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The Influence of COVID-19 Pandemic on the Epidemiology of Other Human Viral Infections

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A special issue of Viruses (ISSN 1999-4915). This special issue belongs to the section "Human Virology and Viral Diseases".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (31 January 2025) | Viewed by 18953

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Dr. Mateusz Babicki

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Department of Family Medicine, Wroclaw Medical University, 51-141 Wroclaw, Poland
Interests: vaccines; COVID-19; influezna; epidemiology; viral diseases; primary care; travel medicine
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Dr. Piotr Rzymski

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Department of Environmental Medicine, Poznań University of Medical Sciences, 60-806 Poznań, Poland
Interests: cyanobacteria; aquatic toxicology; aquatic pollution; hydrobiology; viral diseases; vaccines; COVID-19; hepatitis; epidemiology
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Dear Colleagues,

The COVID-19 pandemic has rearranged the functioning of healthcare systems, including access to diagnostics, and has also been tackled with multi-layered public health measures such as social distancing and travel restrictions. Both of these could significantly impact the epidemiological patterns of various viral diseases, resulting in decreased transmission but also underdiagnosis. Further, the circulation of SARS-CoV-2 could reshape the seasonality of other respiratory viruses. This calls for in-depth studies exploring true factors through which the emergence of SARS-CoV-2 could impact other viral infections, including respiratory (e.g., influenza, and RSV), hepatic (e.g., hepatitis A, B, C, D, and E viruses), gastrointestinal (e.g., rotavirus and norovirus), arthropod-borne (e.g., dengue and Zika viruses), and sexually transmitted (e.g., HIV and HPV) ones. Such research is also pivotal to understanding future epidemiological trajectories and introducing appropriate mitigation measures.

With this in mind, we cordially invite you to contribute to our Special Issue. We are inviting submissions of original research articles, reviews, letters, and commentaries from academia, research institutes, not-for-profit organizations, or industries working on identifying all viral diseases and better understanding their epidemiology.

Dr. Mateusz Babicki
Dr. Piotr Rzymski
Guest Editors

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Keywords

COVID-19 pandemic
respiratory viral infections
arboviruses
hepatitis
HIV/AIDS
HPV
dengue
viral gastroenteritis
public health
epidemiology

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Published Papers (11 papers)

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12 pages, 777 KiB

Open AccessCommunication

A Retrospective Study of Respiratory Viruses in a Four-Year Study of Nasal Swabs from Patients with Severe Influenza-like Symptoms in the Lazio Region, Italy

by Giuseppe Sberna, Licia Bordi, Cosmina Mija, Enrico Girardi, Fabrizio Maggi and Eleonora Lalle

Viruses 2025, 17(3), 452; https://doi.org/10.3390/v17030452 - 20 Mar 2025

Viewed by 324

Abstract

The global outbreak of severe acute respiratory syndrome-related coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) and the strategies adopted by different nations have affected and altered the transmission of different respiratory pathogens around the world. We examined the impact of SARS-CoV-2 on the spread of respiratory viruses in the period between 2021 and 2024 in patients with severe influenza-like symptoms in the Lazio region using multiplex PCR tests for the identification of common seasonal respiratory viruses. Our data reveal a change in the transmission of respiratory viruses from 2021 to 2024, with a sharp decline in the transmission of SARS-CoV-2 and a rise in the transmission of other respiratory viruses, especially influenza viruses, and human rhinovirus/enterovirus in 2024. Moreover, viral co-infections, both those involving two viruses and those involving three viruses, have also increased. This work shows how the spread of SARS-CoV-2 influenced the spread of other respiratory viruses over four years in patients with severe influenza-like symptoms in the Lazio region. In conclusion, the resurgence and fluctuation of various respiratory viruses emphasize the dynamic nature of viral epidemiology in the post-pandemic context and highlight the ongoing need for vigilant public health monitoring and intervention strategies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Influence of COVID-19 Pandemic on the Epidemiology of Other Human Viral Infections)

