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Viruses
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Bovine Influenza
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Bovine Influenza

A special issue of Viruses (ISSN 1999-4915). This special issue belongs to the section "Animal Viruses".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: 31 July 2025 | Viewed by 15284

Special Issue Editors

Dr. Dan Wang

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Gluck Equine Research Center, Department of Veterinary Science, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY 40506, USA
Interests: influenza virology; bovine influenza C and D; coronavirus; rotavirus; vaccine development; reverse genetics system; pathogen discovery
Prof. Dr. Feng Li

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Department of Veterinary Science, Department of Microbiology, Immunology, and Molecular Genetics, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY 40506, USA
Interests: bovine influenza; influenza virology; rotavirus; veterinary virology
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Cattle had not been proposed or established as a reservoir or susceptible host for influenza viruses until the discovery of influenza D in bovines in 2014. The recent observations of human influenza C virus spillover to cattle further strengthen the idea that cattle are susceptible to influenza virus infections. In March 2024, an in-depth clinical investigation of causative agents associated with a mystery disease complex affecting dairy cows in the Texas panhandle region of United States led to the unexpected identification of a highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) H5N1 virus in diseased dairy cows with a significant drop in milk production. To date, cow influenza H5N1 has been found in at least five states of the U.S., including Texas, Kansas, Michigan, New Mexico, and Idaho. The sudden emergence of the H5N1 virus in dairy cows provides convincing evidence that cattle are also a susceptible host to the influenza A virus. This new discovery also raises many important questions, such as how the bird influenza virus jumps to dairy cows with high levels of the virus detected in raw milk, and how to protect cattle herds as well as people who work for this important industry. This Special Issue will feature the most recent research and findings on influenza viruses in cattle, including epidemiology and public health, tropism, adaptation to bovines and cross-species transmission, infection biology, evolution, virus–host interactions, immune responses, and vaccine development. In addition, this SI also welcome topics on influenza viruses in other ruminating mammals, including goats, sheep, and deer.

Dr. Dan Wang
Prof. Dr. Feng Li
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

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Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Viruses is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2600 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • cattle
  • influenza viruses
  • avian influenza
  • replication
  • virulence
  • transmission
  • host adaptation
  • reservoir
  • epidemiology
  • one health
  • vaccine
  • immune response

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Published Papers (5 papers)

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Research

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11 pages, 953 KiB  
Article
First Report of Influenza D Virus in Dairy Cattle in Pakistan
by Sajid Umar, Aftab Ahmed, Sajjad Hussain Gulraiz, Shaban Muhammad, Jieshi Yu, Arslan Rasool, Renata Koviazina, Aysun Yilmaz, Huseyin Yilmaz and Benjamin D. Anderson
Viruses 2024, 16(12), 1865; https://doi.org/10.3390/v16121865 - 29 Nov 2024
Viewed by 1125
Abstract
Influenza D virus (IDV) is a newly emerged zoonotic virus increasingly reported worldwide. Cattle are considered the main reservoir of IDV, although it was first isolated from pigs. IDV infects multiple animal species and contributes to the bovine respiratory disease complex (BRDC). To [...] Read more.
Influenza D virus (IDV) is a newly emerged zoonotic virus increasingly reported worldwide. Cattle are considered the main reservoir of IDV, although it was first isolated from pigs. IDV infects multiple animal species and contributes to the bovine respiratory disease complex (BRDC). To date, there has been no report on the presence and frequency of IDV among cattle herds in Pakistan. In this study, we collected nasal swabs from cattle and performed virological surveillance of IDV via qRT-PCR. Among 376 swab samples, IDV was detected in 9 samples (2.4%). Four dairy cattle farms were positive for IDV; two IDV-positive samples (two/nine, 22.2%) belonged to asymptomatic cattle, while seven IDV-positive samples (seven/nine, 77.8%) were from cattle showing respiratory clinical signs, including two with a recent history of abortion and mastitis. Partial sequences of the hemagglutinin–esterase-fusion gene of IDV were obtained from nine qRT-PCR-positive samples. Notably, all IDV strains in this study clustered within the D/OK lineages in phylogenetic analysis. A 98.8–99.6% genetic identity to its European and US counterparts indicates that the IDVs are closely related. The D/OK lineage of IDV was previously unreported in Pakistan. This is the first report of IDV in Pakistan. We confirmed that IDV is circulating among cattle herds in Pakistan. This study underscores the importance of virological surveillance to monitor the ecology of IDV for better animal and public health. The continued spread of IDV and its adaptation to various hosts necessitate further epidemiological studies. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Bovine Influenza)
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Review

