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Vaccines
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Veterinary Vaccines and Host Immune Responses
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Veterinary Vaccines and Host Immune Responses

A special issue of Vaccines (ISSN 2076-393X). This special issue belongs to the section "Veterinary Vaccines".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: 13 August 2025 | Viewed by 7796

Special Issue Editors

Dr. Ayumi Matsuyama-Kato

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Department of Veterinary Pathology, Western College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK S7N 5B4, Canada
Interests: T cell immunity; innate immunity; viral immunity; mucosal immunity; cancer immunity
Prof. Dr. Faizal Careem

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB T2N 1N4, Canada
Interests: avian viral immunology
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

The emergence of new and re-emerging infectious diseases that threaten animal populations worldwide and public health requires continuous improvement in vaccine efficacy, safety, and delivery methods. The development of novel vaccine platforms, including subunit, mRNA, and vectored vaccines, enhances the specificity and durability of immune responses in animals, thus providing effective disease prevention. The use of adjuvants in combination with vaccines has also been explored over the decades. Improved adjuvant applications boost immune responses in animals with minimum antigen content, contributing to cost-effective vaccine development. Recent technologies have shed light on the mechanisms of immune responses and molecular interactions that enable the development of more targeted and effective vaccines.

In this Special Issue, we invite original research articles and review articles in the context of recent advancements and ongoing research in veterinary immunology and vaccine development.

Dr. Ayumi Matsuyama-Kato
Prof. Dr. Faizal Careem
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

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Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Vaccines is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2700 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • animal vaccine
  • vaccine delivery
  • immune response
  • adjuvant
  • antibody-mediated immunity
  • cell-mediated immunity
  • immunogenicity
  • veterinary immunology

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Published Papers (8 papers)