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21 pages, 12148 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Impact of the COVID-19 Pandemic on the Clinical and Epidemiological Profile of Severe Acute Respiratory Infection in Bahia, Brazil: A Comparative Analysis of Pre- and Post-Pandemic Trends

by Káriton Magalhães Bronze, Uener Ribeiro dos Santos, Galileu Barbosa Costa, Anaiá da Paixão Sevá, Maíra Guimarães Kersul, Cathianne Sacramento Pinto, George Rego Albuquerque, Ana Paula Melo Mariano and Sandra Rocha Gadelha

Viruses 2025, 17(3), 389; https://doi.org/10.3390/v17030389 - 9 Mar 2025

Viewed by 1002

Abstract

In recent years, the incidence of Severe Acute Respiratory Infection (SARI) has increased due to the emergence of SARS-CoV-2. However, the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic extends beyond mortality rates. Recent analyses suggest that the introduction and spread of SARS-CoV-2 have significantly affected the epidemiology of other key respiratory viruses, such as influenza virus (FLUV), respiratory syncytial virus (RSV), and rhinovirus (RV). These changes raise new questions about the dynamics and incidence of post-COVID-19 respiratory infections, as well as potential alterations in symptom profiles and clinical outcomes. In this study, we analyzed data from the Epidemiological Surveillance Information System of Respiratory Viral Agents (SIVEP-Gripe), established by the Brazilian Ministry of Health, to examine the profile of SARI before and during the COVID-19 pandemic in Brazil. Our data reveal a distinct epidemiological pattern, with a significant decrease in FLUV notifications during the pandemic, accompanied by peaks in RSV and RV cases in late 2020. Additionally, there was a shift in the age distribution of RSV and other viral infections, with individuals infected during the pandemic being older than those infected before the pandemic. Interestingly, the introduction and spread of SARS-CoV-2 in Bahia State resulted in a reduction in the frequency of symptoms associated with non-SARS-CoV-2 SARI, without altering clinical outcomes. Our findings suggest that the circulation of SARS-CoV-2 has contributed to a clinical and epidemiological shift, particularly for FLUV, RSV, and other viruses, marked by a reduction in symptoms such as fever, dyspnea, respiratory distress, and the need for ventilatory support. The underlying mechanisms driving these changes remain unclear. These insights are crucial for public health authorities and policymakers to refine surveillance strategies and enhance control measures for respiratory viruses, particularly those causing SARI. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Influence of COVID-19 Pandemic on the Epidemiology of Other Human Viral Infections)

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13 pages, 1045 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Has COVID-19 Affected the Course of Chickenpox in Children?

by Justyna Franczak, Zuzanna Wasielewska, Anna Maria Fotyga, Krystyna Dobrowolska, Justyna Moppert, Małgorzata Sobolewska-Pilarczyk and Małgorzata Pawłowska

Viruses 2024, 16(12), 1912; https://doi.org/10.3390/v16121912 - 13 Dec 2024

Viewed by 1144

Abstract

Objectives of the study: The aim of this study was to assess the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the epidemiology and clinical course of chickenpox in children based on 6 years of self-reported observations. MATERIAL AND METHODS: The medical records of 350 patients under 18 years of age hospitalised in the Department of Paediatrics, Infectious Diseases, and Hepatology between 1 January 2018 to 31 December 2023 were analysed retrospectively. RESULTS: During the analysed period, 350 children were hospitalised due to chickenpox, the fewest in the pandemic period, the greatest number in 2023. Complications of chickenpox were diagnosed in 297 children (84.86%). The most commonly diagnosed complications were bacterial dermatitis (168, 48%) and lower respiratory tract infections (13.42%). After the pandemic period, a generalised inflammatory reaction was observed significantly more often (p ≤ 0.01069). Among children hospitalised in 2023, 5.90% of patients with bacterial dermatitis required surgical intervention due to skin abscess or fasciitis. In 2023, 41.46% of cultures from swabs taken from skin lesions grew Streptococcus pyogenes. After the pandemic, children with chickenpox and gastrointestinal symptoms were hospitalised significantly less frequently (p ≤ 0.00001). CONCLUSIONS: In the post-pandemic period, there were more hospitalisations of patients with chickenpox complicated by bacterial skin infection progressing to a generalised inflammatory reaction or septicaemia, related to the increase in invasive group A streptococcal infections observed in Europe. On the other hand, thanks to the widespread adaption of hygiene practices and infection prevention measures, the number of patients with gastrointestinal symptoms significantly decreased. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Influence of COVID-19 Pandemic on the Epidemiology of Other Human Viral Infections)

