Editorial

4 pages, 189 KiB

Open AccessEditorial

Animal Poisoning: Toxins from Plants or Feed—An Important Chemical Risk for Domestic Animals

by Andras-Laszlo Nagy

Toxins 2024, 16(1), 39; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins16010039 - 12 Jan 2024

Viewed by 987

Feed-, food-, water- and plant-related toxins are a major threat for animal and human health worldwide [...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Animal Poisoning: Toxins from Plants or Feed)

Research

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16 pages, 1080 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Occurrence of Types A and B Trichothecenes in Cereal Products Sold in Romanian Markets

by Adrian Maximilian Macri, Andras-Laszlo Nagy, Sorana Daina, Diana Toma, Ioana Delia Pop, George Cosmin Nadăș and Adriana Florinela Cătoi

Toxins 2023, 15(7), 466; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins15070466 - 20 Jul 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1132

Abstract

In view of the frequent occurrences of mycotoxins in cereals, this study assessed the presence of trichothecenes in 121 samples from Romanian markets. These samples were divided into five groups based on product type: (1) bread and bakery products containing white flour, (2) [...] Read more.

In view of the frequent occurrences of mycotoxins in cereals, this study assessed the presence of trichothecenes in 121 samples from Romanian markets. These samples were divided into five groups based on product type: (1) bread and bakery products containing white flour, (2) half-brown bread with whole wheat flour, (3) brown bread containing rye flour, (4) pasta, and (5) raw wheat. Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry was used to detect 13 different mycotoxins, which included the Type A compounds HT-2 toxin and T-2 toxin, as well as the Type B compounds deoxynivalenol and nivalenol. Results indicated trichothecene contamination in 90.08% of our samples, with deoxynivalenol predominating by at least 78% in each examined group. Co-occurrence of three or four trichothecenes were found in 23.85% of our samples. Our study underscores the necessity of consistent monitoring of staple foods to prevent the intake of harmful trichothecenes by consumers. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Animal Poisoning: Toxins from Plants or Feed)

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12 pages, 933 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Simultaneous Determination of Pyrethrins, Pyrethroids, and Piperonyl Butoxide in Animal Feeds by Liquid Chromatography-Tandem Mass Spectrometry

by Xin Xu and Lisa A. Murphy

Toxins 2023, 15(6), 401; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins15060401 - 17 Jun 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1546

Abstract

The presence of insecticides like pyrethrins and synthetic pyrethroids, combined with the synergist piperonyl butoxide, in animal feeds can pose a risk to both animal and human health by contaminating the food chain. In this study, a simple and fast method was developed [...] Read more.

The presence of insecticides like pyrethrins and synthetic pyrethroids, combined with the synergist piperonyl butoxide, in animal feeds can pose a risk to both animal and human health by contaminating the food chain. In this study, a simple and fast method was developed for the simultaneous determination of these compounds in contaminated animal feeds using liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). Sample preparation was carried out using a QuEChERS-based approach, and the method was validated with acceptable accuracy ranging from 84 to 115% and precision below 10%. The limit of detection (LOD) and limit of quantification (LOQ) were between 0.15 and 3 and 1 and 10 µg/kg, respectively. The method detected insecticide contaminations in various livestock and poultry feeds. Furthermore, the method was applied to a toxicology case, where it identified and quantified piperonyl butoxide and deltamethrin in the submitted horse feed sample. These results demonstrate that the method can be a valuable tool in animal health and food safety diagnostic applications, as well as veterinary toxicology investigations concerning pyrethrin-related feed contamination. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Animal Poisoning: Toxins from Plants or Feed)

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14 pages, 3058 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Biodegradation of Free Gossypol by Helicoverpa armigera Carboxylesterase Expressed in Pichia pastoris

by Li Zhang, Xiaolong Yang, Rongzheng Huang, Cunxi Nie, Junli Niu, Cheng Chen and Wenju Zhang

Toxins 2022, 14(12), 816; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins14120816 - 22 Nov 2022

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1447

Abstract

Gossypol is a polyphenolic toxic secondary metabolite derived from cotton. Free gossypol in cotton meal is remarkably harmful to animals. Furthermore, microbial degradation of gossypol produces metabolites that reduce feed quality. We adopted an enzymatic method to degrade free gossypol safely and effectively. [...] Read more.