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Research

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10 pages, 3228 KiB  
Article
Assessment of the Reversion to Virulence and Protective Efficacy in Pigs Receiving the Live Attenuated Classical Swine Fever Recombinant Vaccine Candidate FlagT4G
by Elizabeth Ramirez-Medina, Lauro Velazquez-Salinas, Alyssa Valladares, Ayushi Rai, Leeanna Burton, Leandro Sastre, Ediane Silva, Guillermo R. Risatti, Llilianne Ganges and Manuel V. Borca
Vaccines 2025, 13(5), 544; https://doi.org/10.3390/vaccines13050544 - 20 May 2025
Abstract
Background/Objectives: Control of classical swine fever virus (CSFV) in endemic countries relies on vaccination using live attenuated vaccines (LAVs). Most of these LAVs do not allow for the differentiation of vaccinated animals from infected animals (DIVA) based on their serological response. FlagT4G [...] Read more.
Background/Objectives: Control of classical swine fever virus (CSFV) in endemic countries relies on vaccination using live attenuated vaccines (LAVs). Most of these LAVs do not allow for the differentiation of vaccinated animals from infected animals (DIVA) based on their serological response. FlagT4G vaccine is a novel candidate that confers robust protective immunity early after vaccination and shows DIVA capabilities. Methods: This report presents the characterization of FlagT4G virus in terms of the stability of its genomic and attenuated phenotypes assessed by a reversion to virulence protocol, as well as its protective efficacy by determining the minimal protective dose. Results: Results presented here demonstrate that after five consecutive passages in groups of 5-week-old susceptible domestic pigs, FlagT4G virus remains genetically stable, and its attenuated phenotype remains unaltered. In terms of efficacy, FlagT4G virus induced solid protection against the intranasal challenge with 105 tissue culture infectious dose (TCID50) of virulent field isolate Brescia virus, even with a vaccine dose as low as 102 TCID50. Conclusions: Results presented here indicate that the FlagT4G vaccine may be a useful tool for CSFV control. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Veterinary Vaccines and Host Immune Responses)
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19 pages, 2598 KiB  
Article
Prime-Boost Vaccination Based on Nanospheres and MVA Encoding the Nucleoprotein of Crimean-Congo Hemorrhagic Fever Virus Elicits Broad Immune Responses
by Eva Calvo-Pinilla, Sandra Moreno, Natalia Barreiro-Piñeiro, Juana M. Sánchez-Puig, Rafael Blasco, José Martínez-Costas, Alejandro Brun and Gema Lorenzo
Vaccines 2025, 13(3), 291; https://doi.org/10.3390/vaccines13030291 - 10 Mar 2025
Viewed by 980
Abstract
Background/Objectives: Crimean–Congo hemorrhagic fever virus (CCHFV) is an emerging, widely distributed zoonotic tick-borne pathogen. The virus causes severe disease in humans, and numerous wild and domestic animals act as reservoirs of it. Unfortunately, there are no effective therapies or safe vaccines commercialized [...] Read more.
Background/Objectives: Crimean–Congo hemorrhagic fever virus (CCHFV) is an emerging, widely distributed zoonotic tick-borne pathogen. The virus causes severe disease in humans, and numerous wild and domestic animals act as reservoirs of it. Unfortunately, there are no effective therapies or safe vaccines commercialized nowadays for this particular virus. As CCHF (Crimean–Congo hemorrhagic fever) is a serious threat to public health, there is an urgent need to investigate the development of safe and effective vaccination strategies further. Methods: In this work, we have employed two immunization platforms based on protein nanoparticles and a modified vaccinia Ankara (MVA) viral vector using the nucleoprotein (NP) as the target antigen. The humoral and cellular immune responses were characterized by ELISA, ICS, and cytokine measurement. Results: This work shows that a single dose of the vaccine candidates was not as immunogenic as the heterologous vaccination using nanoparticles and MVA. A prime with NP nanoparticles (NS-NP) and a boost with MVA-expressing NP were capable of triggering significant levels of humoral and cellular immune responses against CCHFV in mice. Conclusions: Our study shows that the NS-NP/MVA-NP vaccination strategy effectively elicits a robust humoral and cellular immune response in a mouse model, emphasizing its potential as a protective approach against CCHFV lineages. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Veterinary Vaccines and Host Immune Responses)
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14 pages, 1648 KiB  
Article
Increase in Virus-Specific Mucosal Antibodies in the Upper Respiratory Tract Following Intramuscular Vaccination of Previously Exposed Horses Against Equine Herpesvirus Type-1/4
by Bettina Wagner, Christiane L. Schnabel and Alicia Rollins
Vaccines 2025, 13(3), 290; https://doi.org/10.3390/vaccines13030290 - 10 Mar 2025
Viewed by 533
Abstract
Background/Objectives: Equine herpesvirus type-1 (EHV-1) enters through the upper respiratory tract (URT) and causes respiratory disease, abortions, and myeloencephalopathy in equids. Pre-existing immunity at the viral entry site, especially mucosal IgG4/7 antibodies, has recently been shown to correlate with protection from disease and [...] Read more.
