Read more.

Flexibility testing is one of the most important fitness assessments. It is generally evaluated by measuring the range of motion (RoM) of body segments around a joint center. This study presents a novel assessment of flexibility in the microcirculatory aspect. Eighteen college students were recruited for the flexibility assessment. The flexibility of the leg was defined according to the angle of active ankle dorsiflexion measured by goniometry. Six legs were excluded, and the remaining thirty legs were categorized into two groups, group H (n = 15 with higher flexibility) and group L (n = 15 with lower flexibility), according to their RoM. The microcirculatory signals of the gastrocnemius muscle on the belly were monitored by using Laser-Doppler Flowmetry (LDF) with a noninvasive skin probe. Three indices of nonpulsatile component (DC), pulsatile component (AC) and perfusion pulsatility (PP) were defined from the LDF signals after signal processing. The results revealed that both the DC and AC values of the group H that demonstrated higher stability underwent muscle stretching. In contrast, these indices of group L had interferences and became unstable during muscle stretching. The PP value of group H was a little higher than that of group L. These primary findings help us to understand the microcirculatory physiology of flexibility, and warrant further investigations for use of non-invasive LDF techniques in the assessment of flexibility. Full article

(This article belongs to the Collection Sensors for Globalized Healthy Living and Wellbeing)

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18 pages, 1262 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Application of InSAR and GIS Techniques to Ground Subsidence Assessment in the Nobi Plain, Central Japan

by Minxue Zheng¹, Kaoru Fukuyama¹ and Kazadi Sanga-Ngoie^2,*

¹ Graduate School of Bioresources, Mie University, Tsu, Mie 514-8507, Japan

² Laboratory of Environmental Geoscience, Ritsumeikan Asia Pacific University, Beppu, Oita 874-8577, Japan

Sensors 2014, 14(1), 492-509; https://doi.org/10.3390/s140100492 - 31 Dec 2013

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 6873

Abstract

Spatial variation and temporal changes in ground subsidence over the Nobi Plain, Central Japan, are assessed using GIS techniques and ground level measurements data taken over this area since the 1970s. Notwithstanding the general slowing trend observed in ground subsidence over the plains, [...] Read more.

Spatial variation and temporal changes in ground subsidence over the Nobi Plain, Central Japan, are assessed using GIS techniques and ground level measurements data taken over this area since the 1970s. Notwithstanding the general slowing trend observed in ground subsidence over the plains, we have detected ground rise at some locations, more likely due to the ground expansion because of recovering groundwater levels and the tilting of the Nobi land mass. The problem of non-availability of upper-air meteorological information, especially the 3-dimensional water vapor distribution, during the JERS-1 observational period (1992–1998) was solved by applying the AWC (analog weather charts) method onto the high-precision GPV-MSM (Grid Point Value of Meso-Scale Model) water-vapor data to find the latter’s matching meteorological data. From the selected JERS-1 interferometry pair and the matching GPV-MSM meteorological data, the atmospheric path delay generated by water vapor inhomogeneity was then quantitatively evaluated. A highly uniform spatial distribution of the atmospheric delay, with a maximum deviation of approximately 38 mm in its horizontal distribution was found over the Plain. This confirms the effectiveness of using GPV-MSM data for SAR differential interferometric analysis, and sheds thus some new light on the possibility of improving InSAR analysis results for land subsidence applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Remote Sensors)

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22 pages, 924 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Modular Sensorized Mat for Monitoring Infant Posture

by Marco Donati^1,*, Francesca Cecchi¹, Filippo Bonaccorso¹, Marco Branciforte², Paolo Dario¹ and Nicola Vitiello¹

¹ The BioRobotics Institute, Scuola Superiore Sant'Anna, viale Rinaldo Piaggio 34, Pontedera (PI) 56025, Italy

² ST Microelectronics, Stradale Primosole 50, Catania (CT) 95121, Italy

Sensors 2014, 14(1), 510-531; https://doi.org/10.3390/s140100510 - 31 Dec 2013

Cited by 27 | Viewed by 9594

Abstract

We present a novel sensorized mat for monitoring infant’s posture through the measure of pressure maps. The pressure-sensitive mat is based on an optoelectronic technology developed in the last few years at Scuola Superiore Sant’Anna: a soft silicone skin cover, which constitutes the [...] Read more.

We present a novel sensorized mat for monitoring infant’s posture through the measure of pressure maps. The pressure-sensitive mat is based on an optoelectronic technology developed in the last few years at Scuola Superiore Sant’Anna: a soft silicone skin cover, which constitutes the mat, participates in the transduction principle and provides the mat with compliance. The device has a modular structure (with a minimum of one and a maximum of six sub-modules, and a total surface area of about 1 m²) that enables dimensional adaptation of the pressure-sensitive area to different specific applications. The system consists of on-board electronics for data collection, pre-elaboration, and transmission to a remote computing unit for analysis and posture classification. In this work we present a complete description of the sensing apparatus along with its experimental characterization and validation with five healthy infants. Full article

(This article belongs to the Collection Sensors for Globalized Healthy Living and Wellbeing)

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17 pages, 862 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Sources of High Variance between Probe Signals in Affymetrix Short Oligonucleotide Microarrays

by Roman Jaksik^1,*

, Michal Marczyk², Joanna Polanska²

and Joanna Rzeszowska-Wolny¹

¹ Systems Engineering Group, Faculty of Automatic Control, Electronics and Informatics, Silesian University of Technology, Gliwice 44-100, Poland

² Data Mining Group, Faculty of Automatic Control, Electronics and Informatics, Silesian University of Technology, Gliwice 44-100, Poland

Sensors 2014, 14(1), 532-548; https://doi.org/10.3390/s140100532 - 31 Dec 2013

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 6693

Abstract

High density oligonucleotide microarrays present a big challenge for statistical data processing methods which aim to separate changes induced by experimental factors from those caused by artifacts and measurement inaccuracies. Despite huge advances in the field of microarray probe design methods, the signal [...] Read more.

High density oligonucleotide microarrays present a big challenge for statistical data processing methods which aim to separate changes induced by experimental factors from those caused by artifacts and measurement inaccuracies. Despite huge advances in the field of microarray probe design methods, the signal variation between probes that target a single transcript is substantially larger than their between-replicate array variability, suggesting a large influence of various probe-specific effects that introduce bias to the data. In this work we present the influence of probe-related design variations on the expression intensities of individual probes, focusing on five potential sources of high probe signal variance: the GC composition of the probe, the distance between individual probe target sites, G-quadruplex formation in the probe sequence, the occurrence of sequence motifs complementary to the oligo(dT) primer, and the specificity of unrecognized alternative splicing probeset assignment. By focusing on two high quality microarray datasets based on two distinct array designs we show the extent of variance between probes that target a specific transcript providing guidelines for the future design of microarrays and data processing methods. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Microarray Sensors)

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15 pages, 7169 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Novel Encoded Excitation Scheme in a Phased Array for The Improving Data Acquisition Rate

by César Gutiérrez-Fernández, Ana Jiménez^*, Carlos Julián Martín-Arguedas, Jesús Ureña and Álvaro Hernández

Electronics Department, University of Alcalá, Campus Universitario. Ctra. Madrid-Barcelona Km. 33.600, Madrid 28805, Spain

Sensors 2014, 14(1), 549-563; https://doi.org/10.3390/s140100549 - 31 Dec 2013

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 6806

Abstract

One of the challenges of phased array (PA) ultrasonic imaging systems is their limited capability to deal with real-time applications, such as echocardiography and obstetrics. In its most basic outline, these systems require emitting and receiving with the entire array for each image [...] Read more.

One of the challenges of phased array (PA) ultrasonic imaging systems is their limited capability to deal with real-time applications, such as echocardiography and obstetrics. In its most basic outline, these systems require emitting and receiving with the entire array for each image line to be acquired; therefore, with many image lines, a higher acquisition time and a lower frame rate. This constraint requires one to find alternatives to reduce the total number of emissions needed to obtain the whole image. In this work, we propose a new PA scheme based on the Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) technique, where a different code is assigned to each steering direction, allowing the array to emit in several directions simultaneously. However, the use of encoding techniques produces a reduction of the image contrast because of the interferences between codes. To solve this, a new scheme based on merging several images is proposed, allowing the system to get close to the theoretical maximum frame rate, as well as to limit the loss of contrast, intrinsic to the technique. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue State-of-the-Art Sensors Technology in Spain 2013)

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11 pages, 574 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Two-Dimensional Flow Sensor with Integrated Micro Thermal Sensing Elements and a Back Propagation Neural Network

by Ruiyi Que and Rong Zhu^*

State Key Laboratory of Precision Measurement Technology and Instruments, Department of Precision Instruments, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China

Sensors 2014, 14(1), 564-574; https://doi.org/10.3390/s140100564 - 31 Dec 2013

Cited by 32 | Viewed by 8460

Abstract

This paper demonstrates a novel flow sensor with two-dimensional 360° direction sensitivity achieved with a simple structure and a novel data fusion algorithm. Four sensing elements with roundabout wires distributed in four quadrants of a circle compose the sensor probe, and work in [...] Read more.

This paper demonstrates a novel flow sensor with two-dimensional 360° direction sensitivity achieved with a simple structure and a novel data fusion algorithm. Four sensing elements with roundabout wires distributed in four quadrants of a circle compose the sensor probe, and work in constant temperature difference (CTD) mode as both Joule heaters and temperature detectors. The magnitude and direction of a fluid flow are measured by detecting flow-induced temperature differences among the four elements. The probe is made of Ti/Au thin-film with a diameter of 2 mm, and is fabricated using micromachining techniques. When a flow goes through the sensor, the flow-induced temperature differences are detected by the sensing elements that also serve as the heaters of the sensor. By measuring the temperature differences among the four sensing elements symmetrically distributed in the sensing area, a full 360° direction sensitivity can be obtained. By using a BP neural network to model the relationship between the readouts of the four sensor elements and flow parameters and execute data fusion, the magnitude and direction of the flow can be deduced. Validity of the sensor design was proven through both simulations and experiments. Wind tunnel experimental results show that the measurement accuracy of the airflow speed reaches 0.72 m/s in the range of 3 m/s–30 m/s and the measurement accuracy of flow direction angle reaches 1.9° in the range of 360°. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Physical Sensors)

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20 pages, 1339 KiB

Open AccessArticle

On the Capability of Smartphones to Perform as Communication Gateways in Medical Wireless Personal Area Networks

by María José Morón^*, Rafael Luque and Eduardo Casilari

Departamento Tecnología Electrónica, University of Málaga, ETSI Telecomunicación, 29071 Málaga, Spain

Sensors 2014, 14(1), 575-594; https://doi.org/10.3390/s140100575 - 2 Jan 2014

Cited by 37 | Viewed by 11035

Abstract

This paper evaluates and characterizes the technical performance of medical wireless personal area networks (WPANs) that are based on smartphones. For this purpose, a prototype of a health telemonitoring system is presented. The prototype incorporates a commercial Android smartphone, which acts as a [...] Read more.

This paper evaluates and characterizes the technical performance of medical wireless personal area networks (WPANs) that are based on smartphones. For this purpose, a prototype of a health telemonitoring system is presented. The prototype incorporates a commercial Android smartphone, which acts as a relay point, or “gateway”, between a set of wireless medical sensors and a data server. Additionally, the paper investigates if the conventional capabilities of current commercial smartphones can be affected by their useas gateways or “Holters” in health monitoring applications. Specifically, the profiling has focused on the CPU and power consumption of the mobile devices. These metrics have been measured under several test conditions modifying the smartphone model, the type of sensors connected to the WPAN, the employed Bluetooth profile (SPP (serial port profile) or HDP (health device profile)), the use of other peripherals, such as a GPS receiver, the impact of the use of the Wi-Fi interface or the employed method to encode and forward the data that are collected from the sensors. Full article

(This article belongs to the Collection Sensors for Globalized Healthy Living and Wellbeing)

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11 pages, 743 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Quality Factor Effect on the Wireless Range of Microstrip Patch Antenna Strain Sensors

by Ali Daliri^1,*, Amir Galehdar¹, Wayne S. T. Rowe¹, Sabu John², Chun H. Wang² and Kamran Ghorbani¹

¹ School of Electrical and Computer Engineering, RMIT University, GPO Box 2476, Melbourne, Victoria 3001, Australia

² School of Aerospace, Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering, RMIT University, PO Box 71, Bundoora, Victoria 3083, Australia

Sensors 2014, 14(1), 595-605; https://doi.org/10.3390/s140100595 - 2 Jan 2014

Cited by 31 | Viewed by 8875

Abstract

Recently introduced passive wireless strain sensors based on microstrip patch antennas have shown great potential for reliable health and usage monitoring in aerospace and civil industries. However, the wireless interrogation range of these sensors is limited to few centimeters, which restricts their practical [...] Read more.

Recently introduced passive wireless strain sensors based on microstrip patch antennas have shown great potential for reliable health and usage monitoring in aerospace and civil industries. However, the wireless interrogation range of these sensors is limited to few centimeters, which restricts their practical application. This paper presents an investigation on the effect of circular microstrip patch antenna (CMPA) design on the quality factor and the maximum practical wireless reading range of the sensor. The results reveal that by using appropriate substrate materials the interrogation distance of the CMPA sensor can be increased four-fold, from the previously reported 5 to 20 cm, thus improving considerably the viability of this type of wireless sensors for strain measurement and damage detection. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Physical Sensors)

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28 pages, 1798 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Design and Mechanical Evaluation of a Capacitive Sensor-Based Indexed Platform for Verification of Portable Coordinate Measuring Instruments

by Agustín Brau Avila^*

, Jorge Santolaria Mazo and Juan José Aguilar Martín

Department of Design and Manufacturing Engineering, University of Zaragoza, María de Luna 3, Zaragoza 50018, Spain

Sensors 2014, 14(1), 606-633; https://doi.org/10.3390/s140100606 - 2 Jan 2014

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 8026

Abstract

During the last years, the use of Portable Coordinate Measuring Machines (PCMMs) in industry has increased considerably, mostly due to their flexibility for accomplishing in-line measuring tasks as well as their reduced costs and operational advantages as compared to traditional coordinate measuring machines [...] Read more.

During the last years, the use of Portable Coordinate Measuring Machines (PCMMs) in industry has increased considerably, mostly due to their flexibility for accomplishing in-line measuring tasks as well as their reduced costs and operational advantages as compared to traditional coordinate measuring machines (CMMs). However, their operation has a significant drawback derived from the techniques applied in the verification and optimization procedures of their kinematic parameters. These techniques are based on the capture of data with the measuring instrument from a calibrated gauge object, fixed successively in various positions so that most of the instrument measuring volume is covered, which results in time-consuming, tedious and expensive verification procedures. In this work the mechanical design of an indexed metrology platform (IMP) is presented. The aim of the IMP is to increase the final accuracy and to radically simplify the calibration, identification and verification of geometrical parameter procedures of PCMMs. The IMP allows us to fix the calibrated gauge object and move the measuring instrument in such a way that it is possible to cover most of the instrument working volume, reducing the time and operator fatigue to carry out these types of procedures. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue State-of-the-Art Sensors Technology in Spain 2013)

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25 pages, 1098 KiB

Open AccessReview

Technological Solutions and Main Indices for the Assessment of Newborns’ Nutritive Sucking: A Review

by Eleonora Tamilia^1,*, Fabrizio Taffoni¹, Domenico Formica¹

, Luca Ricci¹, Emiliano Schena²

, Flavio Keller³ and Eugenio Guglielmelli¹

¹ Laboratory of Biomedical Robotics and Biomicrosystems, Center for Integrated Research, Università Campus Bio-Medico di Roma, Via Álvaro del Portillo, 21, Rome 00128, Italy

² Unit of Measurements and Biomedical Instrumentation, Center for Integrated Research, Università Campus Bio-Medico di Roma, Via Álvaro del Portillo, 21, Rome 00128, Italy

³ Laboratory of Developmental Neuroscience and Neural Plasticity, Center for Integrated Research, Università Campus Bio-Medico di Roma, Via Alvaro del Portillo, 28, Rome 00128, Italy

Sensors 2014, 14(1), 634-658; https://doi.org/10.3390/s140100634 - 2 Jan 2014

Cited by 44 | Viewed by 12606

Abstract

Nutritive Sucking (NS) is a highly organized process that is essential for infants’ feeding during the first six months of their life. It requires the complex coordination of sucking, swallowing and breathing. The infant’s inability to perform a safe and successful oral feeding [...] Read more.