Gossypol is a polyphenolic toxic secondary metabolite derived from cotton. Free gossypol in cotton meal is remarkably harmful to animals. Furthermore, microbial degradation of gossypol produces metabolites that reduce feed quality. We adopted an enzymatic method to degrade free gossypol safely and effectively. We cloned the gene cce001a encoding carboxylesterase (CarE) into pPICZαA and transformed it into Pichia pastoris GS115. The target protein was successfully obtained, and CarE CCE001a could effectively degrade free gossypol with a degradation rate of 89%. When esterase was added, the exposed toxic groups of gossypol reacted with different amino acids and amines to form bound gossypol, generating substances with (M + H) m/z ratios of 560.15, 600.25, and 713.46. The molecular formula was C₂₇H₂₈O₁₃, C₃₄H₃₆N₂O₆, and C₄₇H₅₉N₃O₃. The observed instability of the hydroxyl groups caused the substitution and shedding of the group, forming a substance with m/z of 488.26 and molecular formula C₃₁H₃₆O₅. These properties render the CarE CCE001a a valid candidate for the detoxification of cotton meal. Furthermore, the findings help elucidate the degradation process of gossypol in vitro. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Animal Poisoning: Toxins from Plants or Feed)

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10 pages, 3451 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Detection of Highly Poisonous Nerium oleander Using Quantitative Real-Time PCR with Specific Primers

by Xuanjiao Bai, Gang Wang, Ying Ren and Jianping Han

Toxins 2022, 14(11), 776; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins14110776 - 10 Nov 2022

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 1727

Abstract

Nerium oleander is one of the most poisonous plants, and its accidental ingestion has frequently occurred in humans and livestock. It is vital to develop a rapid and accurate identification method for the timely rescue of oleander-poisoned patients and the investigation of poisoning [...] Read more.

Nerium oleander is one of the most poisonous plants, and its accidental ingestion has frequently occurred in humans and livestock. It is vital to develop a rapid and accurate identification method for the timely rescue of oleander-poisoned patients and the investigation of poisoning cases. In this study, a specific and highly sensitive quantitative real-time PCR (qPCR)-based method was developed to identify oleander in mixture systems and simulated forensic specimens (SFS). First, a new pair of oleander-specific primers, JZT-BF/BR, was designed and validated. Then, a qPCR method was developed using the primers, and its detective sensitivity was examined. The results showed that JZT-BF/BR could specifically identify oleander in forage and food mixtures, and qPCR was capable of accurate authentication even at a low DNA concentration of 0.001 ng/μL. This method was further applied to the analysis of SFS containing different ratios of N. oleander. The method was confirmed to be applicable to digested samples, and the detection limit reached 0.1% (w/w) oleander in mixture systems. Thus, this study undoubtedly provides strong support for the detection of highly toxic oleander and the diagnosis of food poisoning in humans and animals. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Animal Poisoning: Toxins from Plants or Feed)

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13 pages, 942 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Toxin Profile of Two Gymnodinium catenatum Strains from Iberian Coastal Waters

by Joana F. Leal, Gabriel Bombo, Hugo Pereira, Bernardo Vicente, Ana Amorim and Maria L. S. Cristiano

Toxins 2022, 14(11), 762; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins14110762 - 04 Nov 2022

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1946

Abstract

Gymnodinium catenatum has been the main species responsible for paralytic shellfish poisoning events along the Portuguese coast (Iberian Peninsula), causing bans on bivalve harvesting that result in huge economic losses. This work presents the characterization of two novel isolates of G. catenatum regarding [...] Read more.