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20 pages, 4402 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Seasonal Shifts in Influenza, Respiratory Syncytial Virus, and Other Respiratory Viruses After the COVID-19 Pandemic: An Eight-Year Retrospective Study in Jalisco, Mexico

by Ernestina Quintero-Salgado, Jaime Briseno-Ramírez, Gabriel Vega-Cornejo, Roberto Damian-Negrete, Gustavo Rosales-Chavez and Judith Carolina De Arcos-Jiménez

Viruses 2024, 16(12), 1892; https://doi.org/10.3390/v16121892 - 8 Dec 2024

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2881

Abstract

The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic profoundly disrupted the epidemiology of respiratory viruses, driven primarily by widespread non-pharmaceutical interventions (NPIs) such as social distancing and masking. This eight-year retrospective study examines the seasonal patterns and incidence of influenza virus, respiratory syncytial virus (RSV), and other respiratory viruses across pre-pandemic, pandemic, and post-pandemic phases in Jalisco, Mexico. Weekly case counts were analyzed using an interrupted time series (ITS) model, segmenting the timeline into these three distinct phases. Significant reductions in respiratory virus circulation were observed during the pandemic, followed by atypical resurgences as NPIs were relaxed. Influenza displayed alternating subtype dominance, with influenza A H3 prevailing in 2022, influenza B surging in 2023, and influenza A H1N1 increasing thereafter, reflecting potential immunity gaps. RSV activity was marked by earlier onset and higher intensity post-pandemic. Other viruses, including human rhinovirus/enterovirus (HRV/HEV) and parainfluenza virus (HPIV), showed altered dynamics, with some failing to return to pre-pandemic seasonality. These findings underscore the need for adaptive surveillance systems and vaccination strategies to address evolving viral patterns. Future research should investigate the long-term public health implications, focusing on vaccination, clinical outcomes, and healthcare preparedness. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Influence of COVID-19 Pandemic on the Epidemiology of Other Human Viral Infections)

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9 pages, 532 KiB

Open AccessArticle

COVID-19 Vaccinations, Infections, and Outcomes Among 784 People Living with HIV

by Keren Mahlab-Guri, Irina Komarova, Laliv Kadar, Shay Nemet, Ramon Cohen, Sara Radian-Sade, Achiel Tova, Alex Guri, Shira Rosenberg-Bezalel and Daniel Elbirt

Viruses 2024, 16(12), 1805; https://doi.org/10.3390/v16121805 - 21 Nov 2024

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Abstract

Introduction: Variants of COVID-19 are responsible for 700 million infections and 7 million deaths worldwide. Vaccinations have high efficiency in preventing infection and secondary benefits of reducing COVID-19 hospital admissions, attenuating disease severity and duration of illness. Conflicting reports were published regarding COVID-19 among PLWH. Objective: The aim of this study was to evaluate COVID-19 morbidity, hospitalization, and the magnitude of immunological response to sequential BNT 162b2 mRNA vaccines in PLWH regarding demographic and clinical factors. Results: Our retrospective study included 784 PLWH who had at least one anti- SARS-CoV-2 antibody test between March 2021 and October 2021. Half of our patients (392) had CD4 cell counts above 500 cells/µL, 40.2% (315) had 200 < CD4 < 500 cells/µL and only 9.8% (77) had CD4 < 200 cells/µL at their last laboratory workup. The mean age was 50.2 ± 12.2 years. About 90% of our patients were given at least two doses of the BNT 162b2 Pfizer vaccines; about 60% received three doses of the vaccine. About a quarter of our patients (27.6%) had COVID-19 infection. Only six patients required hospital admission. All six patients recovered from COVID-19 infection. Titers of COVID-19 antibodies were lower for patients with CD4 cell counts of less than 200 cells/µL in the first, second, and third serological tests with statistical significance. In a multinomial logistic regression, the influence of other factors such as age, sex, and previous COVID-19 infection on first COVID-19 antibody titers was not significant. Conclusions: PLWH are responsive to COVID-19 vaccines. As was expected, patients with higher CD4 cell counts had higher titers of COVID-19 antibodies and lower hospitalization rate. Age, sex, and previous COVID-19 infection did not significantly affect antibody titers according to our study. Larger prospective studies with control groups are needed to further characterize immunologic response to COVID-19 vaccination among PLWH. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Influence of COVID-19 Pandemic on the Epidemiology of Other Human Viral Infections)