Nutritive Sucking (NS) is a highly organized process that is essential for infants’ feeding during the first six months of their life. It requires the complex coordination of sucking, swallowing and breathing. The infant’s inability to perform a safe and successful oral feeding can be an early detector of immaturity of the Central Nervous System (CNS). Even though the importance of early sucking measures has been confirmed over the years, the need for standardized instrumental assessment tools still exists. Clinicians would benefit from specifically designed devices to assess oral feeding ability in their routine clinical monitoring and decision-making process. This work is a review of the main instrumental solutions developed to assess an infant’s NS behavior, with a detailed survey of the main quantities and indices measured and/or estimated to characterize sucking behavior skills and their development. The adopted sensing measuring systems will be described, and their main advantages and weaknesses will be discussed, taking into account their application to clinical practice, or to at-home monitoring as post-discharge assessment tools. Finally, the study will highlight the most suitable sensing solutions and give some prompts for further research. Full article

(This article belongs to the Collection Sensors for Globalized Healthy Living and Wellbeing)

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13 pages, 701 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Active Design Method for the Static Characteristics of a Piezoelectric Six-Axis Force/Torque Sensor

by Jun Liu^1,2,*, Min Li^1,2, Lan Qin^1,2 and Jingcheng Liu^1,2

¹ Key Laboratory of Optoelectronics Technology and Systems Ministry of Education, Chongqing University, Chongqing 400044, China

² College of Optoelectronic Engineering, Chongqing University, Chongqing 400044, China

Sensors 2014, 14(1), 659-671; https://doi.org/10.3390/s140100659 - 2 Jan 2014

Cited by 30 | Viewed by 8513

Abstract

To address the bottleneck issues of an elastic-style six-axis force/torque sensor (six-axis force sensor), this work proposes a no-elastic piezoelectric six-axis force sensor. The operating principle of the piezoelectric six-axis force sensor is analyzed, and a structural model is constructed. The static-active design [...] Read more.

To address the bottleneck issues of an elastic-style six-axis force/torque sensor (six-axis force sensor), this work proposes a no-elastic piezoelectric six-axis force sensor. The operating principle of the piezoelectric six-axis force sensor is analyzed, and a structural model is constructed. The static-active design theory of the piezoelectric six-axis force sensor is established, including a static analytical/mathematical model and numerical simulation model (finite element model). A piezoelectric six-axis force sensor experimental prototype is developed according to the analytical mathematical model and numerical simulation model, and selected static characteristic parameters (including sensitivity, isotropic degree and cross-coupling) are tested using this model with three approaches. The measured results are in agreement with the analytical results from the static-active design method. Therefore, this study has successfully established a foundation for further research into the piezoelectric multi-axis force sensor and an overall design approach based on static characteristics. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Tactile Sensors and Sensing Systems)

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19 pages, 938 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Embedded ARM System for Volcano Monitoring in Remote Areas: Application to the Active Volcano on Deception Island (Antarctica)

by Luis Miguel Peci^1,*, Manuel Berrocoso¹

, Alberto Fernández-Ros¹, Alicia García², José Manuel Marrero³ and Ramón Ortiz²

¹ Laboratory of Astronomy, Geodesy and Cartography, Department of Mathematics, Faculty of Science. Campus of Puerto Real, University of Cadiz, Puerto Real 11510, Spain

² Institute IGEO, CSIC-UCM. J. Gutierrez Abascal, 2, Madrid 28006, Spain

³ Volcanic Hazard and Risk Consultant, Los Realejos 38410, Spain

Sensors 2014, 14(1), 672-690; https://doi.org/10.3390/s140100672 - 2 Jan 2014

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 9235

Abstract

This paper describes the development of a multi-parameter system for monitoring volcanic activity. The system permits the remote access and the connection of several modules in a network. An embedded ARM^TM processor has been used, allowing a great flexibility in hardware configuration. [...] Read more.

This paper describes the development of a multi-parameter system for monitoring volcanic activity. The system permits the remote access and the connection of several modules in a network. An embedded ARM^TM processor has been used, allowing a great flexibility in hardware configuration. The use of a complete Linux solution (Debian^TM) as Operating System permits a quick, easy application development to control sensors and communications. This provides all the capabilities required and great stability with relatively low energy consumption. The cost of the components and applications development is low since they are widely used in different fields. Sensors and commercial modules have been combined with other self-developed modules. The Modular Volcano Monitoring System (MVMS) described has been deployed on the active Deception Island (Antarctica) volcano, within the Spanish Antarctic Program, and has proved successful for monitoring the volcano, with proven reliability and efficient operation under extreme conditions. In another context, i.e., the recent volcanic activity on El Hierro Island (Canary Islands) in 2011, this technology has been used for the seismic equipment and GPS systems deployed, thus showing its efficiency in the monitoring of a volcanic crisis. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Remote Sensors)

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18 pages, 1375 KiB

Open AccessReview

Advanced Technologies for the Improvement of Spray Application Techniques in Spanish Viticulture: An Overview

by Emilio Gil^1,*

, Jaume Arnó², Jordi Llorens¹, Ricardo Sanz², Jordi Llop¹, Joan R. Rosell-Polo², Montserrat Gallart¹ and Alexandre Escolà²

¹ Department of Agri Food Engineering and Biotechnology, Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya, Esteve Terradas 8, Campus del Baix Llobregat D4, 08860 Castelledfels, Barcelona, Spain

² Department of Agricultural and Forest Engineering, Research Group in AgroICT & Precision Agriculture, Universitat de Lleida, Rovira Roure 191, 25198 Lleida, Catalonia, Spain

Sensors 2014, 14(1), 691-708; https://doi.org/10.3390/s140100691 - 2 Jan 2014

Cited by 89 | Viewed by 12610

Abstract

Spraying techniques have been undergoing continuous evolution in recent decades. This paper presents part of the research work carried out in Spain in the field of sensors for characterizing vineyard canopies and monitoring spray drift in order to improve vineyard spraying and make [...] Read more.

Spraying techniques have been undergoing continuous evolution in recent decades. This paper presents part of the research work carried out in Spain in the field of sensors for characterizing vineyard canopies and monitoring spray drift in order to improve vineyard spraying and make it more sustainable. Some methods and geostatistical procedures for mapping vineyard parameters are proposed, and the development of a variable rate sprayer is described. All these technologies are interesting in terms of adjusting the amount of pesticides applied to the target canopy. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue State-of-the-Art Sensors Technology in Spain 2013)

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22 pages, 1527 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Micro-Vibration-Based Slip Detection in Tactile Force Sensors

by Raul Fernandez^1,*, Ismael Payo²

, Andres S. Vazquez¹ and Jonathan Becedas¹

¹ Department of Electrical, Electronics and Control Engineering, University of Castilla-La Mancha, Ciudad Real 13071, Spain

² Department of Electrical, Electronics and Control Engineering, University of Castilla-La Mancha, Toledo 45071, Spain

Sensors 2014, 14(1), 709-730; https://doi.org/10.3390/s140100709 - 3 Jan 2014

Cited by 49 | Viewed by 11739

Abstract

Tactile sensing provides critical information, such as force, texture, shape or temperature, in manipulation tasks. In particular, tactile sensors traditionally used in robotics are emphasized in contact force determination for grasping control and object recognition. Nevertheless, slip detection is also crucial to successfully [...] Read more.

Tactile sensing provides critical information, such as force, texture, shape or temperature, in manipulation tasks. In particular, tactile sensors traditionally used in robotics are emphasized in contact force determination for grasping control and object recognition. Nevertheless, slip detection is also crucial to successfully manipulate an object. Several approaches have appeared to detect slipping, the majority being a combination of complex sensors with complex algorithms. In this paper, we deal with simplicity, analyzing how a novel, but simple, algorithm, based on micro-vibration detection, can be used in a simple, but low-cost and durable, force sensor. We also analyze the results of using the same principle to detect slipping in other force sensors based on flexible parts. In particular, we show and compare the slip detection with: (i) a flexible finger, designed by the authors, acting as a force sensor; (ii) the finger torque sensor of a commercial robotic hand; (iii) a commercial six-axis force sensor mounted on the wrist of a robot; and (iv) a fingertip piezoresistive matrix sensor. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Tactile Sensors and Sensing Systems)

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39 pages, 4303 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Improving Inertial Pedestrian Dead-Reckoning by Detecting Unmodified Switched-on Lamps in Buildings

by Antonio R. Jiménez^*

, Francisco Zampella and Fernando Seco

Centre for Automation and Robotics (CAR), Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Cientificas (CSIC)-UPM, Ctra. Campo Real km 0.2, La Poveda, Arganda del Rey, Madrid 28500, Spain

Sensors 2014, 14(1), 731-769; https://doi.org/10.3390/s140100731 - 3 Jan 2014

Cited by 25 | Viewed by 8407

Abstract

This paper explores how inertial Pedestrian Dead-Reckoning (PDR) location systems can be improved with the use of a light sensor to measure the illumination gradients created when a person walks under ceiling-mounted unmodified indoor lights. The process of updating the inertial PDR estimates [...] Read more.

This paper explores how inertial Pedestrian Dead-Reckoning (PDR) location systems can be improved with the use of a light sensor to measure the illumination gradients created when a person walks under ceiling-mounted unmodified indoor lights. The process of updating the inertial PDR estimates with the information provided by light detections is a new concept that we have named Light-matching (LM). The displacement and orientation change of a person obtained by inertial PDR is used by the LM method to accurately propagate the location hypothesis, and vice versa; the LM approach benefits the PDR approach by obtaining an absolute localization and reducing the PDR-alone drift. Even from an initially unknown location and orientation, whenever the person passes below a switched-on light spot, the location likelihood is iteratively updated until it potentially converges to a unimodal probability density function. The time to converge to a unimodal position hypothesis depends on the number of lights detected and the asymmetries/irregularities of the spatial distribution of lights. The proposed LM method does not require any intensity illumination calibration, just the pre-storage of the position and size of all lights in a building, irrespective of their current on/off state. This paper presents a detailed description of the light-matching concept, the implementation details of the LM-assisted PDR fusion scheme using a particle filter, and several simulated and experimental tests, using a light sensor-equipped Galaxy S3 smartphone and an external foot-mounted inertial sensor. The evaluation includes the LM-assisted PDR approach as well as the fusion with other signals of opportunity (WiFi, RFID, Magnetometers or Map-matching) in order to compare their contribution in obtaining high accuracy indoor localization. The integrated solution achieves a localization error lower than 1 m in most of the cases. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Sensor Networks)

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9 pages, 356 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Monitoring Architectural Heritage by Wireless Sensors Networks: San Gimignano — A Case Study

by Alessandro Mecocci^* and Andrea Abrardo

Department of Information Engineering and Mathematical Sciences, University of Siena, Via Roma 56, Siena 53100, Italy

Sensors 2014, 14(1), 770-778; https://doi.org/10.3390/s140100770 - 3 Jan 2014

Cited by 36 | Viewed by 6874

Abstract

This paper describes a wireless sensor network (WSN) used to monitor the health state of architectural heritage in real-time. The WSN has been deployed and tested on the “Rognosa” tower in the medieval village of San Gimignano, Tuscany, Italy. This technology, being non-invasive, [...] Read more.

This paper describes a wireless sensor network (WSN) used to monitor the health state of architectural heritage in real-time. The WSN has been deployed and tested on the “Rognosa” tower in the medieval village of San Gimignano, Tuscany, Italy. This technology, being non-invasive, mimetic, and long lasting, is particularly well suited for long term monitoring and on-line diagnosis of the conservation state of heritage buildings. The proposed monitoring system comprises radio-equipped nodes linked to suitable sensors capable of monitoring crucial parameters like: temperature, humidity, masonry cracks, pouring rain, and visual light. The access to data is granted by a user interface for remote control. The WSN can autonomously send remote alarms when predefined thresholds are reached. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sensors for Cultural Heritage Diagnostics)

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16 pages, 5906 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Ubiquitous Virtual Private Network: A Solution for WSN Seamless Integration

by David Villa^*, Francisco Moya, Felix Jesús Villanueva, Oscar Aceña and Juan Carlos López

Department of Technology and Information Systems, School of Computer Science, University of Castilla-La Mancha, Altagracia 50, Ciudad Real 13071, Spain

Sensors 2014, 14(1), 779-794; https://doi.org/10.3390/s140100779 - 6 Jan 2014

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 7214

Abstract

Sensor networks are becoming an essential part of ubiquitous systems and applications. However, there are no well-defined protocols or mechanisms to access the sensor network from the enterprise information system. We consider this issue as a heterogeneous network interconnection problem, and as a [...] Read more.

Sensor networks are becoming an essential part of ubiquitous systems and applications. However, there are no well-defined protocols or mechanisms to access the sensor network from the enterprise information system. We consider this issue as a heterogeneous network interconnection problem, and as a result, the same concepts may be applied. Specifically, we propose the use of object-oriented middlewares to provide a virtual private network in which all involved elements (sensor nodes or computer applications) will be able to communicate as if all of them were in a single and uniform network. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Select papers from UCAmI & IWAAL 2012 - the 6th International Conference on Ubiquitous Computing and Ambient Intelligence & 4th International Workshop on Ambient Assisted Living (UCAmI & IWAAL 2012))

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39 pages, 922 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Underwater Acoustic Wireless Sensor Networks: Advances and Future Trends in Physical, MAC and Routing Layers

by Salvador Climent^1,*, Antonio Sanchez¹, Juan Vicente Capella¹, Nirvana Meratnia² and Juan Jose Serrano¹

¹ Institut ITACA, Universitat Politècnica de València, Edifici 8G, València 46022, Spain

² Pervasive Systems, University of Twente, P. O. Box 217, Enschede 7500 AE, The Netherlands

Sensors 2014, 14(1), 795-833; https://doi.org/10.3390/s140100795 - 6 Jan 2014

Cited by 255 | Viewed by 20583

Abstract

This survey aims to provide a comprehensive overview of the current researchon underwater wireless sensor networks, focusing on the lower layers of the communicationstack, and envisions future trends and challenges. It analyzes the current state-of-the-art onthe physical, medium access control and routing layers. [...] Read more.

This survey aims to provide a comprehensive overview of the current researchon underwater wireless sensor networks, focusing on the lower layers of the communicationstack, and envisions future trends and challenges. It analyzes the current state-of-the-art onthe physical, medium access control and routing layers. It summarizes their security threadsand surveys the currently proposed studies. Current envisioned niches for further advances inunderwater networks research range from efficient, low-power algorithms and Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue State-of-the-Art Sensors Technology in Spain 2013)

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14 pages, 835 KiB

Open AccessArticle

An Ionic-Polymer-Metallic Composite Actuator for Reconfigurable Antennas in Mobile Devices

by Yi-Chen Lin¹, Chung-Yi Yu¹, Chung-Min Li¹, Chin-Heng Liu¹, Jiun-Peng Chen², Tah-Hsiung Chu² and Guo-Dung John Su^1,*

¹ Graduate Institute of Photonics and Optoelectronics, National Taiwan University, No. 1, Sec. 4, Roosevelt Rd., Taipei 106, Taiwan

² Graduate Institute of Communication Engineering, National Taiwan University, No. 1, Sec. 4, Roosevelt Rd., Taipei 106, Taiwan

Sensors 2014, 14(1), 834-847; https://doi.org/10.3390/s140100834 - 6 Jan 2014

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 9701

Abstract

In this paper, a new application of an electro-active-polymer for a radio frequency (RF) switch is presented. We used an ionic polymer metallic composite (IPMC) switch to change the operating frequency of an inverted-F antenna. This switch is light in weight, small in [...] Read more.

In this paper, a new application of an electro-active-polymer for a radio frequency (RF) switch is presented. We used an ionic polymer metallic composite (IPMC) switch to change the operating frequency of an inverted-F antenna. This switch is light in weight, small in volume, and low in cost. In addition, the IPMC is suitable for mobile devices because of its driving voltage of 3 volts and thickness of 200 μm. The IPMC acts as a normally-on switch to control the operating frequency of a reconfigurable antenna in mobile phones. We experimentally demonstrated by network analysis that the IPMC switch could shift its operating frequency from 1.1 to 2.1 GHz, with return losses of than −10 dB at both frequencies. To minimize electrolysis and maximize the operation time in air, propylene carbonate electrolyte with lithium perchlorate (LiClO₄) was applied inside the IPMC. The results showed that when the IPMC was actuated over three months at 3.5 V, the tip displacement fell by less than 10%. Therefore, an IPMC actuator is a promising choice for application to a reconfigurable antenna. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Modeling, Testing and Reliability Issues in MEMS Engineering 2013)

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20 pages, 1094 KiB

Open AccessArticle

NodePM: A Remote Monitoring Alert System for Energy Consumption Using Probabilistic Techniques

by Geraldo P. R. Filho^1,*, Jó Ueyama¹

, Leandro A. Villas², Alex R. Pinto³, Vinícius P. Gonçalves¹, Gustavo Pessin⁴, Richard W. Pazzi⁵ and Torsten Braun⁶

¹ Institute of Mathematics and Computer Science, University of São Paulo, São Carlos-SP 13566-590, Brazil

² Institute of Computing, University of Campinas, Campinas-SP 13083-852, Brazil

³ Department of Computer Science and Statistics, São Paulo State University, São José do Rio Preto-SP 15054-000, Brazil

⁴ Vale Institute of Technology (ITV), Bel´em-PA 66055-090, Brazil

⁵ Faculty of Business and Information Technology, University of Ontario Institute of Technology, Oshawa, ON 2000, Canada

⁶ Institute of Computer Science and Applied Mathematics, University of Bern, Bern 3012, Switzerland

Sensors 2014, 14(1), 848-867; https://doi.org/10.3390/s140100848 - 6 Jan 2014

Cited by 25 | Viewed by 8884

Abstract

In this paper, we propose an intelligent method, named the Novelty Detection Power Meter (NodePM), to detect novelties in electronic equipment monitored by a smart grid. Considering the entropy of each device monitored, which is calculated based on a Markov chain model, the [...] Read more.