Gymnodinium catenatum has been the main species responsible for paralytic shellfish poisoning events along the Portuguese coast (Iberian Peninsula), causing bans on bivalve harvesting that result in huge economic losses. This work presents the characterization of two novel isolates of G. catenatum regarding their growth and toxin profiles. Laboratory growth experiments revealed that, although low growth rates were obtained during cultivation, the cell yields were high compared to those reported in the literature. Evaluation of the toxin profiles, by HPLC-FLD, essentially confirmed the typical composition of toxins of this regional population (Iberian Peninsula), namely, the absence or low representation of the toxins dcNEO, GTX1,4 and NEO and a higher ratio of the toxins C1,2, GTX6 and GTX5. However, the percentage of the identified toxins varied among the strains of this study (under the same isolation, growth, and analysis conditions), and also differed from that of other strains described in the literature. Interestingly, we found a comparatively high abundance of dcSTX in both strains, relative to the other toxins, and an unquantifiable amount of C3,4 toxins. In addition to the geographic relationship between toxin profiles, chemical conversions among toxins may explain some differences encountered in the toxin profiles of G. catenatum strains. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Animal Poisoning: Toxins from Plants or Feed)

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13 pages, 1343 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Acer pseudoplatanus: A Potential Risk of Poisoning for Several Herbivore Species

by Benoît Renaud, Caroline-Julia Kruse, Anne-Christine François, Lisa Grund, Carolin Bunert, Lucie Brisson, François Boemer, Gilbert Gault, Barbara Ghislain, Thierry Petitjean, Pascal Gustin and Dominique-Marie Votion

Toxins 2022, 14(8), 512; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins14080512 - 26 Jul 2022

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2131

Abstract

Acer pseudoplatanus is a worldwide-distributed tree which contains toxins, among them hypoglycin A (HGA). This toxin is known to be responsible for poisoning in various species, including humans, equids, Père David’s deer and two-humped camels. We hypothesized that any herbivore pasturing with A. [...] Read more.

Acer pseudoplatanus is a worldwide-distributed tree which contains toxins, among them hypoglycin A (HGA). This toxin is known to be responsible for poisoning in various species, including humans, equids, Père David’s deer and two-humped camels. We hypothesized that any herbivore pasturing with A. pseudoplatanus in their vicinity may be at risk for HGA poisoning. To test this hypothesis, we surveyed the HGA exposure from A. pseudoplatanus in species not yet described as being at risk. Animals in zoological parks were the major focus, as they are at high probability to be exposed to A. pseudoplatanus in enclosures. We also searched for a toxic metabolite of HGA (i.e., methylenecyclopropylacetyl-carnitine; MCPA-carnitine) in blood and an alteration of the acylcarnitines profile in HGA-positive animals to document the potential risk of declaring clinical signs. We describe for the first instance cases of HGA poisoning in Bovidae. Two gnus (Connochaetes taurinus taurinus) exposed to A. pseudoplatanus in their enclosure presented severe clinical signs, serum HGA and MCPA-carnitine and a marked modification of the acylcarnitines profile. In this study, even though all herbivores were exposed to A. pseudoplatanus, proximal fermenters species seemed less susceptible to HGA poisoning. Therefore, a ruminal transformation of HGA is hypothesized. Additionally, we suggest a gradual alteration of the fatty acid metabolism in case of HGA poisoning and thus the existence of subclinical cases. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Animal Poisoning: Toxins from Plants or Feed)

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Review

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33 pages, 2829 KiB

Open AccessReview

Foodborne Diseases Due to Underestimated Hazard of Joint Mycotoxin Exposure at Low Levels and Possible Risk Assessment

by Stoycho D. Stoev

Toxins 2023, 15(7), 464; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins15070464 - 19 Jul 2023

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 1176

Abstract

The subject of this review paper is to evaluate the underestimated hazard of multiple mycotoxin exposure of animals/humans for the appearance of foodborne ailments and diseases. The significance of joint mycotoxin interaction in the development of foodborne diseases is discussed, and appropriate conclusions [...] Read more.