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7 pages, 548 KiB

Open AccessCommunication

Respiratory Viral Infection Patterns in Hospitalised Children Before and After COVID-19 in Hong Kong

by Jason Chun Sang Pun, Kin Pong Tao, Stacy Lok Sze Yam, Kam Lun Hon, Paul Kay Sheung Chan, Albert Martin Li and Renee Wan Yi Chan

Viruses 2024, 16(11), 1786; https://doi.org/10.3390/v16111786 - 17 Nov 2024

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1224

Abstract

The study highlights the significant changes in respiratory virus epidemiology following the lifting of COVID-19 restrictions. Method: In this single-centre retrospective study, the virological readouts of adenovirus (AdV), influenza virus A (IAV), influenza virus B (IBV), parainfluenza viruses (PIV) 1, 2, 3, 4, respiratory syncytial virus (RSV), and coupled enterovirus and rhinovirus (EV/RV) were extracted from the respiratory specimens of paediatric patients in Hong Kong from January 2015 to February 2024. The subjects were stratified into five age groups. Results: The study included 18,737 and 6001 respiratory specimens in the pre-COVID-19 and post-COVID-19 mask mandate period, respectively. The mean age of hospitalised patients increased from 3.49 y ± 0.03 y to 4.37 y ± 0.05 y after the COVID-19 lockdown. The rates of single-virus infection and co-infection were significantly higher in the post-COVID-19 mask mandate period. The odds ratio for AdV for all age groups (OR: 4.53, 4.03, 2.32, 2.46, 1.31) and RSV in older children from 3 years old and above (OR: 1.95, 3.38, p < 0.01) were significantly elevated after the COVID-19 outbreak. Conclusions: Our findings suggest that public health measures to contain COVID-19 may have unintended consequences on children’s natural exposure and immunity to other respiratory viruses, potentially increasing their morbidity in the post-pandemic era. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Influence of COVID-19 Pandemic on the Epidemiology of Other Human Viral Infections)

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12 pages, 1704 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Circulation and Seasonality of Respiratory Viruses in Hospitalized Patients during Five Consecutive Years (2019–2023) in Perugia, Italy

by Alessandro Graziani, Silvia Bozza, Monica Borghi, Antonella Mencacci and Barbara Camilloni

Viruses 2024, 16(9), 1394; https://doi.org/10.3390/v16091394 - 30 Aug 2024

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1388

Abstract

The emergence of SARS-CoV-2 and the non-pharmacological interventions adopted to counter its spread appear to have led to changes in the normal circulation and seasonality of respiratory viruses. Our study aims to investigate changes related to the circulation of respiratory viruses, not SARS-CoV-2, among hospitalized patients in Perugia, Central Italy, between 2019 and 2023. The samples were collected from individuals who went to the emergency room (ER) or were hospitalized and analyzed using a molecular multiplex test. The results underline that non-pharmaceutical interventions altered the typical seasonal circulation patterns of different respiratory viruses. Those mostly affected were enveloped viruses like influenza viruses that disappeared in 2021; the least impact was recorded for Rhinovirus, which was detected during the pandemic period, maintaining the same seasonality observed in the pre-pandemic period although with a reduction in the number of positive samples. Our data underline the importance of the continuous monitoring of these viruses, especially to understand the timing with which prevention measures, not only non-pharmacological interventions but also the equipment of vaccine doses and monoclonal antibodies, should be adopted to reduce their circulation, particularly in the population at risk of developing severe forms of lower respiratory tract infection. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Influence of COVID-19 Pandemic on the Epidemiology of Other Human Viral Infections)