In this paper, we propose an intelligent method, named the Novelty Detection Power Meter (NodePM), to detect novelties in electronic equipment monitored by a smart grid. Considering the entropy of each device monitored, which is calculated based on a Markov chain model, the proposed method identifies novelties through a machine learning algorithm. To this end, the NodePM is integrated into a platform for the remote monitoring of energy consumption, which consists of a wireless sensors network (WSN). It thus should be stressed that the experiments were conducted in real environments different from many related works, which are evaluated in simulated environments. In this sense, the results show that the NodePM reduces by 13.7% the power consumption of the equipment we monitored. In addition, the NodePM provides better efficiency to detect novelties when compared to an approach from the literature, surpassing it in different scenarios in all evaluations that were carried out. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Sensor Networks)

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9 pages, 928 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Stretchable and Flexible High-Strain Sensors Made Using Carbon Nanotubes and Graphite Films on Natural Rubber

by Sreenivasulu Tadakaluru, Wiradej Thongsuwan and Pisith Singjai^*

Materials Science Research Center, Department of Physics and Materials Science, Faculty of Science, Chiangmai University, Chiangmai 50200, Thailand

Sensors 2014, 14(1), 868-876; https://doi.org/10.3390/s140100868 - 6 Jan 2014

Cited by 176 | Viewed by 12977

Abstract

Conventional metallic strain sensors are flexible, but they can sustain maximum strains of only ~5%, so there is a need for sensors that can bear high strains for multifunctional applications. In this study, we report stretchable and flexible high-strain sensors that consist of [...] Read more.

Conventional metallic strain sensors are flexible, but they can sustain maximum strains of only ~5%, so there is a need for sensors that can bear high strains for multifunctional applications. In this study, we report stretchable and flexible high-strain sensors that consist of entangled and randomly distributed multiwall carbon nanotubes or graphite flakes on a natural rubber substrate. Carbon nanotubes/graphite flakes were sandwiched in natural rubber to produce these high-strain sensors. Using field emission scanning electron microscopy, the morphology of the films for both the carbon nanotube and graphite sensors were assessed under different strain conditions (0% and 400% strain). As the strain was increased, the films fractured, resulting in an increase in the electrical resistance of the sensor; this change was reversible. Strains of up to 246% (graphite sensor) and 620% (carbon nanotube sensor) were measured; these values are respectively ~50 and ~120 times greater than those of conventional metallic strain sensors. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Physical Sensors)

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10 pages, 337 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Short-Range Six-Axis Interferometer Controlled Positioning for Scanning Probe Microscopy

by Josef Lazar^1,*, Petr Klapetek², Miroslav Valtr², Jan Hrabina¹, Zdenek Buchta¹, Onrej Cip¹, Martin Cizek¹, Jindrich Oulehla¹ and Mojmir Sery¹

¹ Institute of Scientific Instruments, Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, Královopolská 147, Brno 612 64, Czech Republic

² Czech Metrology Institute, Brno, Okružní 31, Brno 638 00, Czech Republic

Sensors 2014, 14(1), 877-886; https://doi.org/10.3390/s140100877 - 7 Jan 2014

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 7064

Abstract

We present a design of a nanometrology measuring setup which is a part of the national standard instrumentation for nanometrology operated by the Czech Metrology Institute (CMI) in Brno, Czech Republic. The system employs a full six-axis interferometric position measurement of the sample [...] Read more.

We present a design of a nanometrology measuring setup which is a part of the national standard instrumentation for nanometrology operated by the Czech Metrology Institute (CMI) in Brno, Czech Republic. The system employs a full six-axis interferometric position measurement of the sample holder consisting of six independent interferometers. Here we report on description of alignment issues and accurate adjustment of orthogonality of the measuring axes. Consequently, suppression of cosine errors and reduction of sensitivity to Abbe offset is achieved through full control in all six degrees of freedom. Due to the geometric configuration including a wide basis of the two units measuring in y-direction and the three measuring in z-direction the angle resolution of the whole setup is minimize to tens of nanoradians. Moreover, the servo-control of all six degrees of freedom allows to keep guidance errors below 100 nrad. This small range system is based on a commercial nanopositioning stage driven by piezoelectric transducers with the range (200 × 200 × 10) µm. Thermally compensated miniature interferometric units with fiber-optic light delivery and integrated homodyne detection system were developed especially for this system and serve as sensors for othogonality alignment. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Physical Sensors)

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13 pages, 455 KiB

Open AccessArticle

An Ambulatory Method of Identifying Anterior Cruciate Ligament Reconstructed Gait Patterns

by Matthew R. Patterson^1,2,*, Eamonn Delahunt^2,3, Kevin T. Sweeney¹ and Brian Caulfield^1,2

¹ Insight Centre for Data Analytics, University College Dublin, Belfield, Dublin 4, Ireland

² School of Public Health, Physiotherapy and Population Science, University College Dublin, Health Sciences Centre, Belfield, Dublin 4, Ireland

³ Institute for Sport and Health, University College Dublin, Dublin 4, Ireland

Sensors 2014, 14(1), 887-899; https://doi.org/10.3390/s140100887 - 7 Jan 2014

Cited by 41 | Viewed by 11656

Abstract

The use of inertial sensors to characterize pathological gait has traditionally been based on the calculation of temporal and spatial gait variables from inertial sensor data. This approach has proved successful in the identification of gait deviations in populations where substantial differences from [...] Read more.

The use of inertial sensors to characterize pathological gait has traditionally been based on the calculation of temporal and spatial gait variables from inertial sensor data. This approach has proved successful in the identification of gait deviations in populations where substantial differences from normal gait patterns exist; such as in Parkinsonian gait. However, it is not currently clear if this approach could identify more subtle gait deviations, such as those associated with musculoskeletal injury. This study investigates whether additional analysis of inertial sensor data, based on quantification of gyroscope features of interest, would provide further discriminant capability in this regard. The tested cohort consisted of a group of anterior cruciate ligament reconstructed (ACL-R) females and a group of non-injured female controls, each performed ten walking trials. Gait performance was measured simultaneously using inertial sensors and an optoelectronic marker based system. The ACL-R group displayed kinematic and kinetic deviations from the control group, but no temporal or spatial deviations. This study demonstrates that quantification of gyroscope features can successfully identify changes associated with ACL-R gait, which was not possible using spatial or temporal variables. This finding may also have a role in other clinical applications where small gait deviations exist. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Wearable Gait Sensors)

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27 pages, 1729 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Automatic Rice Crop Height Measurement Using a Field Server and Digital Image Processing

by Tanakorn Sritarapipat¹, Preesan Rakwatin^1,* and Teerasit Kasetkasem²

¹ Geo-Informatics and Space Technology Development Agency (Public Organization), 120, The Government Complex (Building B), Chaeng Wattana Road, Laksi District, Bangkok 10210, Thailand

² Faculty of Engineering, Kasetsart University, Jatujak, Bangkok 10900, Thailand

Sensors 2014, 14(1), 900-926; https://doi.org/10.3390/s140100900 - 7 Jan 2014

Cited by 61 | Viewed by 13294

Abstract

Rice crop height is an important agronomic trait linked to plant type and yield potential. This research developed an automatic image processing technique to detect rice crop height based on images taken by a digital camera attached to a field server. The camera [...] Read more.

Rice crop height is an important agronomic trait linked to plant type and yield potential. This research developed an automatic image processing technique to detect rice crop height based on images taken by a digital camera attached to a field server. The camera acquires rice paddy images daily at a consistent time of day. The images include the rice plants and a marker bar used to provide a height reference. The rice crop height can be indirectly measured from the images by measuring the height of the marker bar compared to the height of the initial marker bar. Four digital image processing steps are employed to automatically measure the rice crop height: band selection, filtering, thresholding, and height measurement. Band selection is used to remove redundant features. Filtering extracts significant features of the marker bar. The thresholding method is applied to separate objects and boundaries of the marker bar versus other areas. The marker bar is detected and compared with the initial marker bar to measure the rice crop height. Our experiment used a field server with a digital camera to continuously monitor a rice field located in Suphanburi Province, Thailand. The experimental results show that the proposed method measures rice crop height effectively, with no human intervention required. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Remote Sensors)

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17 pages, 445 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Precise Point Positioning with the BeiDou Navigation Satellite System

by Min Li, Lizhong Qu^*, Qile Zhao, Jing Guo, Xing Su

and Xiaotao Li

GNSS Research Center, Wuhan University, No.129 Luoyu Road, Wuhan 430079, China

Sensors 2014, 14(1), 927-943; https://doi.org/10.3390/s140100927 - 8 Jan 2014

Cited by 134 | Viewed by 15662

Abstract

By the end of 2012, China had launched 16 BeiDou-2 navigation satellites that include six GEOs, five IGSOs and five MEOs. This has provided initial navigation and precise pointing services ability in the Asia-Pacific regions. In order to assess the navigation and positioning [...] Read more.

By the end of 2012, China had launched 16 BeiDou-2 navigation satellites that include six GEOs, five IGSOs and five MEOs. This has provided initial navigation and precise pointing services ability in the Asia-Pacific regions. In order to assess the navigation and positioning performance of the BeiDou-2 system, Wuhan University has built up a network of BeiDou Experimental Tracking Stations (BETS) around the World. The Position and Navigation Data Analyst (PANDA) software was modified to determine the orbits of BeiDou satellites and provide precise orbit and satellite clock bias products from the BeiDou satellite system for user applications. This article uses the BeiDou/GPS observations of the BeiDou Experimental Tracking Stations to realize the BeiDou and BeiDou/GPS static and kinematic precise point positioning (PPP). The result indicates that the precision of BeiDou static and kinematic PPP reaches centimeter level. The precision of BeiDou/GPS kinematic PPP solutions is improved significantly compared to that of BeiDou-only or GPS-only kinematic PPP solutions. The PPP convergence time also decreases with the use of combined BeiDou/GPS systems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Remote Sensors)

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13 pages, 1022 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Universal Spring-Probe System for Reliable Probing of Electrochemical Lab-on-a-Chip Devices

by Moon-Keun Lee¹, Tae Jae Lee¹, Ho Woon Choi¹, Su Jeong Shin¹, Jung Youn Park² and Seok Jae Lee^1,*

¹ Center for Nanobio Integration & Convergence Engineering, National Nanofab Center, 291 Daehak-ro, Yuseong-gu, Daejeon 305-806, Korea

² National Fisheries Research and Development Institute, 216 Haean-ro, Gijang-up, Gijang-gun, Busan 619-705, Korea

Sensors 2014, 14(1), 944-956; https://doi.org/10.3390/s140100944 - 8 Jan 2014

Viewed by 6382

Abstract

For achieve sensitivity in lab-on-a-chip electrochemical detection, more reliable probing methods are required, especially for repeated measurements. Spring-probes are a promising candidate method which can replace needle-like probes and alligator clips that usually produce scratches on the surface of gold electrodes due to [...] Read more.

For achieve sensitivity in lab-on-a-chip electrochemical detection, more reliable probing methods are required, especially for repeated measurements. Spring-probes are a promising candidate method which can replace needle-like probes and alligator clips that usually produce scratches on the surface of gold electrodes due to the strong physical contacts needed for electrochemical measurements. The superior reliability of amperometric measurements by a spring-probe system was compared with results by conventional probing methods. We demonstrated that a universal spring-probe system would be potentially suitable to achieve high performance in lab-on-a-chip devices using electrochemical detection. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Biosensors)

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18 pages, 577 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Challenges in the Design and Fabrication of a Lab-on-a-Chip Photoacoustic Gas Sensor

by Alain Glière^1,*, Justin Rouxel^1,2, Mickael Brun¹, Bertrand Parvitte², Virginie Zéninari² and Sergio Nicoletti¹

¹ CEA, LETI, MINATEC Campus, 17 rue des Martyrs, Grenoble F-38054 Cedex 9, France

² Groupe de Spectrométrie Moléculaire et Atmosphérique, Unité Mixte de Recherche 7331, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Faculty of Science, Reims University, Moulin de la Housse, Reims F-51687 Cedex 2, France

Sensors 2014, 14(1), 957-974; https://doi.org/10.3390/s140100957 - 8 Jan 2014

Cited by 43 | Viewed by 9712

Abstract

The favorable downscaling behavior of photoacoustic spectroscopy has provoked in recent years a growing interest in the miniaturization of photoacoustic sensors. The individual components of the sensor, namely widely tunable quantum cascade lasers, low loss mid infrared (mid-IR) waveguides, and efficient microelectromechanical systems [...] Read more.

The favorable downscaling behavior of photoacoustic spectroscopy has provoked in recent years a growing interest in the miniaturization of photoacoustic sensors. The individual components of the sensor, namely widely tunable quantum cascade lasers, low loss mid infrared (mid-IR) waveguides, and efficient microelectromechanical systems (MEMS) microphones are becoming available in complementary metal–oxide–semiconductor (CMOS) compatible technologies. This paves the way for the joint processes of miniaturization and full integration. Recently, a prototype microsensor has been designed by the means of a specifically designed coupled optical-acoustic model. This paper discusses the new, or more intense, challenges faced if downscaling is continued. The first limitation in miniaturization is physical: the light source modulation, which matches the increasing cell acoustic resonance frequency, must be kept much slower than the collisional relaxation process. Secondly, from the acoustic modeling point of view, one faces the limit of validity of the continuum hypothesis. Namely, at some point, velocity slip and temperature jump boundary conditions must be used, instead of the continuous boundary conditions, which are valid at the macro-scale. Finally, on the technological side, solutions exist to realize a complete lab-on-a-chip, even if it remains a demanding integration problem. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Gas Sensors - 2013)

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20 pages, 1944 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Efficient Hardware Implementation of the Lightweight Block Encryption Algorithm LEA

by Donggeon Lee^1,*, Dong-Chan Kim², Daesung Kwon² and Howon Kim¹

¹ Department of Computer Engineering, Pusan National University, Busan 609-735, Korea

² Attached Institute of Electronic and Telecommunication Research Institute, Daejeon 305-390, Korea

Sensors 2014, 14(1), 975-994; https://doi.org/10.3390/s140100975 - 8 Jan 2014

Cited by 68 | Viewed by 9846

Abstract

Recently, due to the advent of resource-constrained trends, such as smartphones and smart devices, the computing environment is changing. Because our daily life is deeply intertwined with ubiquitous networks, the importance of security is growing. A lightweight encryption algorithm is essential for secure [...] Read more.

Recently, due to the advent of resource-constrained trends, such as smartphones and smart devices, the computing environment is changing. Because our daily life is deeply intertwined with ubiquitous networks, the importance of security is growing. A lightweight encryption algorithm is essential for secure communication between these kinds of resource-constrained devices, and many researchers have been investigating this field. Recently, a lightweight block cipher called LEA was proposed. LEA was originally targeted for efficient implementation on microprocessors, as it is fast when implemented in software and furthermore, it has a small memory footprint. To reflect on recent technology, all required calculations utilize 32-bit wide operations. In addition, the algorithm is comprised of not complex S-Box-like structures but simple Addition, Rotation, and XOR operations. To the best of our knowledge, this paper is the first report on a comprehensive hardware implementation of LEA. We present various hardware structures and their implementation results according to key sizes. Even though LEA was originally targeted at software efficiency, it also shows high efficiency when implemented as hardware. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Sensor Networks)

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15 pages, 481 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Multiple Vehicle Cooperative Localization with Spatial Registration Based on a Probability Hypothesis Density Filter

by Feihu Zhang^1,*, Christian Buckl² and Alois Knoll¹

¹ Robotics and Embedded Systems, Technische Universität München, Garching bei München, Germany

² Fortiss GmbH, Guerickestr. 25, München 80805, Germany

Sensors 2014, 14(1), 995-1009; https://doi.org/10.3390/s140100995 - 8 Jan 2014

Cited by 18 | Viewed by 8679

Abstract

This paper studies the problem of multiple vehicle cooperative localization with spatial registration in the formulation of the probability hypothesis density (PHD) filter. Assuming vehicles are equipped with proprioceptive and exteroceptive sensors (with biases) to cooperatively localize positions, a simultaneous solution for joint [...] Read more.

This paper studies the problem of multiple vehicle cooperative localization with spatial registration in the formulation of the probability hypothesis density (PHD) filter. Assuming vehicles are equipped with proprioceptive and exteroceptive sensors (with biases) to cooperatively localize positions, a simultaneous solution for joint spatial registration and state estimation is proposed. For this, we rely on the sequential Monte Carlo implementation of the PHD filtering. Compared to other methods, the concept of multiple vehicle cooperative localization with spatial registration is first proposed under Random Finite Set Theory. In addition, the proposed solution also addresses the challenges for multiple vehicle cooperative localization, e.g., the communication bandwidth issue and data association uncertainty. The simulation result demonstrates its reliability and feasibility in large-scale environments. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Physical Sensors)

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18 pages, 834 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Managing the Number of Tag Bits Transmitted in a Bit-Tracking RFID Collision Resolution Protocol

by Hugo Landaluce^*

, Asier Perallos^* and Ignacio Angulo

Deusto Institute of Technology (DeustoTech), University of Deusto, Bilbao 48007, Spain

Sensors 2014, 14(1), 1010-1027; https://doi.org/10.3390/s140101010 - 8 Jan 2014

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 6045

Abstract

Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) technology faces the problem of message collisions. The coexistence of tags sharing the communication channel degrades bandwidth, and increases the number of bits transmitted. The window methodology, which controls the number of bits transmitted by the tags, is applied [...] Read more.

Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) technology faces the problem of message collisions. The coexistence of tags sharing the communication channel degrades bandwidth, and increases the number of bits transmitted. The window methodology, which controls the number of bits transmitted by the tags, is applied to the collision tree (CT) protocol to solve the tag collision problem. The combination of this methodology with the bit-tracking technology, used in CT, improves the performance of the window and produces a new protocol which decreases the number of bits transmitted. The aim of this paper is to show how the CT bit-tracking protocol is influenced by the proposed window, and how the performance of the novel protocol improves under different conditions of the scenario. Therefore, we have performed a fair comparison of the CT protocol, which uses bit-tracking to identify the first collided bit, and the new proposed protocol with the window methodology. Simulations results show that the proposed window positively decreases the total number of bits that are transmitted by the tags, and outperforms the CT protocol latency in slow tag data rate scenarios. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Sensor Networks)

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11 pages, 254 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Bienzymatic Biosensor for Rapid Detection of Aspartame by Flow Injection Analysis

by Maria-Cristina Radulescu^*, Bogdan Bucur

, Madalina-Petruta Bucur and Gabriel Lucian Radu

Centre of Bioanalysis, National Institute of Research and Development for Biological Sciences, 296, Splaiul Independentei, Bucharest 060031, Romania

Sensors 2014, 14(1), 1028-1038; https://doi.org/10.3390/s140101028 - 9 Jan 2014

Cited by 30 | Viewed by 7399

Abstract

A rapid, simple and stable biosensor for aspartame detection was developed. Alcohol oxidase (AOX), carboxyl esterase (CaE) and bovine serum albumin (BSA) were immobilised with glutaraldehyde (GA) onto screen-printed electrodes modified with cobalt-phthalocyanine (CoPC). The biosensor response was fast. The sample throughput using [...] Read more.

A rapid, simple and stable biosensor for aspartame detection was developed. Alcohol oxidase (AOX), carboxyl esterase (CaE) and bovine serum albumin (BSA) were immobilised with glutaraldehyde (GA) onto screen-printed electrodes modified with cobalt-phthalocyanine (CoPC). The biosensor response was fast. The sample throughput using a flow injection analysis (FIA) system was 40 h⁻¹ with an RSD of 2.7%. The detection limits for both batch and FIA measurements were 0.1 µM for methanol and 0.2 µM for aspartame, respectively. The enzymatic biosensor was successfully applied for aspartame determination in different sample matrices/commercial products (liquid and solid samples) without any pre-treatment step prior to measurement. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Biosensors)

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18 pages, 1449 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The MAIN Shirt: A Textile-Integrated Magnetic Induction Sensor Array

by Daniel Teichmann^1,*, Andreas Kuhn², Steffen Leonhardt¹

and Marian Walter¹

¹ Philips Chair for Medical Information Technology, RWTH Aachen University, Pauwelsstr. 20, Aachen 52074, Germany

² Euro Engineering AG, Karlsruhe 76135, Germany

Sensors 2014, 14(1), 1039-1056; https://doi.org/10.3390/s140101039 - 9 Jan 2014

Cited by 82 | Viewed by 10325

Abstract

A system is presented for long-term monitoring of respiration and pulse. It comprises four non-contact sensors based on magnetic eddy current induction that are textile-integrated into a shirt. The sensors are technically characterized by laboratory experiments that investigate the sensitivity and measuring depth, [...] Read more.

A system is presented for long-term monitoring of respiration and pulse. It comprises four non-contact sensors based on magnetic eddy current induction that are textile-integrated into a shirt. The sensors are technically characterized by laboratory experiments that investigate the sensitivity and measuring depth, as well as the mutual interaction between adjacent pairs of sensors. The ability of the device to monitor respiration and pulse is demonstrated by measurements in healthy volunteers. The proposed system (called the MAIN (magnetic induction) Shirt) does not need electrodes or any other skin contact. It is wearable, unobtrusive and can easily be integrated into an individual’s daily routine. Therefore, the system appears to be a suitable option for long-term monitoring in a domestic environment or any other unsupervised telemonitoring scenario. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Physical Sensors)

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16 pages, 2642 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A New Calibration Methodology for Thorax and Upper Limbs Motion Capture in Children Using Magneto and Inertial Sensors

by Luca Ricci^1,*, Domenico Formica¹

, Laura Sparaci², Francesca Romana Lasorsa², Fabrizio Taffoni¹, Eleonora Tamilia¹ and Eugenio Guglielmelli¹

¹ Laboratory of Biomedical Robotics and Biomicrosystems, Università Campus Bio-Medico di Roma, Via Àlvaro del Portillo 21, Rome 00128, Italy

² Institute of Cognitive Sciences and Technologies (ISTC), National Research Council (CNR), Via Nomentana 56, Rome 00161, Italy

Sensors 2014, 14(1), 1057-1072; https://doi.org/10.3390/s140101057 - 9 Jan 2014

Cited by 43 | Viewed by 12084

Abstract

Recent advances in wearable sensor technologies for motion capture have produced devices, mainly based on magneto and inertial measurement units (M-IMU), that are now suitable for out-of-the-lab use with children. In fact, the reduced size, weight and the wireless connectivity meet the requirement [...] Read more.

Recent advances in wearable sensor technologies for motion capture have produced devices, mainly based on magneto and inertial measurement units (M-IMU), that are now suitable for out-of-the-lab use with children. In fact, the reduced size, weight and the wireless connectivity meet the requirement of minimum obtrusivity and give scientists the possibility to analyze children’s motion in daily life contexts. Typical use of magneto and inertial measurement units (M-IMU) motion capture systems is based on attaching a sensing unit to each body segment of interest. The correct use of this setup requires a specific calibration methodology that allows mapping measurements from the sensors’ frames of reference into useful kinematic information in the human limbs’ frames of reference. The present work addresses this specific issue, presenting a calibration protocol to capture the kinematics of the upper limbs and thorax in typically developing (TD) children. The proposed method allows the construction, on each body segment, of a meaningful system of coordinates that are representative of real physiological motions and that are referred to as functional frames (FFs). We will also present a novel cost function for the Levenberg–Marquardt algorithm, to retrieve the rotation matrices between each sensor frame (SF) and the corresponding FF. Reported results on a group of 40 children suggest that the method is repeatable and reliable, opening the way to the extensive use of this technology for out-of-the-lab motion capture in children. Full article

(This article belongs to the Collection Sensors for Globalized Healthy Living and Wellbeing)

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21 pages, 1468 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Wireless Flexible Sensorized Insole for Gait Analysis

by Simona Crea^*,†, Marco Donati^†, Stefano Marco Maria De Rossi, Calogero Maria Oddo and Nicola Vitiello

¹ The BioRobotics Institute, Scuola Superiore Sant'Anna, viale Rinaldo Piaggio 34, Pontedera (PI) 56025, Italy

^† These authors contributed equally to this work.

Sensors 2014, 14(1), 1073-1093; https://doi.org/10.3390/s140101073 - 9 Jan 2014

Cited by 187 | Viewed by 19117

Abstract

This paper introduces the design and development of a novel pressure-sensitive foot insole for real-time monitoring of plantar pressure distribution during walking. The device consists of a flexible insole with 64 pressure-sensitive elements and an integrated electronic board for high-frequency data acquisition, pre-filtering, [...] Read more.

This paper introduces the design and development of a novel pressure-sensitive foot insole for real-time monitoring of plantar pressure distribution during walking. The device consists of a flexible insole with 64 pressure-sensitive elements and an integrated electronic board for high-frequency data acquisition, pre-filtering, and wireless transmission to a remote data computing/storing unit. The pressure-sensitive technology is based on an optoelectronic technology developed at Scuola Superiore Sant’Anna. The insole is a low-cost and low-power battery-powered device. The design and development of the device is presented along with its experimental characterization and validation with healthy subjects performing a task of walking at different speeds, and benchmarked against an instrumented force platform. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Wearable Gait Sensors)

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12 pages, 888 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Sensitivity Distribution Properties of a Phase-Shifted Fiber Bragg Grating Sensor to Ultrasonic Waves

by Qi Wu^*, Yoji Okabe, Kazuya Saito and Fengming Yu

Institute of Industrial Science, University of Tokyo, 4-6-1 Komaba, Meguro-ku, Tokyo 153-8505, Japan

Sensors 2014, 14(1), 1094-1105; https://doi.org/10.3390/s140101094 - 9 Jan 2014

Cited by 36 | Viewed by 7448

Abstract

In this research, the sensitivity distribution properties of a phase-shifted fiber Bragg grating (PS-FBG) to ultrasonic waves were investigated employing the surface attachment method. A careful consideration was taken and examined by experimental results to explain that the distances and angles between the [...] Read more.

In this research, the sensitivity distribution properties of a phase-shifted fiber Bragg grating (PS-FBG) to ultrasonic waves were investigated employing the surface attachment method. A careful consideration was taken and examined by experimental results to explain that the distances and angles between the sensor and ultrasonic source influence not only the amplitudes, but also the initial phases, waveforms, and spectra of detected signals. Furthermore, factors, including the attachment method and the material’s geometric dimensions, were also discussed. Although these results were obtained based on PS-FBG, they are also applicable to a normal FBG sensor or even an optical fiber sensor, due to the identical physical changes induced by ultrasonic waves in all three. Thus, these results are useful for applications of optical fiber sensors in non-destructive testing and structural health monitoring. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Photonic Sensors for Industrial, Environmental and Health Monitoring)

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26 pages, 2106 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Fusion of Optimized Indicators from Advanced Driver Assistance Systems (ADAS) for Driver Drowsiness Detection

by Iván G. Daza, Luis M. Bergasa, Sebastián Bronte, J. Javier Yebes, Javier Almazán and Roberto Arroyo^*

Department of Electronics, University of Alcalá, Alcalá de Henares, Madrid 28871, Spain

Sensors 2014, 14(1), 1106-1131; https://doi.org/10.3390/s140101106 - 9 Jan 2014

Cited by 72 | Viewed by 14291

Abstract

This paper presents a non-intrusive approach for monitoring driver drowsiness using the fusion of several optimized indicators based on driver physical and driving performance measures, obtained from ADAS (Advanced Driver Assistant Systems) in simulated conditions. The paper is focused on real-time drowsiness detection [...] Read more.

This paper presents a non-intrusive approach for monitoring driver drowsiness using the fusion of several optimized indicators based on driver physical and driving performance measures, obtained from ADAS (Advanced Driver Assistant Systems) in simulated conditions. The paper is focused on real-time drowsiness detection technology rather than on long-term sleep/awake regulation prediction technology. We have developed our own vision system in order to obtain robust and optimized driver indicators able to be used in simulators and future real environments. These indicators are principally based on driver physical and driving performance skills. The fusion of several indicators, proposed in the literature, is evaluated using a neural network and a stochastic optimization method to obtain the best combination. We propose a new method for ground-truth generation based on a supervised Karolinska Sleepiness Scale (KSS). An extensive evaluation of indicators, derived from trials over a third generation simulator with several test subjects during different driving sessions, was performed. The main conclusions about the performance of single indicators and the best combinations of them are included, as well as the future works derived from this study. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue State-of-the-Art Sensors Technology in Spain 2013)

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8 pages, 404 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Non-Intrusive Method for Monitoring the Degradation of MOSFETs

by Li-Feng Wu^1,2,3,*, Yu Zheng^1,2,3, Yong Guan^1,2,3, Guo-Hui Wang^1,2,3 and Xiao-Juan Li^1,2,3

¹ College of Information Engineering, Capital Normal University, Beijing 100048, China

² Beijing Engineering Research Center of High Reliable Embedded System, Capital Normal University, Beijing 100048, China

³ Beijing Key Laboratory of Electronic System Reliable Technology, Capital Normal University, Beijing 100048, China

Sensors 2014, 14(1), 1132-1139; https://doi.org/10.3390/s140101132 - 10 Jan 2014

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 5477

Abstract

Highly reliable embedded systems have been widely applied in the fields of aerospace, nuclear power, high-speed rail, etc., which are related to security and economic development. The reliability of the power supply directly influences the security of the embedded system, and has [...] Read more.

Highly reliable embedded systems have been widely applied in the fields of aerospace, nuclear power, high-speed rail, etc., which are related to security and economic development. The reliability of the power supply directly influences the security of the embedded system, and has been the research focus of numerous electronic information and energy studies. The degradation of power modules occupies a dominant position among the key factors affecting the power supply reliability. How to dynamically determine the degradation state and forecast the remaining useful life of working power modules is critical. Therefore, an online non-intrusive method of obtaining the degradation state of MOSFETs based on the Volterra series is proposed. It uses the self-driving signal of MOSFETs as a non-intrusive incentive, and extracts the degradation characteristics of MOSFETs by the frequency-domain kernel of the Volterra series. Experimental results show that the identification achieved by the method agrees well with the theoretical analysis. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Physical Sensors)

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15 pages, 351 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Optimization of ERK Activity Biosensors for both Ratiometric and Lifetime FRET Measurements

by Pauline Vandame^1,2, Corentin Spriet², Franck Riquet^1,2, Dave Trinel², Katia Cailliau-Maggio¹ and Jean-François Bodart^1,2,*

¹ Laboratoire de Régulation des Signaux de division, EA4479, Institut Fédératif de Recherche (IFR) 147, Site de Recherche Intégré en Cancérologie (SIRIC) ONCOLILLE, University Lille1, Villeneuve d'Ascq F-59655, France

² Interdisciplinary Research Institute, USR3078 CNRS, Université Lille Nord de France, 50 avenue de Halley, Villeneuve d'Ascq Cedex F-59558, France

Sensors 2014, 14(1), 1140-1154; https://doi.org/10.3390/s140101140 - 10 Jan 2014

Cited by 23 | Viewed by 9939

Abstract

Among biosensors, genetically-encoded FRET-based biosensors are widely used to localize and measure enzymatic activities. Kinases activities are of particular interest as their spatiotemporal regulation has become crucial for the deep understanding of cell fate decisions. This is especially the case for ERK, whose [...] Read more.

Among biosensors, genetically-encoded FRET-based biosensors are widely used to localize and measure enzymatic activities. Kinases activities are of particular interest as their spatiotemporal regulation has become crucial for the deep understanding of cell fate decisions. This is especially the case for ERK, whose activity is a key node in signal transduction pathways and can direct the cell into various processes. There is a constant need for better tools to analyze kinases in vivo, and to detect even the slightest variations of their activities. Here we report the optimization of the previous ERK activity reporters, EKAR and EKAREV. Those tools are constituted by two fluorophores adapted for FRET experiments, which are flanking a specific substrate of ERK, and a domain able to recognize and bind this substrate when phosphorylated. The latter phosphorylation allows a conformational change of the biosensor and thus a FRET signal. We improved those biosensors with modifications of: (i) fluorophores and (ii) linkers between substrate and binding domain, resulting in new versions that exhibit broader dynamic ranges upon EGF stimulation when FRET experiments are carried out by fluorescence lifetime and ratiometric measurements. Herein, we characterize those new biosensors and discuss their observed differences that depend on their fluorescence properties. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fluorescent Biosensors)

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29 pages, 923 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Methodology to Assess the Accuracy with which Remote Data Characterize a Specific Surface, as a Function of Full Width at Half Maximum (FWHM): Application to Three Italian Coastal Waters

by Rosa Maria Cavalli^1,*, Mattia Betti², Alessandra Campanelli², Annalisa Di Cicco³, Daniela Guglietta⁴, Pierluigi Penna² and Viviana Piermattei³

¹ Italian National Research Council, Institute for Atmospheric Pollution Research, CNR-IIA, Area della Ricerca di Roma1, Via Salaria Km 29,300, Monterotondo (RM) 00016, Italy

² Italian National Research Council, Marine Science Institute CNR-ISMAR, Largo Fiera della Pesca, Ancona (AN) 60125, Italy

³ Laboratory of Experimental Oceanology and Marine Ecology DECOS, University of Tuscia, Molo Vespucci, Porto di Civitavecchia, Civitavecchia (RM) 00053, Italy

⁴ Italian National Research Council, Institute of Environmental Geology and Geoengineering, CNR-IGAG, Area della Ricerca di Roma1, Via Salaria Km 29,300, Monterotondo (RM) 00016, Italy

Sensors 2014, 14(1), 1155-1183; https://doi.org/10.3390/s140101155 - 10 Jan 2014

Cited by 14 | Viewed by 7787

Abstract

This methodology assesses the accuracy with which remote data characterizes a surface, as a function of Full Width at Half Maximum (FWHM). The purpose is to identify the best remote data that improves the characterization of a surface, evaluating the number of [...] Read more.