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19 pages, 1138 KiB  
Review
Emerging Threats of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza A (H5N1) in US Dairy Cattle: Understanding Cross-Species Transmission Dynamics in Mammalian Hosts
by Chithra C. Sreenivasan, Feng Li and Dan Wang
Viruses 2024, 16(11), 1703; https://doi.org/10.3390/v16111703 - 30 Oct 2024
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 4735
Abstract
The rapid geographic spread of the highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) A(H5N1) virus in poultry, wild birds, and other mammalian hosts, including humans, raises significant health concerns globally. The recent emergence of HPAI A(H5N1) in agricultural animals such as cattle and goats indicates [...] Read more.
The rapid geographic spread of the highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) A(H5N1) virus in poultry, wild birds, and other mammalian hosts, including humans, raises significant health concerns globally. The recent emergence of HPAI A(H5N1) in agricultural animals such as cattle and goats indicates the ability of the virus to breach unconventional host interfaces, further expanding the host range. Among the four influenza types—A, B, C, and D, cattle are most susceptible to influenza D infection and serve as a reservoir for this seven-segmented influenza virus. It is generally thought that bovines are not hosts for other types of influenza viruses, including type A. However, this long-standing viewpoint has been challenged by the recent outbreaks of HPAI A(H5N1) in dairy cows in the United States. To date, HPAI A(H5N1) has spread into fourteen states, affecting 299 dairy herds and causing clinical symptoms such as reduced appetite, fever, and a sudden drop in milk production. Infected cows can also transmit the disease through raw milk. This review article describes the current epidemiological landscape of HPAI A(H5N1) in US dairy cows and its interspecies transmission events in other mammalian hosts reported across the globe. The review also discusses the viral determinants of tropism, host range, adaptative mutations of HPAI A(H5N1) in various mammalian hosts with natural and experimental infections, and vaccination strategies. Finally, it summarizes some immediate questions that need to be addressed for a better understanding of the infection biology, transmission, and immune response of HPAI A(H5N1) in bovines. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Bovine Influenza)
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Other