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28 pages, 10783 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Epidemiological and Genetic Characteristics of Respiratory Viral Coinfections with Different Variants of Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2)

by Ivelina Trifonova, Neli Korsun, Iveta Madzharova, Ivailo Alexiev, Ivan Ivanov, Viktoria Levterova, Lyubomira Grigorova, Ivan Stoikov, Dean Donchev and Iva Christova

Viruses 2024, 16(6), 958; https://doi.org/10.3390/v16060958 - 13 Jun 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2011

Abstract

This study aimed to determine the incidence and etiological, seasonal, and genetic characteristics of respiratory viral coinfections involving severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). Between October 2020 and January 2024, nasopharyngeal samples were collected from 2277 SARS-CoV-2-positive patients. Two multiplex approaches were used to detect and sequence SARS-CoV-2, influenza A/B viruses, and other seasonal respiratory viruses: multiplex real-time polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and multiplex next-generation sequencing. Coinfections of SARS-CoV-2 with other respiratory viruses were detected in 164 (7.2%) patients. The most common co-infecting virus was respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) (38 cases, 1.7%), followed by bocavirus (BoV) (1.2%) and rhinovirus (RV) (1.1%). Patients ≤ 16 years of age had the highest rate (15%) of mixed infections. Whole-genome sequencing produced 19 complete genomes of seasonal respiratory viral co-pathogens, which were subjected to phylogenetic and amino acid analyses. The detected influenza viruses were classified into the genetic groups 6B.1A.5a.2a and 6B.1A.5a.2a.1 for A(H1N1)pdm09, 3C.2a1b.2a.2a.1 and 3C.2a.2b for A(H3N2), and V1A.3a.2 for the B/Victoria lineage. The RSV-B sequences belonged to the genetic group GB5.0.5a, with HAdV-C belonging to type 1, BoV to genotype VP1, and PIV3 to lineage 1a(i). Multiple amino acid substitutions were identified, including at the antibody-binding sites. This study provides insights into respiratory viral coinfections involving SARS-CoV-2 and reinforces the importance of genetic characterization of co-pathogens in the development of therapeutic and preventive strategies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Influence of COVID-19 Pandemic on the Epidemiology of Other Human Viral Infections)

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17 pages, 3107 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Genetic Diversity and Detection of Respiratory Viruses Excluding SARS-CoV-2 during the COVID-19 Pandemic in Gabon, 2020–2021

by Georgelin Nguema Ondo, Yuri Ushijima, Haruka Abe, Saïdou Mahmoudou, Rodrigue Bikangui, Anne Marie Nkoma, Marien Juliet Veraldy Magossou Mbadinga, Ayong More, Maradona Daouda Agbanrin, Christelle M. Pemba, Romuald Beh Mba, Ayola Akim Adegnika, Bertrand Lell and Jiro Yasuda

Viruses 2024, 16(5), 698; https://doi.org/10.3390/v16050698 - 28 Apr 2024

Viewed by 2437

Abstract

Acute respiratory infections are a major global burden in resource-limited countries, including countries in Africa. Although COVID-19 has been well studied since the pandemic emerged in Gabon, Central Africa, less attention has been paid to other respiratory viral diseases, and very little data are available. Herein, we provide the first data on the genetic diversity and detection of 18 major respiratory viruses in Gabon during the COVID-19 pandemic. Of 582 nasopharyngeal swab specimens collected from March 2020 to July 2021, which were SARS-CoV-2 negative, 156 were positive (26%) for the following viruses: enterovirus (20.3%), human rhinovirus (HRV) (4.6%), human coronavirus OC43 (1.2%), human adenovirus (0.9%), human metapneumovirus (hMPV) (0.5%), influenza A virus (IAV) (0.3%), and human parainfluenza viruses (0.5%). To determine the genetic diversity and transmission route of the viruses, phylogenetic analyses were performed using genome sequences of the detected viruses. The IAV strain detected in this study was genetically similar to strains isolated in the USA, whereas the hMPV strain belonging to the A2b subtype formed a cluster with Kenyan strains. This study provides the first complete genomic sequences of HRV, IAV, and hMPV detected in Gabon, and provides insight into the circulation of respiratory viruses in the country. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Influence of COVID-19 Pandemic on the Epidemiology of Other Human Viral Infections)