This methodology assesses the accuracy with which remote data characterizes a surface, as a function of Full Width at Half Maximum (FWHM). The purpose is to identify the best remote data that improves the characterization of a surface, evaluating the number of bands in the spectral range. The first step creates an accurate dataset of remote simulated data, using in situ hyperspectral reflectances. The second step evaluates the capability of remote simulated data to characterize this surface. The spectral similarity measurements, which are obtained using classifiers, provide this capability. The third step examines the precision of this capability. The assumption is that in situ hyperspectral reflectances are considered the “real” reflectances. They are resized with the same spectral range of the remote data. The spectral similarity measurements which are obtained from “real” resized reflectances, are considered “real” measurements. Therefore, the quantity and magnitude of “errors” (i.e., differences between spectral similarity measurements obtained from “real” resized reflectances and from remote data) provide the accuracy as a function of FWHM. This methodology was applied to evaluate the accuracy with which CHRIS-mode1, CHRIS-mode2, Landsat5-TM, MIVIS and PRISMA data characterize three coastal waters. Their mean values of uncertainty are 1.59%, 3.79%, 7.75%, 3.15% and 1.18%, respectively. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Remote Sensors)

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11 pages, 559 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Biosensing Using Microring Resonator Interferograms

by Shih-Hsiang Hsu^1,*, Yung-Chia Yang¹, Yu-Hou Su¹, Sheng-Min Wang¹, Shih-An Huang¹ and Ching-Yu Lin^2,*

¹ Department of Electronic Engineering, National Taiwan University of Science and Technology, No.43, Sec. 4, Keelung Rd., Taipei 10607, Taiwan

² School of Medical Laboratory Science and Biotechnology, College of Medical Science and Technology, Taipei Medical University, 250 Wu-Hsing Street, Taipei 11031, Taiwan

Sensors 2014, 14(1), 1184-1194; https://doi.org/10.3390/s140101184 - 10 Jan 2014

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 6119

Abstract

Optical low-coherence interferometry (OLCI) takes advantage of the variation in refractive index in silicon-wire microring resonator (MRR) effective lengths to perform glucose biosensing using MRR interferograms. The MRR quality factor (Q), proportional to the effective length, could be improved using the [...] Read more.

Optical low-coherence interferometry (OLCI) takes advantage of the variation in refractive index in silicon-wire microring resonator (MRR) effective lengths to perform glucose biosensing using MRR interferograms. The MRR quality factor (Q), proportional to the effective length, could be improved using the silicon-wire propagation loss and coupling ratio from the MRR coupler. Our study showed that multimode interference (MMI) performed well in broad band response, but the splitting ratio drifted to 75/25 due to the stress issue. The glucose sensing sensitivity demonstrated 0.00279 meter per refractive-index-unit (RIU) with a Q factor of ~30,000 under transverse electric polarization. The 1,310 nm DFB laser was built in the OLCI system as the optical ruler achieving 655 nm characterization accuracy. The lowest sensing limitation was therefore 2 × 10⁻⁴ RIU. Moreover, the MRR effective length from the glucose sensitivity could be utilized to experimentally demonstrate the silicon wire effective refractive index with a width of 0.45 mm and height of 0.26 mm. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Biosensors)

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13 pages, 370 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Topoisomerase I as a Biomarker: Detection of Activity at the Single Molecule Level

by Joanna Proszek¹, Amit Roy^2,3, Ann-Katrine Jakobsen¹, Rikke Frøhlich², Birgitta R. Knudsen² and Magnus Stougaard^1,*

¹ Department of Pathology, Aarhus University Hospital, Aarhus C 8000, Denmark

² Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Aarhus University, Aarhus C 8000, Denmark

³ Department of Biotechnology, National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education & Research (NIPER), Hajipur-844 101, Bihar, India

Sensors 2014, 14(1), 1195-1207; https://doi.org/10.3390/s140101195 - 10 Jan 2014

Cited by 19 | Viewed by 7687

Abstract

Human topoisomerase I (hTopI) is an essential cellular enzyme. The enzyme is often upregulated in cancer cells, and it is a target for chemotherapeutic drugs of the camptothecin (CPT) family. Response to CPT-based treatment is dependent on hTopI activity, and reduction in activity, [...] Read more.

Human topoisomerase I (hTopI) is an essential cellular enzyme. The enzyme is often upregulated in cancer cells, and it is a target for chemotherapeutic drugs of the camptothecin (CPT) family. Response to CPT-based treatment is dependent on hTopI activity, and reduction in activity, and mutations in hTopI have been reported to result in CPT resistance. Therefore, hTOPI gene copy number, mRNA level, protein amount, and enzyme activity have been studied to explain differences in cellular response to CPT. We show that Rolling Circle Enhanced Enzyme Activity Detection (REEAD), allowing measurement of hTopI cleavage-religation activity at the single molecule level, may be used to detect posttranslational enzymatic differences influencing CPT response. These differences cannot be detected by analysis of hTopI gene copy number, mRNA amount, or protein amount, and only become apparent upon measuring the activity of hTopI in the presence of CPT. Furthermore, we detected differences in the activity of the repair enzyme tyrosyl-DNA phosphodiesterase 1, which is involved in repair of hTopI-induced DNA damage. Since increased TDP1 activity can reduce cellular CPT sensitivity we suggest that a combined measurement of TDP1 activity and hTopI activity in presence of CPT will be the best determinant for CPT response. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Single Biomolecule Detection)

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20 pages, 2033 KiB

Open AccessArticle

An Experimental Study on the Effect of Temperature on Piezoelectric Sensors for Impedance-Based Structural Health Monitoring

by Fabricio G. Baptista^*

, Danilo E. Budoya, Vinicius A. D. de Almeida and Jose Alfredo C. Ulson

Faculdade de Engenharia, UNESP-Univ Estadual Paulista, Campus de Bauru, Departamento de Engenharia Elétrica, Av. Eng. Luiz Edmundo Carrijo Coube, 14-01, Bauru-SP 17033-360, Brazil

Sensors 2014, 14(1), 1208-1227; https://doi.org/10.3390/s140101208 - 10 Jan 2014

Cited by 246 | Viewed by 12629

Abstract

The electromechanical impedance (EMI) technique is considered to be one of the most promising methods for developing structural health monitoring (SHM) systems. This technique is simple to implement and uses small and inexpensive piezoelectric sensors. However, practical problems have hindered its application to [...] Read more.

The electromechanical impedance (EMI) technique is considered to be one of the most promising methods for developing structural health monitoring (SHM) systems. This technique is simple to implement and uses small and inexpensive piezoelectric sensors. However, practical problems have hindered its application to real-world structures, and temperature effects have been cited in the literature as critical problems. In this paper, we present an experimental study of the effect of temperature on the electrical impedance of the piezoelectric sensors used in the EMI technique. We used 5H PZT (lead zirconate titanate) ceramic sensors, which are commonly used in the EMI technique. The experimental results showed that the temperature effects were strongly frequency-dependent, which may motivate future research in the SHM field. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Physical Sensors)

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21 pages, 897 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Possibilities of a Personal Laser Scanning System for Forest Mapping and Ecosystem Services

by Xinlian Liang^1,*, Antero Kukko¹, Harri Kaartinen¹, Juha Hyyppä¹, Xiaowei Yu¹, Anttoni Jaakkola¹ and Yunsheng Wang^1,2

¹ Department of Remote Sensing and Photogrammetry, Finnish Geodetic Institute, Masala 02431, Finland

² Department of Geography and Geology, University of Turku, Turku 20014, Finland

Sensors 2014, 14(1), 1228-1248; https://doi.org/10.3390/s140101228 - 10 Jan 2014

Cited by 116 | Viewed by 11721

Abstract

A professional-quality, personal laser scanning (PLS) system for collecting tree attributes was demonstrated in this paper. The applied system, which is wearable by human operators, consists of a multi-constellation navigation system and an ultra-high-speed phase-shift laser scanner mounted on a rigid baseplate and [...] Read more.

A professional-quality, personal laser scanning (PLS) system for collecting tree attributes was demonstrated in this paper. The applied system, which is wearable by human operators, consists of a multi-constellation navigation system and an ultra-high-speed phase-shift laser scanner mounted on a rigid baseplate and consisting of a single sensor block. A multipass-corridor-mapping method was developed to process PLS data and a 2,000 m² forest plot was utilized in the test. The tree stem detection accuracy was 82.6%; the root mean square error (RMSE) of the estimates of tree diameter at breast height (DBH) was 5.06 cm; the RMSE of the estimates of tree location was 0.38 m. The relative RMSE of the DBH estimates was 14.63%. The results showed, for the first time, the potential of the PLS system in mapping large forest plots. Further research on mapping accuracy in various forest conditions, data correction methods and multi-sensoral positioning techniques is needed. The utilization of this system in different applications, such as harvester operations, should also be explored. In addition to collecting tree-level and plot-level data for forest inventory, other possible applications of PLS for forest ecosystem services include mapping of canopy gaps, measuring leaf area index of large areas, documenting and visualizing forest routes feasible for recreation, hiking and berry and mushroom picking. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Physical Sensors)

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18 pages, 609 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Adjustment of Measurements with Multiplicative Errors: Error Analysis, Estimates of the Variance of Unit Weight, and Effect on Volume Estimation from LiDAR-Type Digital Elevation Models

by Yun Shi¹, Peiliang Xu^2,*, Junhuan Peng³, Chuang Shi⁴ and Jingnan Liu⁴

¹ School of Geomatics, Xi'an University of Science and Technology, Xi'an 710054, China

² Disaster Prevention Research Institute, Kyoto University, Uji, Kyoto 611-0011, Japan

³ School of Land Science and Geomatics, China University of Geosciences, Beijing 100083, China

⁴ GNSS Research Center, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430071, China

Sensors 2014, 14(1), 1249-1266; https://doi.org/10.3390/s140101249 - 10 Jan 2014

Cited by 18 | Viewed by 7629

Abstract

Modern observation technology has verified that measurement errors can be proportional to the true values of measurements such as GPS, VLBI baselines and LiDAR. Observational models of this type are called multiplicative error models. This paper is to extend the work of Xu [...] Read more.

Modern observation technology has verified that measurement errors can be proportional to the true values of measurements such as GPS, VLBI baselines and LiDAR. Observational models of this type are called multiplicative error models. This paper is to extend the work of Xu and Shimada published in 2000 on multiplicative error models to analytical error analysis of quantities of practical interest and estimates of the variance of unit weight. We analytically derive the variance-covariance matrices of the three least squares (LS) adjustments, the adjusted measurements and the corrections of measurements in multiplicative error models. For quality evaluation, we construct five estimators for the variance of unit weight in association of the three LS adjustment methods. Although LiDAR measurements are contaminated with multiplicative random errors, LiDAR-based digital elevation models (DEM) have been constructed as if they were of additive random errors. We will simulate a model landslide, which is assumed to be surveyed with LiDAR, and investigate the effect of LiDAR-type multiplicative error measurements on DEM construction and its effect on the estimate of landslide mass volume from the constructed DEM. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Remote Sensors)

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11 pages, 232 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Recommendations for Standardizing Validation Procedures Assessing Physical Activity of Older Persons by Monitoring Body Postures and Movements

by Ulrich Lindemann^1,*, Wiebren Zijlstra², Kamiar Aminian³, Sebastien F.M. Chastin⁴

, Eling D. De Bruin⁵, Jorunn L. Helbostad⁶

and Johannes B.J. Bussmann⁷

¹ Department of Clinical Gerontology and Rehabilitation, Robert-Bosch-Hospital, Stuttgart 70376, Germany

² Institute of Movement and Sport Gerontology, German Sport University Cologne, Cologne 50933, Germany

³ Laboratory of Movement Analysis and Measurement, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, Lausanne 1015, Switzerland

⁴ School of Health and Life Science, Institute of Applied Health Research, Glasgow Caledonian University, Glasgow G4 0BA, Scotland, UK

⁵ Institute of Human Movement Sciences and Sport, Department of Health Sciences and Technology, ETH Zurich, Zurich 8092, Switzerland

⁶ Department of Neuroscience, Faculty of Medicine, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim 7491, Norway

⁷ Department of Rehabilitation Medicine, Erasmus MC University Medical Centre Rotterdam, Rotterdam 3015, The Netherlands

Sensors 2014, 14(1), 1267-1277; https://doi.org/10.3390/s140101267 - 10 Jan 2014

Cited by 49 | Viewed by 12282

Abstract

Physical activity is an important determinant of health and well-being in older persons and contributes to their social participation and quality of life. Hence, assessment tools are needed to study this physical activity in free-living conditions. Wearable motion sensing technology is used to [...] Read more.

Physical activity is an important determinant of health and well-being in older persons and contributes to their social participation and quality of life. Hence, assessment tools are needed to study this physical activity in free-living conditions. Wearable motion sensing technology is used to assess physical activity. However, there is a lack of harmonisation of validation protocols and applied statistics, which make it hard to compare available and future studies. Therefore, the aim of this paper is to formulate recommendations for assessing the validity of sensor-based activity monitoring in older persons with focus on the measurement of body postures and movements. Validation studies of body-worn devices providing parameters on body postures and movements were identified and summarized and an extensive inter-active process between authors resulted in recommendations about: information on the assessed persons, the technical system, and the analysis of relevant parameters of physical activity, based on a standardized and semi-structured protocol. The recommended protocols can be regarded as a first attempt to standardize validity studies in the area of monitoring physical activity. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Wearable Gait Sensors)

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17 pages, 1728 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Comparison of Piezoresistive Monofilament Polymer Sensors

by Mark Melnykowycz^*

, Birgit Koll, Dagobert Scharf and Frank Clemens^*

EMPA Dübendorf, Überlandstrasse 129, Dübendorf 8600, Switzerland

Sensors 2014, 14(1), 1278-1294; https://doi.org/10.3390/s140101278 - 13 Jan 2014

Cited by 50 | Viewed by 11082

Abstract

The development of flexible polymer monofilament fiber strain sensors have many applications in both wearable computing (clothing, gloves, etc.) and robotics design (large deformation control). For example, a high-stretch monofilament sensor could be integrated into robotic arm design, easily stretching over joints [...] Read more.

The development of flexible polymer monofilament fiber strain sensors have many applications in both wearable computing (clothing, gloves, etc.) and robotics design (large deformation control). For example, a high-stretch monofilament sensor could be integrated into robotic arm design, easily stretching over joints or along curved surfaces. As a monofilament, the sensor can be woven into or integrated with textiles for position or physiological monitoring, computer interface control, etc. Commercially available conductive polymer monofilament sensors were tested alongside monofilaments produced from carbon black (CB) mixed with a thermo-plastic elastomer (TPE) and extruded in different diameters. It was found that signal strength, drift, and precision characteristics were better with a 0.3 mm diameter CB/TPE monofilament than thick (~2 mm diameter) based on the same material or commercial monofilaments based on natural rubber or silicone elastomer (SE) matrices. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Physical Sensors)

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27 pages, 3838 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A One-Versus-All Class Binarization Strategy for Bearing Diagnostics of Concurrent Defects

by Selina S. Y. Ng^*, Peter W. Tse and Kwok L. Tsui

Department of Systems Engineering and Engineering Management (SEEM), City University of Hong Kong, Tat Chee Avenue, Kowloon, Hong Kong, China

Sensors 2014, 14(1), 1295-1321; https://doi.org/10.3390/s140101295 - 13 Jan 2014

Cited by 31 | Viewed by 8608

Abstract

In bearing diagnostics using a data-driven modeling approach, a concern is the need for data from all possible scenarios to build a practical model for all operating conditions. This paper is a study on bearing diagnostics with the concurrent occurrence of multiple defect [...] Read more.

In bearing diagnostics using a data-driven modeling approach, a concern is the need for data from all possible scenarios to build a practical model for all operating conditions. This paper is a study on bearing diagnostics with the concurrent occurrence of multiple defect types. The authors are not aware of any work in the literature that studies this practical problem. A strategy based on one-versus-all (OVA) class binarization is proposed to improve fault diagnostics accuracy while reducing the number of scenarios for data collection, by predicting concurrent defects from training data of normal and single defects. The proposed OVA diagnostic approach is evaluated with empirical analysis using support vector machine (SVM) and C4.5 decision tree, two popular classification algorithms frequently applied to system health diagnostics and prognostics. Statistical features are extracted from the time domain and the frequency domain. Prediction performance of the proposed strategy is compared with that of a simple multi-class classification, as well as that of random guess and worst-case classification. We have verified the potential of the proposed OVA diagnostic strategy in performance improvements for single-defect diagnosis and predictions of BPFO plus BPFI concurrent defects using two laboratory-collected vibration data sets. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Physical Sensors)

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36 pages, 2510 KiB

Open AccessReview

A Survey of Routing Protocols in Wireless Body Sensor Networks

by Javed Iqbal Bangash, Abdul Hanan Abdullah^*, Mohammad Hossein Anisi and Abdul Waheed Khan

Faculty of Computing, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia (UTM), 81310 Skudai Johor, Malaysia

Sensors 2014, 14(1), 1322-1357; https://doi.org/10.3390/s140101322 - 13 Jan 2014

Cited by 139 | Viewed by 18959

Abstract

Wireless Body Sensor Networks (WBSNs) constitute a subset of Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs) responsible for monitoring vital sign-related data of patients and accordingly route this data towards a sink. In routing sensed data towards sinks, WBSNs face some of the same routing challenges [...] Read more.