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10 pages, 1343 KiB  
Brief Report
Detection and Phylogenetic Characterization of Influenza D in Swedish Cattle
by Ignacio Alvarez, Fereshteh Banihashem, Annie Persson, Emma Hurri, Hyeyoung Kim, Mariette Ducatez, Erika Geijer, Jean-Francois Valarcher, Sara Hägglund and Siamak Zohari
Viruses 2025, 17(1), 17; https://doi.org/10.3390/v17010017 - 26 Dec 2024
Viewed by 822
Abstract
Increased evidence suggests that cattle are the primary host of Influenza D virus (IDV) and may contribute to respiratory disease in this species. The aim of this study was to detect and characterise IDV in the Swedish cattle population using archived respiratory samples. [...] Read more.
Increased evidence suggests that cattle are the primary host of Influenza D virus (IDV) and may contribute to respiratory disease in this species. The aim of this study was to detect and characterise IDV in the Swedish cattle population using archived respiratory samples. This retrospective study comprised a collection of a total 1763 samples collected between 1 January 2021 and 30 June 2024. The samples were screened for IDV and other respiratory pathogens using real-time reverse transcription quantitative PCR (rRT-qPCR). Fifty-one IDV-positive samples were identified, with a mean cycle threshold (Ct) value of 27 (range: 15–37). Individual samples with a Ct value of <30 for IDV RNA were further analysed by deep sequencing. Phylogenetic analysis was performed by the maximum likelihood estimation method on the whole IDV genome sequence from 16 samples. The IDV strains collected in 2021 (n = 7) belonged to the D/OK clade, whereas samples from 2023 (n = 4) and 2024 (n = 5) consisted of reassortants between the D/OK and D/660 clades, for the PB2 gene. This study reports the first detection of IDV in Swedish cattle and the circulation of D/OK and reassortant D/OK-D/660 in this population. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Bovine Influenza)
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7 pages, 1228 KiB  
Brief Report
The Thermal Stability of Influenza Viruses in Milk
by Wanke Hu, Zhao Wang, Yunxia Chen, Siyu Wu, Tianyu Li, Shao-Lun Zhai, Xianghong Ju, Yipeng Sun, Wen-Kang Wei and Jieshi Yu
Viruses 2024, 16(11), 1766; https://doi.org/10.3390/v16111766 - 13 Nov 2024
Viewed by 5637
Abstract
Highly pathogenic avian influenza viruses (HPAIVs) of the H5N1 subtype (clade 2.3.4.4b) have been detected in raw milk from infected cows. Several studies have examined the time and temperature parameters to ascertain whether influenza viruses in milk can be inactivated completely under commercial [...] Read more.
Highly pathogenic avian influenza viruses (HPAIVs) of the H5N1 subtype (clade 2.3.4.4b) have been detected in raw milk from infected cows. Several studies have examined the time and temperature parameters to ascertain whether influenza viruses in milk can be inactivated completely under commercial pasteurization conditions, yielding conflicting results. This study aimed to investigate whether milk could help protect influenza viruses from heat treatment. After heat treatment at 49 °C for one hour, the titer reduction of the influenza A/WSN/1933 (A/H1) virus in milk was approximately 1.6 log10TCID50/mL, which was significantly lower than that (3 log10TCID50/mL) observed in the Dulbecco’s Modified Eagle Medium (DMEM) control media. The influenza D/bovine/CHN/JY3002/2022 (D/Yama2019) virus in milk retained a high residual infectivity (4.68 × 103 log10TCID50/mL) after treatment at 53 °C; however, the virus in DMEM completely lost its infectivity under the same conditions. Moreover, the influenza A/chicken/CHN/Cangzhou03/2023 (A/H5) virus in DMEM could be inactivated completely using any of the three heat treatment methods: 63 °C for 30 min, 72 °C for 15 s, or 80 °C for 15 s. For the virus present in milk, only heat treatment at 80 °C for 15 s completely inactivated it. These results suggest that milk prevents influenza viruses from pasteurization inactivation. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Bovine Influenza)
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4 pages, 193 KiB  
Brief Report
Bovine Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza Virus Stability and Inactivation in the Milk Byproduct Lactose
by Taeyong Kwon, Jordan T. Gebhardt, Eu Lim Lyoo, Mohammed Nooruzzaman, Natasha N. Gaudreault, Igor Morozov, Diego G. Diel and Juergen A. Richt
Viruses 2024, 16(9), 1451; https://doi.org/10.3390/v16091451 - 12 Sep 2024
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2055
Abstract
The recent incursion of highly pathogenic influenza viruses into dairy cattle opens new insights for influenza virus ecology and its interspecies transmission and may have a significant impact on public health and agriculture. The aim of this study was to determine the stability [...] Read more.
The recent incursion of highly pathogenic influenza viruses into dairy cattle opens new insights for influenza virus ecology and its interspecies transmission and may have a significant impact on public health and agriculture. The aim of this study was to determine the stability of a bovine highly pathogenic avian influenza H5N1 virus isolate in the milk byproduct lactose and to evaluate two inactivation methods using industrial procedures. The bovine isolate of the highly pathogenic avian influenza H5N1 virus was stable for 14 days in a concentrated lactose solution under refrigerated conditions. Heat or citric acid treatments successfully inactivated the virus in lactose. This study highlights the persistence of HPAIV in lactose and its efficient inactivation under industrial standards. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Bovine Influenza)
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