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13 pages, 1183 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Trends of Hepatitis A Virus Infection in Poland: Assessing the Potential Impact of the COVID-19 Pandemic and War in Ukraine

by Piotr Rzymski, Dorota Zarębska-Michaluk, Agnieszka Genowska, Piotr Tyszko, Birute Strukcinskiene and Robert Flisiak

Viruses 2024, 16(3), 469; https://doi.org/10.3390/v16030469 - 20 Mar 2024

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2032

Abstract

Hepatitis A virus (HAV) is the most common cause of acute viral hepatitis, which is preventable by vaccination. This study analyzed trends of HAV infections in Poland according to socio-demographic features in the years 2009–2022 and assessed the potential impact of the COVID-19 pandemic (2020–2023) and the migration of war refugees from Ukraine (since February 2022). In 2009–2022, 7115 new cases of HAV infection were diagnosed in Poland, especially among men (66.4%) and in urban areas (77.4%). Infections among men were most common at the age of 25–34 (median rate 0.43 per 10⁵) and in women aged 15–24 (median rate 0.39 per 10⁵). Analysis of the 14-year frequency of HAV infections exhibited three trends, regardless of gender, age, and residence. The infections revealed a downward trend in 2009–2014, increased significantly in 2014–2018, and decreased again after 2018. A particularly rapid increase in HAV infections occurred between March 2017 and February 2018 (median rate 0.79 per 10⁵). The high level of new infections persisted until the beginning of the COVID-19 pandemic, at which point it dropped significantly but did not reach the level recorded before March 2017. During the Omicron SARS-CoV-2 dominance period, the median rate of HAV infections was 0.053 per 10⁵, with a four-fold increase being observed from February 2022 (when the migration of war refugees from Ukraine began) to August 2022. The presented results can serve as a reference point for further observations in Central Europe. The HAV epidemiological situation is unlikely to escalate in Poland but requires further monitoring. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Influence of COVID-19 Pandemic on the Epidemiology of Other Human Viral Infections)

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8 pages, 434 KiB

Open AccessBrief Report

The Outbreak of Unexplained Acute Hepatitis in Children: The Role of Viral Infections in View of the COVID-19 Pandemic

by Eyal Shteyer, Orna Mor, Orith Waisbourd-Zinman, Yael Mozer-Glazberg, Ronen Arnon, Lior Hecht Sagie, Michal Mandelboim, Oran Erster, Merav Weil, Sara Dovrat, Lital Goldberg and Yael Gozlan

Viruses 2024, 16(5), 808; https://doi.org/10.3390/v16050808 - 20 May 2024

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2019

Abstract

Background and Aims: An increase in the number of cases of acute hepatitis of unknown origin (HUO) in children was observed in 2021. Adenovirus and adeno-associated virus 2 (AAV2) infections have been suggested as possible triggers. However, the potential etiology is still unclear. We aimed to characterize a cohort of children with HUO in Israel in view of the COVID-19 pandemic. Method: Demographics, clinical data, and laboratory results on the children compatible with the CDC criteria for HUO were collected by the established registry of the Ministry of Health. Available specimens were sent to the Central Virology Laboratory. Results: A total of 39 children were included in the registry. A total of 20 were enrolled prospectively, in which human herpes virus 6 (HHV6) infection or reactivation was identified in 11/19, adenovirus was found in 4/19 of the cases, and AAV2 was detected in 2/16. Past COVID-19 exposure was recorded for 24/39 of the children. A total of 10 children underwent liver biopsy, and 8 were successfully treated with steroids and 2 underwent liver transplantation. Conclusions: The COVID-19 pandemic and the related containment measures combined with reactivation or active infection with other viruses could have been a trigger for the HUO outbreak. In our cohort, HHV6 was the most abundant finding. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Influence of COVID-19 Pandemic on the Epidemiology of Other Human Viral Infections)

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