Wireless Body Sensor Networks (WBSNs) constitute a subset of Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs) responsible for monitoring vital sign-related data of patients and accordingly route this data towards a sink. In routing sensed data towards sinks, WBSNs face some of the same routing challenges as general WSNs, but the unique requirements of WBSNs impose some more constraints that need to be addressed by the routing mechanisms. This paper identifies various issues and challenges in pursuit of effective routing in WBSNs. Furthermore, it provides a detailed literature review of the various existing routing protocols used in the WBSN domain by discussing their strengths and weaknesses. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sensors Data Fusion for Healthcare)

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14 pages, 722 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Coumarin-Based Fluorescent Probes for Dual Recognition of Copper(II) and Iron(III) Ions and Their Application in Bio-Imaging

by Olimpo García-Beltrán^1,2,*, Bruce K. Cassels¹, Claudio Pérez¹, Natalia Mena³, Marco T. Núñez³, Natalia P. Martínez⁴, Paulina Pavez⁴ and Margarita E. Aliaga^4,*

¹ Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Sciences, University of Chile, Santiago 7800024, Chile

² Facultad de Ciencias Naturales y Matemáticas, Universidad de Ibagué, Carrera 22 Calle 67, Ibagué 730001, Colombia

³ Department of Biology, Faculty of Sciences, University of Chile, Santiago 7800024, Chile

⁴ Facultad de Química, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Casilla 306, Santiago 6094411, Chile

Sensors 2014, 14(1), 1358-1371; https://doi.org/10.3390/s140101358 - 13 Jan 2014

Cited by 87 | Viewed by 12065

Abstract

Two new coumarin-based “turn-off” fluorescent probes, (E)-3-((3,4-dihydroxybenzylidene)amino)-7-hydroxy-2H-chromen-2-one (BS1) and (E)-3-((2,4-dihydroxybenzylidene)amino)-7-hydroxy-2H-chromen-2-one (BS2), were synthesized and their detection of copper(II) and iron(III) ions was studied. Results show that both compounds are highly selective [...] Read more.

Two new coumarin-based “turn-off” fluorescent probes, (E)-3-((3,4-dihydroxybenzylidene)amino)-7-hydroxy-2H-chromen-2-one (BS1) and (E)-3-((2,4-dihydroxybenzylidene)amino)-7-hydroxy-2H-chromen-2-one (BS2), were synthesized and their detection of copper(II) and iron(III) ions was studied. Results show that both compounds are highly selective for Cu²⁺ and Fe³⁺ ions over other metal ions. However, BS2 is detected directly, while detection of BS1 involves a hydrolysis reaction to regenerate 3-amino-7-hydroxycoumarin (3) and 3,4-dihydroxybenzaldehyde, of which 3 is able to react with copper(II) or iron(III) ions. The interaction between the tested compounds and copper or iron ions is associated with a large fluorescence decrease, showing detection limits of ca. 10⁻⁵ M. Preliminary studies employing epifluorescence microscopy demonstrate that Cu²⁺ and Fe³⁺ ions can be imaged in human neuroblastoma SH-SY5Y cells treated with the tested probes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fluorescent Biosensors)

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22 pages, 871 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Gearbox Tooth Cut Fault Diagnostics Using Acoustic Emission and Vibration Sensors — A Comparative Study

by Yongzhi Qu¹, David He^1,*

, Jae Yoon¹, Brandon Van Hecke¹, Eric Bechhoefer² and Junda Zhu³

¹ Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL 60607, USA

² Green Power Monitoring Systems, LLC, Essex Junction, VT 05452, USA

³ Renewable NRG Systems, Hinesburg, VT 05461, USA

Sensors 2014, 14(1), 1372-1393; https://doi.org/10.3390/s140101372 - 14 Jan 2014

Cited by 116 | Viewed by 15924

Abstract

In recent years, acoustic emission (AE) sensors and AE-based techniques have been developed and tested for gearbox fault diagnosis. In general, AE-based techniques require much higher sampling rates than vibration analysis-based techniques for gearbox fault diagnosis. Therefore, it is questionable whether an AE-based [...] Read more.

In recent years, acoustic emission (AE) sensors and AE-based techniques have been developed and tested for gearbox fault diagnosis. In general, AE-based techniques require much higher sampling rates than vibration analysis-based techniques for gearbox fault diagnosis. Therefore, it is questionable whether an AE-based technique would give a better or at least the same performance as the vibration analysis-based techniques using the same sampling rate. To answer the question, this paper presents a comparative study for gearbox tooth damage level diagnostics using AE and vibration measurements, the first known attempt to compare the gearbox fault diagnostic performance of AE- and vibration analysis-based approaches using the same sampling rate. Partial tooth cut faults are seeded in a gearbox test rig and experimentally tested in a laboratory. Results have shown that the AE-based approach has the potential to differentiate gear tooth damage levels in comparison with the vibration-based approach. While vibration signals are easily affected by mechanical resonance, the AE signals show more stable performance. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Physical Sensors)

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80 pages, 5842 KiB

Open AccessReview

The Development of Micromachined Gyroscope Structure and Circuitry Technology

by Dunzhu Xia^*, Cheng Yu and Lun Kong

Key Laboratory for Micro-inertial Instruments and Advanced Navigation Technology of the Education Ministry, School of Instrument Science and Engineering, Southeast University, Nanjing 210096, China

Sensors 2014, 14(1), 1394-1473; https://doi.org/10.3390/s140101394 - 14 Jan 2014

Cited by 202 | Viewed by 29472

Abstract

This review surveys micromachined gyroscope structure and circuitry technology. The principle of micromachined gyroscopes is first introduced. Then, different kinds of MEMS gyroscope structures, materials and fabrication technologies are illustrated. Micromachined gyroscopes are mainly categorized into micromachined vibrating gyroscopes (MVGs), piezoelectric vibrating gyroscopes [...] Read more.

This review surveys micromachined gyroscope structure and circuitry technology. The principle of micromachined gyroscopes is first introduced. Then, different kinds of MEMS gyroscope structures, materials and fabrication technologies are illustrated. Micromachined gyroscopes are mainly categorized into micromachined vibrating gyroscopes (MVGs), piezoelectric vibrating gyroscopes (PVGs), surface acoustic wave (SAW) gyroscopes, bulk acoustic wave (BAW) gyroscopes, micromachined electrostatically suspended gyroscopes (MESGs), magnetically suspended gyroscopes (MSGs), micro fiber optic gyroscopes (MFOGs), micro fluid gyroscopes (MFGs), micro atom gyroscopes (MAGs), and special micromachined gyroscopes. Next, the control electronics of micromachined gyroscopes are analyzed. The control circuits are categorized into typical circuitry and special circuitry technologies. The typical circuitry technologies include typical analog circuitry and digital circuitry, while the special circuitry consists of sigma delta, mode matching, temperature/quadrature compensation and novel special technologies. Finally, the characteristics of various typical gyroscopes and their development tendency are discussed and investigated in detail. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Physical Sensors)

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23 pages, 1172 KiB

Open AccessArticle

An Energy Efficient Compressed Sensing Framework for the Compression of Electroencephalogram Signals

by Simon Fauvel^* and Rabab K. Ward

Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, The University of British Columbia, 2322 Main Mall, Vancouver, BC V6T1Z4, Canada

Sensors 2014, 14(1), 1474-1496; https://doi.org/10.3390/s140101474 - 15 Jan 2014

Cited by 43 | Viewed by 9782

Abstract

The use of wireless body sensor networks is gaining popularity in monitoring and communicating information about a person’s health. In such applications, the amount of data transmitted by the sensor node should be minimized. This is because the energy available in these battery [...] Read more.

The use of wireless body sensor networks is gaining popularity in monitoring and communicating information about a person’s health. In such applications, the amount of data transmitted by the sensor node should be minimized. This is because the energy available in these battery powered sensors is limited. In this paper, we study the wireless transmission of electroencephalogram (EEG) signals. We propose the use of a compressed sensing (CS) framework to efficiently compress these signals at the sensor node. Our framework exploits both the temporal correlation within EEG signals and the spatial correlations amongst the EEG channels. We show that our framework is up to eight times more energy efficient than the typical wavelet compression method in terms of compression and encoding computations and wireless transmission. We also show that for a fixed compression ratio, our method achieves a better reconstruction quality than the CS-based state-of-the art method. We finally demonstrate that our method is robust to measurement noise and to packet loss and that it is applicable to a wide range of EEG signal types. Full article

(This article belongs to the Collection Sensors for Globalized Healthy Living and Wellbeing)

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14 pages, 804 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Autonomous Oscillation of Polymer Chains Induced by the Belousov–Zhabotinsky Reaction

by Yusuke Hara^* and Yoshiko Takenaka

Nanosystem Research Institute, NRI, National Institute of Advanced Science and Technology, AIST, Central 5-2, 1-1-1 Higashi, Tsukuba 305-8565, Japan

Sensors 2014, 14(1), 1497-1510; https://doi.org/10.3390/s140101497 - 15 Jan 2014

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 7008

Abstract

We investigated the self-oscillating behaviors of two types of polymer chains induced by the Belousov–Zhabotinsky (BZ) reaction. One consisted of N-isopropylacrylamide (NIPAAm) and the Ru catalyst of the BZ reaction, and the other consisted of NIPAAm, the Ru catalyst, and acrylamide-2-methylpropanesulfonic acid [...] Read more.

We investigated the self-oscillating behaviors of two types of polymer chains induced by the Belousov–Zhabotinsky (BZ) reaction. One consisted of N-isopropylacrylamide (NIPAAm) and the Ru catalyst of the BZ reaction, and the other consisted of NIPAAm, the Ru catalyst, and acrylamide-2-methylpropanesulfonic acid (AMPS) with a negatively charged domain as a solubility control site. A comparison of the two types of self-oscillation systems showed that the anionic AMPS portion of the polymer chain significantly affected the self-oscillating behavior under strongly acidic condition. The periods of self-oscillation for the two types of self-oscillating polymer chains were investigated by changing the initial concentrations of the three BZ substrates and the temperature. As a result, it was demonstrated that the period of self-oscillation could be controlled by the concentration of the BZ substrates and the temperature. Furthermore, the activation energies of the two types of the self-oscillating polymer chains gave similar values as normal BZ reactions, i.e., not including the self-oscillating polymer system with a Ru moiety. In addition, it was clarified the activation energy was hardly affected by the initial concentration of the three BZ substrates. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymeric Micro Sensors and Actuators)

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17 pages, 398 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Strapdown Interial Navigation System/Beidou/Doppler Velocity Log Integrated Navigation Algorithm Based on a Cubature Kalman Filter

by Wei Gao¹, Ya Zhang^1,2,* and Jianguo Wang²

¹ College of Automation, Harbin Engineering University, Harbin 150001, China

² Department of Earth and Space Science and Engineering, York University, Toronto, ON M3J 1P3, Canada

Sensors 2014, 14(1), 1511-1527; https://doi.org/10.3390/s140101511 - 15 Jan 2014

Cited by 67 | Viewed by 8286

Abstract

The integrated navigation system with strapdown inertial navigation system (SINS), Beidou (BD) receiver and Doppler velocity log (DVL) can be used in marine applications owing to the fact that the redundant and complementary information from different sensors can markedly improve the system accuracy. [...] Read more.

The integrated navigation system with strapdown inertial navigation system (SINS), Beidou (BD) receiver and Doppler velocity log (DVL) can be used in marine applications owing to the fact that the redundant and complementary information from different sensors can markedly improve the system accuracy. However, the existence of multisensor asynchrony will introduce errors into the system. In order to deal with the problem, conventionally the sampling interval is subdivided, which increases the computational complexity. In this paper, an innovative integrated navigation algorithm based on a Cubature Kalman filter (CKF) is proposed correspondingly. A nonlinear system model and observation model for the SINS/BD/DVL integrated system are established to more accurately describe the system. By taking multi-sensor asynchronization into account, a new sampling principle is proposed to make the best use of each sensor’s information. Further, CKF is introduced in this new algorithm to enable the improvement of the filtering accuracy. The performance of this new algorithm has been examined through numerical simulations. The results have shown that the positional error can be effectively reduced with the new integrated navigation algorithm. Compared with the traditional algorithm based on EKF, the accuracy of the SINS/BD/DVL integrated navigation system is improved, making the proposed nonlinear integrated navigation algorithm feasible and efficient. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Remote Sensors)

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16 pages, 1257 KiB

Open AccessArticle

RTS Noise and Dark Current White Defects Reduction Using Selective Averaging Based on a Multi-Aperture System

by Bo Zhang^*, Keiichiro Kagawa, Taishi Takasawa, Min Woong Seo, Keita Yasutomi and Shoji Kawahito

Research Institute of Electronics, Shizuoka University, 3-5-1 Johoku Nakaku Hamamatsu, Shizuoka 432-8011, Japan

Sensors 2014, 14(1), 1528-1543; https://doi.org/10.3390/s140101528 - 16 Jan 2014

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 9854

Abstract

In extremely low-light conditions, random telegraph signal (RTS) noise and dark current white defects become visible. In this paper, a multi-aperture imaging system and selective averaging method which removes the RTS noise and the dark current white defects by minimizing the synthetic sensor [...] Read more.

In extremely low-light conditions, random telegraph signal (RTS) noise and dark current white defects become visible. In this paper, a multi-aperture imaging system and selective averaging method which removes the RTS noise and the dark current white defects by minimizing the synthetic sensor noise at every pixel is proposed. In the multi-aperture imaging system, a very small synthetic F-number which is much smaller than 1.0 is achieved by increasing optical gain with multiple lenses. It is verified by simulation that the effective noise normalized by optical gain in the peak of noise histogram is reduced from 1.38e⁻ to 0.48 e⁻ in a 3 × 3-aperture system using low-noise CMOS image sensors based on folding-integration and cyclic column ADCs. In the experiment, a prototype 3 × 3-aperture camera, where each aperture has 200 × 200 pixels and an imaging lens with a focal length of 3.0 mm and F-number of 3.0, is developed. Under a low-light condition, in which the maximum average signal is 11e⁻ per aperture, the RTS and dark current white defects are removed and the peak signal-to-noise ratio (PSNR) of the image is increased by 6.3 dB. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Photonic Sensors for Industrial, Environmental and Health Monitoring)

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20 pages, 879 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Enhancement of the Excitation Efficiency of the Non-Contact Magnetostrictive Sensor for Pipe Inspection by Adjusting the Alternating Magnetic Field Axial Length

by Pengfei Sun, Xinjun Wu^*, Jiang Xu

and Jian Li

School of Mechanical Science & Engineering, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan 430074, China

Sensors 2014, 14(1), 1544-1563; https://doi.org/10.3390/s140101544 - 16 Jan 2014

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 8167

Abstract

The non-contact magnetostrictive sensor (MsS) has been widely used in the guided wave testing of pipes, cables, and so on. However, it has a disadvantage of low excitation efficiency. A new method for enhancing the excitation efficiency of the non-contact MsS for pipe [...] Read more.

The non-contact magnetostrictive sensor (MsS) has been widely used in the guided wave testing of pipes, cables, and so on. However, it has a disadvantage of low excitation efficiency. A new method for enhancing the excitation efficiency of the non-contact MsS for pipe inspection using guided waves, by adjusting the axial length of the excitation magnetic field, is proposed. A special transmitter structure, in which two copper rings are added beside the transmitter coil, is used to adjust the axial length at the expense of weakening the excitation magnetic field. An equivalent vibration model is presented to analyze the influence of the axial length variation. The final result is investigated by experiments. Results show that the excitation efficiency of the non-contact MsS is enhanced in the whole inspection frequency range of the L(0,2) mode if the axial length is adjusted to a certain value. Moreover that certain axial length is the same for pipes of different sizes but made of the same material. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Physical Sensors)

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12 pages, 643 KiB

Open AccessArticle

In-Line Measurement of Water Content in Ethanol Using a PVA-Coated Quartz Crystal Microbalance

by Byoung Chul Kim¹, Takuji Yamamoto² and Young Han Kim^1,*

¹ Department of Chemical Engineering, Dong-A University, Pusan 604-714, Korea

² Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Hyogo, Himeji 671-2201, Japan

Sensors 2014, 14(1), 1564-1575; https://doi.org/10.3390/s140101564 - 16 Jan 2014

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 7486

Abstract

An in-line device for measuring the water content in ethanol was developed using a polyvinyl alcohol (PVA)-coated quartz crystal microbalance. Bio-ethanol is widely used as the replacement of gasoline, and its water content is a key component of its specifications. When the PVA-coated [...] Read more.