Background/Objectives: Equine herpesvirus type-1 (EHV-1) enters through the upper respiratory tract (URT) and causes respiratory disease, abortions, and myeloencephalopathy in equids. Pre-existing immunity at the viral entry site, especially mucosal IgG4/7 antibodies, has recently been shown to correlate with protection from disease and incomplete viral replication at the URT. Here, we tested whether intramuscular (i.m.) vaccination with a commercial inactivated EHV-1/4 vaccine can induce mucosal antibodies (mucAbs) at the URT. Methods: Adult horses with complete EHV-1 vaccination and/or exposure histories were vaccinated i.m. six times within eight months. Before and after each vaccination, blood and nasal swab samples were obtained. Serum and mucAbs were measured in fluorescent bead-based EHV-1 assays. Results: All horses still had existing EHV-1 specific serum and mucAbs prior to vaccination, which were mainly composed of IgG4/7 antibody isotypes. Serum IgG4/7 significantly increased after the first vaccination and stayed high until the end of the study. An additional short-lasting serum IgG1 response was only induced by the first vaccine application. At the URT, mucAbs increased after five out of six i.m. vaccine injections. Like the systemic antibody response, mucAbs were dominated by IgG4/7 and a small IgG1 increase after the first vaccination. Conclusions: Our data emphasize that robust EHV-1 specific mucAb levels are obtained after i.m. vaccination with the inactivated EHV-1/4 vaccine used here. The findings have important implications for evaluating EHV-1/4 vaccines for their ability to induce and maintain protective mucosal IgG4/7 antibodies. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Veterinary Vaccines and Host Immune Responses)
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15 pages, 5046 KiB  
Article
Immunoprotection Provided by Salivary and Intestinal Protein-Based Antigens Against the Ixodid Tick Amblyomma sculptum
by Ulisses A. Natividade, Jessica F. Abreu, Izabela C. T. Ribeiro, Adalberto A. Pereira Filho, Augusto V. Silva, Helen S. Ribeiro, Rodolfo C. Giunchetti, Mauricio R. V. Sant’Anna, Nelder F. Gontijo, Marcos H. Pereira and Ricardo N. Araujo
Vaccines 2025, 13(2), 136; https://doi.org/10.3390/vaccines13020136 - 28 Jan 2025
Viewed by 874
Abstract
Background/Objectives: Amblyomma sculptum is among the most dangerous ticks in South America, as it is the species most associated with humans and is the main vector of Rickettsia rickettsii. In the face of the problems related to tick control based on [...] Read more.
Background/Objectives: Amblyomma sculptum is among the most dangerous ticks in South America, as it is the species most associated with humans and is the main vector of Rickettsia rickettsii. In the face of the problems related to tick control based on chemical acaricides, vaccines emerge as a promising method. In previous works, three salivary recombinant proteins (rAs8.9kDa, rAsKunitz, and rAsBasicTail) and one protein based on intestinal immunogenic regions (rAsChimera) were described with 59 to 92% vaccine efficacy against A. sculptum females. Here, we evaluate novel vaccine formulations containing binary or multiple combinations of the antigens rAs8.9kDa, rAsKunitz, rAsBasicTail, and rAsChimera against the three instars of the tick. Methods: A control group of mice was immunized with adjuvant alone (aluminum hydroxide gel) and compared to five groups immunized with formulations containing two, three, or four of the antigens. Results: The formulations were safe, with no significant alterations to host behavior and hematological or biochemical parameters. Immunizations induced a significant increase in the CD19+ B lymphocyte percentage in all groups, but no difference was seen for CD8+ and CD4+ T lymphocytes or CD14+ monocytes. The best protection was observed for the formulations containing two antigens, which reached above 98% efficacy, while the groups containing three or four antigens presented 92.7 and 94.4% efficacy, respectively. Conclusions: All antigen combinations were promising as vaccine formulations against A. sculptum. The formulation containing rAs8.9kDa and rAsChimera showed the best efficacy and should be focused on in further experiments. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Veterinary Vaccines and Host Immune Responses)
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15 pages, 690 KiB  
Article
Vertical and Horizontal Transmission of Neosporosis in Three Consecutive Pregnancies of Naturally Infected Pregnant Cows and the Effect of Vaccination on Abortion Rates
by Sharon Tirosh-Levy, Elena Blinder, Daniel Yasur-Landau, Yaniv Lavon, Jacob Joost Doekes and Monica L. Mazuz
Vaccines 2025, 13(2), 131; https://doi.org/10.3390/vaccines13020131 - 27 Jan 2025
Viewed by 634
Abstract
Background/Objectives:Neosporosis is a major cause of abortions in cattle worldwide. Primary results showed that the administration of a live attenuated vaccine during the mid-pregnancy stage of naturally infected cows may assist in preventing abortions. In this study, the effect of vaccination was evaluated [...] Read more.
Background/Objectives:Neosporosis is a major cause of abortions in cattle worldwide. Primary results showed that the administration of a live attenuated vaccine during the mid-pregnancy stage of naturally infected cows may assist in preventing abortions. In this study, the effect of vaccination was evaluated in five dairy herds, with a follow-up of three consecutive pregnancies and re-vaccination during the subsequent pregnancies of some of the cows. Methods: A total of 1059 heifers were serologically tested during their first pregnancy, and 260 and 21 of them were re-tested during their second and third pregnancies. Vaccination was administered to 193 of 420 cows with antibody titers of 1:800 or higher, and 23 of them were re-vaccinated. Data were collected regarding the outcome of each pregnancy, the number of inseminations required and removal from the herd. Vertical transmission was evaluated in 136 pre-colostral calves born from 29 vaccinated and 107 unvaccinated dams. Results: The total seroprevalence using a cutoff titer of 1:800 was 33.1, 36.5 and 85.7% during the three consecutive pregnancies. The antibody titers of individual cows fluctuated over time. Abortion rates and the rate of removal from the herd were significantly higher in seropositive cows. The rate of vertical transmission increased in correlation with the dam’s antibody titer. Immunization resulted in lower abortion rates at two of the farms. Vaccine efficacy ranged from a negative effect to 54% at different farms, with an overall efficacy of 10.4%. The effect of vaccination on abortions, reproductive performance, antibody titers, vertical transmission and removal from the herd was not significant. Conclusions: These results demonstrate varying vaccine efficacies among farms and suggest that neosporosis is a multifactorial disease that cannot be solely controlled by vaccination. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Veterinary Vaccines and Host Immune Responses)
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16 pages, 997 KiB  
Article
Well-Being and Performance of Nursery Pigs Subjected to Different Commercial Vaccines Against Porcine Circovirus Type 2, Mycoplasma hyopneumoniae and Lawsonia intracellularis
by Caio Abércio Silva, Marco Aurélio Callegari, Cleandro Pazinato Dias, Kelly Lais de Souza, Gabrieli Souza Romano, Luciana Fiorin Hernig, Ricardo Tesche Lippke, Rutger Jansen, Fernando Lopes Leite, Fernando Filipe and Rafael Humberto de Carvalho
Vaccines 2024, 12(11), 1242; https://doi.org/10.3390/vaccines12111242 - 31 Oct 2024
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1503
Abstract
Background/Objectives: Vaccination is a strategy in pig farming for the control of several pathogens, but commercial vaccines may have detrimental side effects. This study aimed to evaluate the effects of commercial vaccines on the control of porcine circovirus type 2 (PCV2), Mycoplasma hyopneumoniae [...] Read more.
Background/Objectives: Vaccination is a strategy in pig farming for the control of several pathogens, but commercial vaccines may have detrimental side effects. This study aimed to evaluate the effects of commercial vaccines on the control of porcine circovirus type 2 (PCV2), Mycoplasma hyopneumoniae (Mhp), and Lawsonia intracellularis (L. intracellularis) and their potential side effects on welfare, behavior, acute inflammation biomarkers (C-reactive protein and haptoglobin), and the performance of piglets during the nursery phase. Methods: A total of 240 piglets, both female and castrated males, with an average weight of 6.3 ± 0.9 kg were subjected to four treatments: T1-FLEXcombo® (Ingelvac®CircoFLEX and Ingelvac®MycoFLEX) + Enterisol® Ileitis; T2-FLEXCombo® + Porcilis® Ileitis; T3-Porcilis® PCV M HYO + Porcilis® Ileitis; and T4-FLEXCombo® + 0.9% saline solution. This study measured therapeutic interventions, body condition score, behavioral changes, rectal temperature, and inflammation biomarkers post-vaccination. Results: The T3 group required more therapeutic interventions and exhibited a 23.1% higher incidence of thin body condition (p < 0.05) and 10 times more animals with depressed behavior than T1 (p < 0.05). The piglets vaccinated for L. intracellularis (T2 and T3) had rectal temperatures exceeding 39.7 °C post-vaccination, significantly higher than in T1 (p < 0.05). The T1 animals showed five times more positive behavior traits 24 h after vaccination (p < 0.05). Touch response was 29% lower in the T2 and T3 groups, and the lying down behavior was higher in these groups compared to T1. Additionally, 41.7% of the T3 animals exhibited a sitting posture 48 h after vaccination. Higher serum C-reactive protein and haptoglobin levels were observed in T3 (p < 0.05) at 24 and 48 h post-vaccination. Feed intake was higher in T1 compared to T3 between 29 and 35 days of age. It is important to note that this study did not measure immune responses to the pathogens and did not include challenge tests, and therefore, it does not assess which vaccine is superior in pathogen control. Conclusions: The vaccine programs resulted in similar zootechnical performance. However, T1, T2, and T4 showed better effects on piglet welfare and behavior compared to T3. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Veterinary Vaccines and Host Immune Responses)
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17 pages, 2324 KiB  
Article
Local Inflammatory and Systemic Antibody Responses Initiated by a First Intradermal Administration of Autogenous Salmonella-Killed Vaccines and Their Components in Pullets
by Jossie M. Santamaria, Chrysta N. Beck and Gisela F. Erf
Vaccines 2024, 12(10), 1159; https://doi.org/10.3390/vaccines12101159 - 11 Oct 2024
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1248
Abstract
Vaccination strategies are used to manage Salmonella in chickens. Salmonella-killed vaccines are considered safer since they are inactivated. However, little is known regarding the cellular immune activities at the site of vaccine administration of Salmonella-killed vaccines. The growing feather (GF) cutaneous [...] Read more.
Vaccination strategies are used to manage Salmonella in chickens. Salmonella-killed vaccines are considered safer since they are inactivated. However, little is known regarding the cellular immune activities at the site of vaccine administration of Salmonella-killed vaccines. The growing feather (GF) cutaneous test has been shown to be an effective bioassay to monitor local tissue/cellular responses. We assessed local and systemic antibody responses initiated by intradermal injection of Salmonella-killed vaccines into GF-pulps of 14–15-week-old pullets. Treatments consisted of two autogenous Salmonella-killed vaccines (SV1 and SV2), S. Enteritidis (SE) lipopolysaccharide (SE-LPS), and the water-oil-water (WOW) emulsion vehicle. GF-pulps were collected before (0 h) and at 6, 24, 48, and 72 h post-GF-pulp injection for leukocyte population analysis, while heparinized blood samples were collected before (0 d) and at 3, 5, 7, 10, 14, 21, and 28 d after GF-pulp injections to assess plasma levels (a.u.) of SE-specific IgM, avian IgY (IgG), and IgA antibodies using an ELISA. Injection of GF-pulps with SV1, SV2, or SE-LPS, all in a WOW vehicle, initiated inflammatory responses characterized by the recruitment of heterophils, monocytes/macrophages, and a few lymphocytes. The WOW vehicle emulsion alone recruited more lymphocytes than vaccines or SE-LPS. The SV1 and SV2 vaccines stimulated Salmonella-specific IgM and IgA early, while IgG levels were greatly elevated later during the primary response. Overall, SV1 and SV2 stimulated a heterophil and macrophage-dominated local inflammatory- and SE-specific humoral response with an isotype switch from IgM to IgG, characteristic of a T-dependent primary antibody response. This study provides comprehensive information on innate and adaptive immune responses to autogenous Salmonella-killed vaccines and their components that will find application in the management of Salmonella in poultry. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Veterinary Vaccines and Host Immune Responses)
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Review