An in-line device for measuring the water content in ethanol was developed using a polyvinyl alcohol (PVA)-coated quartz crystal microbalance. Bio-ethanol is widely used as the replacement of gasoline, and its water content is a key component of its specifications. When the PVA-coated quartz crystal microbalance is contacted with ethanol containing a small amount of water, the water is absorbed into the PVA increasing the load on the microbalance surface to cause a frequency drop. The determination performance of the PVA-coated microbalance is examined by measuring the frequency decreases in ethanol containing 2% to 10% water while the ethanol flows through the measurement device. The measurements indicates that the higher water content is the more the frequency reduction is, though some deviation in the measurements is observed. This indicates that the frequency measurement of an unknown concentration of water in ethanol can be used to determine the water content in ethanol. The PVA coating is examined by microscopy and FTIR (Fourier transform infrared) spectroscopy. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Chemical Sensors)

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22 pages, 3202 KiB

Open AccessReview

Hyperpolarized NMR Probes for Biological Assays

by Sebastian Meier^1,*, Pernille R. Jensen², Magnus Karlsson² and Mathilde H. Lerche^2,*

¹ Carlsberg Laboratory, Gamle Carlsberg Vej 10, 1799 Copenhagen V, Denmark

² Albeda Research, Gamle Carlsberg Vej 10, 1799 Copenhagen V, Denmark

Sensors 2014, 14(1), 1576-1597; https://doi.org/10.3390/s140101576 - 16 Jan 2014

Cited by 52 | Viewed by 11112

Abstract

During the last decade, the development of nuclear spin polarization enhanced (hyperpolarized) molecular probes has opened up new opportunities for studying the inner workings of living cells in real time. The hyperpolarized probes are produced ex situ, introduced into biological systems and [...] Read more.

During the last decade, the development of nuclear spin polarization enhanced (hyperpolarized) molecular probes has opened up new opportunities for studying the inner workings of living cells in real time. The hyperpolarized probes are produced ex situ, introduced into biological systems and detected with high sensitivity and contrast against background signals using high resolution NMR spectroscopy. A variety of natural, derivatized and designed hyperpolarized probes has emerged for diverse biological studies including assays of intracellular reaction progression, pathway kinetics, probe uptake and export, pH, redox state, reactive oxygen species, ion concentrations, drug efficacy or oncogenic signaling. These probes are readily used directly under natural conditions in biofluids and are often directly developed and optimized for cellular assays, thus leaving little doubt about their specificity and utility under biologically relevant conditions. Hyperpolarized molecular probes for biological NMR spectroscopy enable the unbiased detection of complex processes by virtue of the high spectral resolution, structural specificity and quantifiability of NMR signals. Here, we provide a survey of strategies used for the selection, design and use of hyperpolarized NMR probes in biological assays, and describe current limitations and developments. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Magnetic Resonance Sensors)

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31 pages, 951 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Ontology-Driven Monitoring of Patient’s Vital Signs Enabling Personalized Medical Detection and Alert

by Anna Hristoskova^1,*, Vangelis Sakkalis², Giorgos Zacharioudakis², Manolis Tsiknakis^3,4 and Filip De Turck¹

¹ Internet Based Communication Networks and Services, Department of Information Technology—iMinds, Ghent University, Gaston Crommenlaan 8 Box 201, Ghent 9050, Belgium

² Institute of Computer Science, Foundation for Research and Technology and the Department of Computer Science, University of Crete, Vassilika Vouton, P.O. Box 1385, Heraklion 71110, Greece

³ Department of Informatics Engineering, Technological Educational Institute of Crete, Estavromenos 71004, Greece

⁴ Computational Medicine Laboratory, FORTH-ICS, N.Plastira 100, Vassilika Vouton, Heraklion 71110, Greece

Sensors 2014, 14(1), 1598-1628; https://doi.org/10.3390/s140101598 - 17 Jan 2014

Cited by 61 | Viewed by 10669

Abstract

A major challenge related to caring for patients with chronic conditions is the early detection of exacerbations of the disease. Medical personnel should be contacted immediately in order to intervene in time before an acute state is reached, ensuring patient safety. This paper [...] Read more.

A major challenge related to caring for patients with chronic conditions is the early detection of exacerbations of the disease. Medical personnel should be contacted immediately in order to intervene in time before an acute state is reached, ensuring patient safety. This paper proposes an approach to an ambient intelligence (AmI) framework supporting real-time remote monitoring of patients diagnosed with congestive heart failure (CHF). Its novelty is the integration of: (i) personalized monitoring of the patients health status and risk stage; (ii) intelligent alerting of the dedicated physician through the construction of medical workflows on-the-fly; and (iii) dynamic adaptation of the vital signs’ monitoring environment on any available device or smart phone located in close proximity to the physician depending on new medical measurements, additional disease specifications or the failure of the infrastructure. The intelligence lies in the adoption of semantics providing for a personalized and automated emergency alerting that smoothly interacts with the physician, regardless of his location, ensuring timely intervention during an emergency. It is evaluated on a medical emergency scenario, where in the case of exceeded patient thresholds, medical personnel are localized and contacted, presenting ad hoc information on the patient’s condition on the most suited device within the physician’s reach. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Ambient Assisted Living (AAL): Sensors, Architectures and Applications)

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25 pages, 2858 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Smart Kitchen for Ambient Assisted Living

by Rubén Blasco^1,*, Álvaro Marco¹

, Roberto Casas¹, Diego Cirujano¹ and Richard Picking²

¹ Instituto Universitario de Investigación en Ingeniería de Aragón, Universidad de Zaragoza, C\Mariano Esquillor s/n, Zaragoza 50018, Spain

² Institute for Arts, Science and Technology, Glyndŵr University, Plas Coch Campus, Mold Road, Wrexham LL11 2AW, UK

Sensors 2014, 14(1), 1629-1653; https://doi.org/10.3390/s140101629 - 17 Jan 2014

Cited by 118 | Viewed by 22908

Abstract

The kitchen environment is one of the scenarios in the home where users can benefit from Ambient Assisted Living (AAL) applications. Moreover, it is the place where old people suffer from most domestic injuries. This paper presents a novel design, implementation and assessment [...] Read more.

The kitchen environment is one of the scenarios in the home where users can benefit from Ambient Assisted Living (AAL) applications. Moreover, it is the place where old people suffer from most domestic injuries. This paper presents a novel design, implementation and assessment of a Smart Kitchen which provides Ambient Assisted Living services; a smart environment that increases elderly and disabled people’s autonomy in their kitchen-related activities through context and user awareness, appropriate user interaction and artificial intelligence. It is based on a modular architecture which integrates a wide variety of home technology (household appliances, sensors, user interfaces, etc.) and associated communication standards and media (power line, radio frequency, infrared and cabled). Its software architecture is based on the Open Services Gateway initiative (OSGi), which allows building a complex system composed of small modules, each one providing the specific functionalities required, and can be easily scaled to meet our needs. The system has been evaluated by a large number of real users (63) and carers (31) in two living labs in Spain and UK. Results show a large potential of system functionalities combined with good usability and physical, sensory and cognitive accessibility. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Ambient Assisted Living (AAL): Sensors, Architectures and Applications)

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11 pages, 482 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Incorporating β-Cyclodextrin with ZnO Nanorods: A Potentiometric Strategy for Selectivity and Detection of Dopamine

by Sami Elhag^*, Zafar Hussain Ibupoto, Omer Nur and Magnus Willander

Department of Science and Technology, Campus Norrköping, Linköping University, Norrköping SE-60174, Sweden

Sensors 2014, 14(1), 1654-1664; https://doi.org/10.3390/s140101654 - 17 Jan 2014

Cited by 21 | Viewed by 7829

Abstract

We describe a chemical sensor based on a simple synthesis of zinc oxide nanorods (ZNRs) for the detection of dopamine molecules by a potentiometric approach. The polar nature of dopamine leads to a change of surface charges on the ZNR surface via metal [...] Read more.

We describe a chemical sensor based on a simple synthesis of zinc oxide nanorods (ZNRs) for the detection of dopamine molecules by a potentiometric approach. The polar nature of dopamine leads to a change of surface charges on the ZNR surface via metal ligand bond formation which results in a measurable electrical signal. ZNRs were grown on a gold-coated glass substrate by a low temperature aqueous chemical growth (ACG) method. Polymeric membranes incorporating β-cyclodextrin (β-CD) and potassium tetrakis (4-chlorophenyl) borate was immobilized on the ZNR surface. The fabricated electrodes were characterized by X-ray diffraction (XRD) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) techniques. The grown ZNRs were well aligned and exhibited good crystal quality. The present sensor system displays a stable potential response for the detection of dopamine in 10⁻² mol·L⁻¹ acetic acid/sodium acetate buffer solution at pH 5.45 within a wide concentration range of 1 × 10⁻⁶ M^–1 × 10⁻¹ M, with sensitivity of 49 mV/decade. The electrode shows a good response time (less than 10 s) and excellent repeatability. This finding can contribute to routine analysis in laboratories studying the neuropharmacology of catecholamines. Moreover, the metal-ligand bonds can be further exploited to detect DA receptors, and for bio-imaging applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Chemical Sensors)

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15 pages, 906 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Statistical Tools Applied in the Characterisation and Evaluation of a Thermo-Hygrometric Corrective Action Carried out at the Noheda Archaeological Site (Noheda, Spain)

by Miguel Ángel Valero^1,†, Paloma Merello^2,3,*,†

, Ángel Fernández Navajas^3,† and Fernando-Juan García-Diego^3,4,†

¹ Centro Asociado de la Universidad Nacional de Educación a Distancia en Cuenca, C/Colón 6, Cuenca 16002, Spain

² CulturArts Generalitat (Instituto Valenciano de Conservación y Restauración de Bienes Culturales). Complejo Socio-Educativo de Penyeta Roja s/n., Castellón 12080, Spain

³ Departamento de Física Aplicada, Universitat Politècnica de València. Av. de los Naranjos s/n., Valencia 46022, Spain

⁴ Centro de Tecnologías Físicas. Universitat Politècnica de València, Av. de los Naranjos s/n., Valencia 46022, Spain

^† These authors contributed equally to this work.

Sensors 2014, 14(1), 1665-1679; https://doi.org/10.3390/s140101665 - 17 Jan 2014

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 7365

Abstract

The Noheda archaeological site is unique and exceptional for its size, and the quality and conservation condition of the Roman mosaic pavement covering its urban pars. In 2008 a tent was installed as protection from rain and sun. Being of interest to [...] Read more.

The Noheda archaeological site is unique and exceptional for its size, and the quality and conservation condition of the Roman mosaic pavement covering its urban pars. In 2008 a tent was installed as protection from rain and sun. Being of interest to characterise the microclimate of the remains, six probes with relative humidity and temperature sensors were installed in 2013 for this purpose. Microclimate monitoring allowed us to check relative humidity differences resulting from the groundwater level, as well as inner sensors reaching maximum temperatures higher than the outdoors ones as a consequence of the non-ventilated tent covering the archaeological site. Microclimatic conditions in the archaeological site were deemed detrimental for the conservation of the mosaics. Thus, in summer 2013, expanded clay and geotextile were installed over the mosaics as a corrective action. The outcomes of this study have proven the effectiveness of this solution to control temperature and relative humidity, helping to configure a more stable microclimate suitable for preservation of the mosaic. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sensors for Cultural Heritage Diagnostics)

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11 pages, 851 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Manufacture of Radio Frequency Micromachined Switches with Annealing

by Cheng-Yang Lin and Ching-Liang Dai^*

Department of Mechanical Engineering, National Chung Hsing University, Taichung 402, Taiwan

Sensors 2014, 14(1), 1680-1690; https://doi.org/10.3390/s140101680 - 17 Jan 2014

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 6283

Abstract

The fabrication and characterization of a radio frequency (RF) micromachined switch with annealing were presented. The structure of the RF switch consists of a membrane, coplanar waveguide (CPW) lines, and eight springs. The RF switch is manufactured using the complementary metal oxide semiconductor [...] Read more.

The fabrication and characterization of a radio frequency (RF) micromachined switch with annealing were presented. The structure of the RF switch consists of a membrane, coplanar waveguide (CPW) lines, and eight springs. The RF switch is manufactured using the complementary metal oxide semiconductor (CMOS) process. The switch requires a post-process to release the membrane and springs. The post-process uses a wet etching to remove the sacrificial silicon dioxide layer, and to obtain the suspended structures of the switch. In order to improve the residual stress of the switch, an annealing process is applied to the switch, and the membrane obtains an excellent flatness. The finite element method (FEM) software CoventorWare is utilized to simulate the stress and displacement of the RF switch. Experimental results show that the RF switch has an insertion loss of 0.9 dB at 35 GHz and an isolation of 21 dB at 39 GHz. The actuation voltage of the switch is 14 V. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Modeling, Testing and Reliability Issues in MEMS Engineering 2013)

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14 pages, 919 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Wireless Displacement Sensing Enabled by Metamaterial Probes for Remote Structural Health Monitoring

by Burak Ozbey^1,*

, Emre Unal¹, Hatice Ertugrul¹, Ozgur Kurc²

, Christian M. Puttlitz³, Vakur B. Erturk¹, Ayhan Altintas¹ and Hilmi Volkan Demir^1,4,*

¹ Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Department of Physics, UNAM—Institute of Materials Science and Nanotechnology, Bilkent University, Ankara TR-06800, Turkey

² Department of Civil Engineering, Middle East Technical University, Ankara TR-06800, Turkey

³ Department of Mechanical Engineering, School of Biomedical Engineering, Department of Clinical Sciences, Colorado State University, Ft Collins, CO 80523, USA

⁴ School of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, School of Physical and Mathematical Sciences, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore 639798, Singapore

Sensors 2014, 14(1), 1691-1704; https://doi.org/10.3390/s140101691 - 17 Jan 2014

Cited by 53 | Viewed by 8519

Abstract

We propose and demonstrate a wireless, passive, metamaterial-based sensor that allows for remotely monitoring submicron displacements over millimeter ranges. The sensor comprises a probe made of multiple nested split ring resonators (NSRRs) in a double-comb architecture coupled to an external antenna in its [...] Read more.

We propose and demonstrate a wireless, passive, metamaterial-based sensor that allows for remotely monitoring submicron displacements over millimeter ranges. The sensor comprises a probe made of multiple nested split ring resonators (NSRRs) in a double-comb architecture coupled to an external antenna in its near-field. In operation, the sensor detects displacement of a structure onto which the NSRR probe is attached by telemetrically tracking the shift in its local frequency peaks. Owing to the NSRR’s near-field excitation response, which is highly sensitive to the displaced comb-teeth over a wide separation, the wireless sensing system exhibits a relatively high resolution (<1 µm) and a large dynamic range (over 7 mm), along with high levels of linearity (R² > 0.99 over 5 mm) and sensitivity (>12.7 MHz/mm in the 1–3 mm range). The sensor is also shown to be working in the linear region in a scenario where it is attached to a standard structural reinforcing bar. Because of its wireless and passive nature, together with its low cost, the proposed system enabled by the metamaterial probes holds a great promise for applications in remote structural health monitoring. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Physical Sensors)

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18 pages, 1703 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Wearable Gait Measurement System with an Instrumented Cane for Exoskeleton Control

by Modar Hassan^1,*, Hideki Kadone², Kenji Suzuki^1,2,3

and Yoshiyuki Sankai^1,2

¹ Graduate School of Systems and Information Engineering, University of Tsukuba, Tsukuba 305-8577, Japan

² Center for Cybernics Research, University of Tsukuba, Tsukuba 305-8577, Japan

³ Japan Science and Technology Agency, Saitama 332-0012, Japan

Sensors 2014, 14(1), 1705-1722; https://doi.org/10.3390/s140101705 - 17 Jan 2014

Cited by 97 | Viewed by 17367

Abstract

In this research we introduce a wearable sensory system for motion intention estimation and control of exoskeleton robot. The system comprises wearable inertial motion sensors and shoe-embedded force sensors. The system utilizes an instrumented cane as a part of the interface between the [...] Read more.

In this research we introduce a wearable sensory system for motion intention estimation and control of exoskeleton robot. The system comprises wearable inertial motion sensors and shoe-embedded force sensors. The system utilizes an instrumented cane as a part of the interface between the user and the robot. The cane reflects the motion of upper limbs, and is used in terms of human inter-limb synergies. The developed control system provides assisted motion in coherence with the motion of other unassisted limbs. The system utilizes the instrumented cane together with body worn sensors, and provides assistance for start, stop and continuous walking. We verified the function of the proposed method and the developed wearable system through gait trials on treadmill and on ground. The achievement contributes to finding an intuitive and feasible interface between human and robot through wearable gait sensors for practical use of assistive technology. It also contributes to the technology for cognitively assisted locomotion, which helps the locomotion of physically challenged people. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Wearable Gait Sensors)

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17 pages, 754 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Control of Tendon-Driven Dexterous Hands with Joint Simulation

by Jinbao Chen^* and Dong Han

College of Astronautics, Nanjing University of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Nanjing 210016, China

Sensors 2014, 14(1), 1723-1739; https://doi.org/10.3390/s140101723 - 20 Jan 2014

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 8373

Abstract

An adaptive impedance control algorithm for tendon-driven dexterous hands is presented. The main idea of this algorithm is to compensate the output of the classical impedance control by an offset that is a proportion-integration-differentiation (PID) expression of force error. The adaptive impedance control [...] Read more.