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31 pages, 1054 KiB  
Review
Avian Influenza Clade 2.3.4.4b: Global Impact and Summary Analysis of Vaccine Trials
by László Kovács, Máté Farkas, Péter Ferenc Dobra, Georgia Lennon, László Péter Könyves and Miklós Rusvai
Vaccines 2025, 13(5), 453; https://doi.org/10.3390/vaccines13050453 - 24 Apr 2025
Viewed by 1164
Abstract
Background: Avian influenza (AI), caused by orthomyxoviruses, is a globally significant disease affecting avian and non-avian species. It manifests in two variants, according to the two biovariants of the virus differentiated as highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) and low pathogenic avian influenza (LPAI) [...] Read more.
Background: Avian influenza (AI), caused by orthomyxoviruses, is a globally significant disease affecting avian and non-avian species. It manifests in two variants, according to the two biovariants of the virus differentiated as highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) and low pathogenic avian influenza (LPAI) strains, both of which compromise animal welfare, reduce productivity, and cause substantial economic loss. The zoonotic potential of HPAI strains, particularly the currently dominant clade 2.3.4.4b, raises concerns about public health and epidemic risks. This review assesses the results of current vaccine trials targeting HPAI clade 2.3.4.4b, emphasizing these studies because most outbreak strains in domestic poultry currently belong to this dominant clade. Methods: Multiple scientific databases comprised reports of research trials on vaccine efficacy against HPAI clade 2.3.4.4b. The Boolean term “Clade 2.3.4.4b AND vaccine” was entered into the following databases: PubMed, PubAg, Scopus, Cochrane Library, and ScienceDirect. Results: The resulting papers were analyzed. Studies revealed that antigenic similarity between vaccine and field strains enhances protective efficacy (PE), reduces viral shedding, and improves hemagglutination inhibition titers. While multivalent vaccines showed potential, results were inconsistent and varied depending on strain compatibility. Single-dose vaccines may provide sufficient PE for poultry, though ducks and geese often require multiple doses, and long-term PE is yet unknown. It was discovered that vector vaccines can provide appropriate PE against clade 2.3.4.4.b. Conclusions: Further analysis is needed as their effects may be short-lived, and subsequent doses may be required. Limited research exists on the long-term efficacy of these vaccines and their effectiveness in many avian species. Addressing these gaps is crucial for optimizing vaccination strategies. A re-evaluation of vaccination strategies is recommended but essential to implement adequate biosecurity measures on in poultry farms. This review synthesizes current evidence and may assist veterinarians and authorities in deciding whether to apply or license vaccines to reduce economic losses caused by AI. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Veterinary Vaccines and Host Immune Responses)
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