An adaptive impedance control algorithm for tendon-driven dexterous hands is presented. The main idea of this algorithm is to compensate the output of the classical impedance control by an offset that is a proportion-integration-differentiation (PID) expression of force error. The adaptive impedance control can adjust the impedance parameters indirectly when the environment position and stiffness are uncertain. In addition, the position controller and inverse kinematics solver are specially designed for the tendon-driven hand. The performance of the proposed control algorithm is validated by using MATLAB and ADAMS software for joint simulation. ADAMS is a great software for virtual prototype analysis. A tendon-driven hand model is built and a control module is generated in ADAMS. Then the control system is built in MATLAB using the control module. The joint simulation results demonstrate fast response and robustness of the algorithm when the environment is not exactly known, so the algorithm is suitable for the control of tendon-driven dexterous hands. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Physical Sensors)

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17 pages, 445 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Modeling and Characterization of the Implant Intra-Body Communication Based on Capacitive Coupling Using a Transfer Function Method

by Kai Zhang, Qun Hao^*, Yong Song^*, Jingwen Wang, Ruobing Huang and Yue Liu

School of Optoelectronics, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing 100081, China

Sensors 2014, 14(1), 1740-1756; https://doi.org/10.3390/s140101740 - 20 Jan 2014

Cited by 33 | Viewed by 10473

Abstract

Implantable devices have important applications in biomedical sensor networks used for biomedical monitoring, diagnosis and treatment, etc. In this paper, an implant intra-body communication (IBC) method based on capacitive coupling has been proposed, and the modeling and characterization of this kind of [...] Read more.

Implantable devices have important applications in biomedical sensor networks used for biomedical monitoring, diagnosis and treatment, etc. In this paper, an implant intra-body communication (IBC) method based on capacitive coupling has been proposed, and the modeling and characterization of this kind of IBC has been investigated. Firstly, the transfer function of the implant IBC based on capacitive coupling was derived. Secondly, the corresponding parameters of the transfer function are discussed. Finally, both measurements and simulations based on the proposed transfer function were carried out, while some important conclusions have been achieved, which indicate that the achieved transfer function and conclusions are able to help to achieve an implant communication method with the highly desirable characteristics of low power consumption, high data rate, high transmission quality, etc. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biomedical Sensors and Systems)

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14 pages, 1434 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Two-Stage System Based on a Software-Defined Radio for Stabilizing of Optical Frequency Combs in Long-Term Experiments

by Martin Čížek^*, Václav Hucl, Jan Hrabina, Radek Šmíd, Břetislav Mikel, Josef Lazar and Ondřej Číp

Institute of Scientific Instruments of the ASCR, Královopolská 147, Brno 612 64, Czech Republic

Sensors 2014, 14(1), 1757-1770; https://doi.org/10.3390/s140101757 - 20 Jan 2014

Cited by 14 | Viewed by 6865

Abstract

A passive optical resonator is a special sensor used for measurement of lengths on the nanometer and sub-nanometer scale. A stabilized optical frequency comb can provide an ultimate reference for measuring the wavelength of a tunable laser locked to the optical resonator. If [...] Read more.

A passive optical resonator is a special sensor used for measurement of lengths on the nanometer and sub-nanometer scale. A stabilized optical frequency comb can provide an ultimate reference for measuring the wavelength of a tunable laser locked to the optical resonator. If we lock the repetition and offset frequencies of the comb to a high-grade radiofrequency (RF) oscillator its relative frequency stability is transferred from the RF to the optical frequency domain. Experiments in the field of precise length metrology of low-expansion materials are usually of long-term nature so it is required that the optical frequency comb stay in operation for an extended period of time. The optoelectronic closed-loop systems used for stabilization of combs are usually based on traditional analog electronic circuits processing signals from photodetectors. From an experimental point of view, these setups are very complicated and sensitive to ambient conditions, especially in the optical part, therefore maintaining long-time operation is not easy. The research presented in this paper deals with a novel approach based on digital signal processing and a software-defined radio. We describe digital signal processing algorithms intended for keeping the femtosecond optical comb in a long-time stable operation. This need arose during specialized experiments involving measurements of optical frequencies of tunable continuous-wave lasers. The resulting system is capable of keeping the comb in lock for an extensive period of time (8 days or more) with the relative stability better than 1.6 × 10⁻¹¹. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Physical Sensors)

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16 pages, 509 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Estimating the Concentration and Biodegradability of Organic Matter in 22 Wastewater Treatment Plants Using Fluorescence Excitation Emission Matrices and Parallel Factor Analysis

by Liyang Yang¹, Hyun-Sang Shin² and Jin Hur^1,*

¹ Department of Environment & Energy, Sejong University, 98 Gunja-dong, Gwangjin-ku, Seoul 143-747, Korea

² Department of Environmental Engineering, Seoul National University of Science and Technology, Seoul 139-743, Korea

Sensors 2014, 14(1), 1771-1786; https://doi.org/10.3390/s140101771 - 20 Jan 2014

Cited by 85 | Viewed by 9402

Abstract

This study aimed at monitoring the changes of fluorescent components in wastewater samples from 22 Korean biological wastewater treatment plants and exploring their prediction capabilities for total organic carbon (TOC), dissolved organic carbon (DOC), biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), chemical oxygen demand (COD), and [...] Read more.

This study aimed at monitoring the changes of fluorescent components in wastewater samples from 22 Korean biological wastewater treatment plants and exploring their prediction capabilities for total organic carbon (TOC), dissolved organic carbon (DOC), biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), chemical oxygen demand (COD), and the biodegradability of the wastewater using an optical sensing technique based on fluorescence excitation emission matrices and parallel factor analysis (EEM-PARAFAC). Three fluorescent components were identified from the samples by using EEM-PARAFAC, including protein-like (C1), fulvic-like (C2) and humic-like (C3) components. C1 showed the highest removal efficiencies for all the treatment types investigated here (69% ± 26%–81% ± 8%), followed by C2 (37% ± 27%–65% ± 35%), while humic-like component (i.e., C3) tended to be accumulated during the biological treatment processes. The percentage of C1 in total fluorescence (%C1) decreased from 54% ± 8% in the influents to 28% ± 8% in the effluents, while those of C2 and C3 (%C2 and %C3) increased from 43% ± 6% to 62% ± 9% and from 3% ± 7% to 10% ± 8%, respectively. The concentrations of TOC, DOC, BOD, and COD were the most correlated with the fluorescence intensity (F_max) of C1 (r = 0.790–0.817), as compared with the other two fluorescent components. The prediction capability of C1 for TOC, BOD, and COD were improved by using multiple regression based on F_max of C1 and suspended solids (SS) (r = 0.856–0.865), both of which can be easily monitored in situ. The biodegradability of organic matter in BOD/COD were significantly correlated with each PARAFAC component and their combinations (r = −0.598–0.613, p < 0.001), with the highest correlation coefficient shown for %C1. The estimation capability was further enhanced by using multiple regressions based on %C1, %C2 and C3/C2 (r = −0.691). Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Chemical Sensors)

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18 pages, 654 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Control Framework for Dexterous Manipulation Using Dynamic Visual Servoing and Tactile Sensors’ Feedback

by Carlos A. Jara^*

, Jorge Pomares

, Francisco A. Candelas and Fernando Torres

Physics, Systems Engineering and Signal Theory Department, University of Alicante, San Vicente del Raspeig, Alicante 03690, Spain

Sensors 2014, 14(1), 1787-1804; https://doi.org/10.3390/s140101787 - 21 Jan 2014

Cited by 40 | Viewed by 8610

Abstract

Tactile sensors play an important role in robotics manipulation to perform dexterous and complex tasks. This paper presents a novel control framework to perform dexterous manipulation with multi-fingered robotic hands using feedback data from tactile and visual sensors. This control framework permits the [...] Read more.

Tactile sensors play an important role in robotics manipulation to perform dexterous and complex tasks. This paper presents a novel control framework to perform dexterous manipulation with multi-fingered robotic hands using feedback data from tactile and visual sensors. This control framework permits the definition of new visual controllers which allow the path tracking of the object motion taking into account both the dynamics model of the robot hand and the grasping force of the fingertips under a hybrid control scheme. In addition, the proposed general method employs optimal control to obtain the desired behaviour in the joint space of the fingers based on an indicated cost function which determines how the control effort is distributed over the joints of the robotic hand. Finally, authors show experimental verifications on a real robotic manipulation system for some of the controllers derived from the control framework. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Tactile Sensors and Sensing Systems)

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17 pages, 1079 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Applicability of Time-Averaged Holography for Micro-Electro-Mechanical System Performing Non-Linear Oscillations

by Paulius Palevicius^1,*, Minvydas Ragulskis¹

, Arvydas Palevicius² and Vytautas Ostasevicius³

¹ Department of Mathematical Research in Systems, Kaunas University of Technology, Studentu st. 50-222, Kaunas LT-51368, Lithuania

² Faculty of Mechanical Engineering and Mechatronics, Kaunas University of Technology, Kestucio St. 27, Kaunas LT-44312, Lithuania

³ Institute for Hi-Tech Development, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering and Mechatronics, Kaunas University of Technology, Student St. 65, Kaunas LT-51368, Lithuania

Sensors 2014, 14(1), 1805-1821; https://doi.org/10.3390/s140101805 - 21 Jan 2014

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 6583

Abstract

Optical investigation of movable microsystem components using time-averaged holography is investigated in this paper. It is shown that even a harmonic excitation of a non-linear microsystem may result in an unpredictable chaotic motion. Analytical results between parameters of the chaotic oscillations and the [...] Read more.

Optical investigation of movable microsystem components using time-averaged holography is investigated in this paper. It is shown that even a harmonic excitation of a non-linear microsystem may result in an unpredictable chaotic motion. Analytical results between parameters of the chaotic oscillations and the formation of time-averaged fringes provide a deeper insight into computational and experimental interpretation of time-averaged MEMS holograms. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Physical Sensors)

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13 pages, 868 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Thermal Balance Analysis of a Micro-Thermoelectric Gas Sensor Using Catalytic Combustion of Hydrogen

by Daisuke Nagai, Takafumi Akamatsu, Toshio Itoh, Noriya Izu and Woosuck Shin^*

AIST, 2266-98 Anagahora, Shimo-Shidami, Moriyama-ku, Nagoya 463-8560, Japan

Sensors 2014, 14(1), 1822-1834; https://doi.org/10.3390/s140101822 - 21 Jan 2014

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 7879

Abstract

A thermoelectric gas sensor (TGS) with a combustion catalyst is a calorimetric sensor that changes the small heat of catalytic combustion into a signal voltage. We analyzed the thermal balance of a TGS to quantitatively estimate the sensor parameters. The voltage signal of [...] Read more.

A thermoelectric gas sensor (TGS) with a combustion catalyst is a calorimetric sensor that changes the small heat of catalytic combustion into a signal voltage. We analyzed the thermal balance of a TGS to quantitatively estimate the sensor parameters. The voltage signal of a TGS was simulated, and the heat balance was calculated at two sections across the thermoelectric film of a TGS. The thermal resistances in the two sections were estimated from the thermal time constants of the experimental signal curves of the TGS. The catalytic combustion heat Q_catalyst required for 1 mV of ∆V_gas was calculated to be 46.1 μW. Using these parameters, we find from simulations for the device performance that the expected Q_catalyst for 200 and 1,000 ppm H₂ was 3.69 μW and 11.7 μW, respectively. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Chemical Sensors)

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15 pages, 1531 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Markov Jump Linear Systems-Based Position Estimation for Lower Limb Exoskeletons

by Samuel L. Nogueira¹, Adriano A. G. Siqueira^1,2,*, Roberto S. Inoue³ and Marco H. Terra^2,4

¹ Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of São Paulo, São Carlos, SP 13566-590, Brazil

² Center for Robotics of São Carlos and Center for Advanced Studies in Rehabilitation, University of São Paulo, SP 13566-590, Brazil

³ Department of Electrical Engineering, Federal University of São Carlos, SP 13565-905, Brazil

⁴ Department of Electrical Engineering, University of São Paulo, São Carlos, SP 13566-590, Brazil

Sensors 2014, 14(1), 1835-1849; https://doi.org/10.3390/s140101835 - 22 Jan 2014

Cited by 21 | Viewed by 8384

Abstract

In this paper, we deal with Markov Jump Linear Systems-based filtering applied to robotic rehabilitation. The angular positions of an impedance-controlled exoskeleton, designed to help stroke and spinal cord injured patients during walking rehabilitation, are estimated. Standard position estimate approaches adopt Kalman filters [...] Read more.

In this paper, we deal with Markov Jump Linear Systems-based filtering applied to robotic rehabilitation. The angular positions of an impedance-controlled exoskeleton, designed to help stroke and spinal cord injured patients during walking rehabilitation, are estimated. Standard position estimate approaches adopt Kalman filters (KF) to improve the performance of inertial measurement units (IMUs) based on individual link configurations. Consequently, for a multi-body system, like a lower limb exoskeleton, the inertial measurements of one link (e.g., the shank) are not taken into account in other link position estimation (e.g., the foot). In this paper, we propose a collective modeling of all inertial sensors attached to the exoskeleton, combining them in a Markovian estimation model in order to get the best information from each sensor. In order to demonstrate the effectiveness of our approach, simulation results regarding a set of human footsteps, with four IMUs and three encoders attached to the lower limb exoskeleton, are presented. A comparative study between the Markovian estimation system and the standard one is performed considering a wide range of parametric uncertainties. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Wearable Gait Sensors)

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27 pages, 1084 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Spatial Division Clustering Method and Low Dimensional Feature Extraction Technique Based Indoor Positioning System

by Yun Mo¹, Zhongzhao Zhang^1,*, Weixiao Meng¹, Lin Ma¹ and Yao Wang^1,2

¹ Communication Research Center, School of Electronics Information Engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin 150001, China

² Communication Department, Shenyang Artillery Academy, Shenyang 110867, China

Sensors 2014, 14(1), 1850-1876; https://doi.org/10.3390/s140101850 - 22 Jan 2014

Cited by 17 | Viewed by 7809

Abstract

Indoor positioning systems based on the fingerprint method are widely used due to the large number of existing devices with a wide range of coverage. However, extensive positioning regions with a massive fingerprint database may cause high computational complexity and error margins, therefore [...] Read more.

Indoor positioning systems based on the fingerprint method are widely used due to the large number of existing devices with a wide range of coverage. However, extensive positioning regions with a massive fingerprint database may cause high computational complexity and error margins, therefore clustering methods are widely applied as a solution. However, traditional clustering methods in positioning systems can only measure the similarity of the Received Signal Strength without being concerned with the continuity of physical coordinates. Besides, outage of access points could result in asymmetric matching problems which severely affect the fine positioning procedure. To solve these issues, in this paper we propose a positioning system based on the Spatial Division Clustering (SDC) method for clustering the fingerprint dataset subject to physical distance constraints. With the Genetic Algorithm and Support Vector Machine techniques, SDC can achieve higher coarse positioning accuracy than traditional clustering algorithms. In terms of fine localization, based on the Kernel Principal Component Analysis method, the proposed positioning system outperforms its counterparts based on other feature extraction methods in low dimensionality. Apart from balancing online matching computational burden, the new positioning system exhibits advantageous performance on radio map clustering, and also shows better robustness and adaptability in the asymmetric matching problem aspect. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Physical Sensors)

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21 pages, 513 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Secure Trust Establishment Scheme for Wireless Sensor Networks

by Farruh Ishmanov, Sung Won Kim^*

and Seung Yeob Nam

Department of Information and Communication Engineering, Yeungnam University, 214-1 Dae-dong, Gyeongsan-si, Kyongsan 712-749, Gyeongsangbuk-do, Korea

Sensors 2014, 14(1), 1877-1897; https://doi.org/10.3390/s140101877 - 22 Jan 2014

Cited by 32 | Viewed by 7788

Abstract

Trust establishment is an important tool to improve cooperation and enhance security in wireless sensor networks. The core of trust establishment is trust estimation. If a trust estimation method is not robust against attack and misbehavior, the trust values produced will be meaningless, [...] Read more.

Trust establishment is an important tool to improve cooperation and enhance security in wireless sensor networks. The core of trust establishment is trust estimation. If a trust estimation method is not robust against attack and misbehavior, the trust values produced will be meaningless, and system performance will be degraded. We present a novel trust estimation method that is robust against on-off attacks and persistent malicious behavior. Moreover, in order to aggregate recommendations securely, we propose using a modified one-step M-estimator scheme. The novelty of the proposed scheme arises from combining past misbehavior with current status in a comprehensive way. Specifically, we introduce an aggregated misbehavior component in trust estimation, which assists in detecting an on-off attack and persistent malicious behavior. In order to determine the current status of the node, we employ previous trust values and current measured misbehavior components. These components are combined to obtain a robust trust value. Theoretical analyses and evaluation results show that our scheme performs better than other trust schemes in terms of detecting an on-off attack and persistent misbehavior. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Sensor Networks)

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Sensors, Volume 14, Issue 1 (January 2014) – 102 articles , Pages 1-1901

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