The subject of this review paper is to evaluate the underestimated hazard of multiple mycotoxin exposure of animals/humans for the appearance of foodborne ailments and diseases. The significance of joint mycotoxin interaction in the development of foodborne diseases is discussed, and appropriate conclusions are made. The importance of low feed/food levels of some target mycotoxins co-contaminations in food and feedstuffs for induction of target foodborne mycotoxicoses is also studied in the available literature. The appropriate hygiene control and the necessary risk assessment in regard to possible hazards for animals and humans are also discussed, and appropriate suggestions are made. Some internationally recognized prophylactic measures, management of the risk, and the necessity of elaboration of new international regulations in regard to the maximum permitted levels are also carefully discussed and analysed in the cases of multiple mycotoxin contaminations. The necessity of harmonization of mycotoxin regulations and control measures at international levels is also discussed in order to facilitate food trade between the countries and to ensure global food safety. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Animal Poisoning: Toxins from Plants or Feed)

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15 pages, 371 KiB

Open AccessReview

Emerging Plant Intoxications in Domestic Animals: A European Perspective

by Andras-Laszlo Nagy, Sabrina Ardelean, Ronan J. J. Chapuis, Juliette Bouillon, Dalma Pivariu, Alexandra Iulia Dreanca and Francesca Caloni

Toxins 2023, 15(7), 442; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins15070442 - 04 Jul 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2291

Abstract

Exposure to phytotoxins that are present in imported ornamental or native plants is an important cause of animal disease. Factors such as animal behaviors (especially indoor pets), climate change, and an increase in the global market for household and ornamental plants led to [...] Read more.

Exposure to phytotoxins that are present in imported ornamental or native plants is an important cause of animal disease. Factors such as animal behaviors (especially indoor pets), climate change, and an increase in the global market for household and ornamental plants led to the appearance of new, previously unreported plant poisonings in Europe. This has resulted in an increase in the incidence of rarely reported intoxications. This review presents some of the emerging and well-established plant species that are responsible for poisoning episodes in companion animals and livestock in Europe. The main plant species are described, and the mechanism of action of the primary active agents and their clinical effects are presented. Data reflecting the real incidence of emerging poisoning cases from plant toxins are scarce to nonexistent in most European countries due to a lack of a centralized reporting/poison control system. The diversity of plant species and phytotoxins, as well as the emerging nature of certain plant poisonings, warrant a continuous update of knowledge by veterinarians and animal owners. The taxonomy and active agents present in these plants should be communicated to ensure awareness of the risks these toxins pose for domestic animals. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Animal Poisoning: Toxins from Plants or Feed)

25 pages, 31522 KiB

Open AccessReview

Toxicity of House Plants to Pet Animals

by Zuzana Siroka

Toxins 2023, 15(5), 346; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins15050346 - 19 May 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 4466

Abstract

Cases of ingestion of indoor poisonous plants are relatively common among animals and lead to both acute cases of poisoning and long-term exposure to harmful substances and chronic damage to the animal’s health. Plants produce a large number of secondary metabolites, which serve [...] Read more.

Cases of ingestion of indoor poisonous plants are relatively common among animals and lead to both acute cases of poisoning and long-term exposure to harmful substances and chronic damage to the animal’s health. Plants produce a large number of secondary metabolites, which serve to protect the plant from attacks by insects, parasitic plants, fungi or, for example, during reproduction. However, these metabolites can be toxic if ingested by animals or humans. Toxicologically effective components found in plants are mainly alkaloids, glycosides, saponins, terpenes and others. This review article describes in detail the most common and popular indoor poisonous plants grown in Europe, the mechanisms of action of their active substances and clinical signs of the respective poisonings. This manuscript is supplemented with rich photographic documentation of these plants not found in similar articles, and also includes a description of the treatment of individual types of poisoning. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Animal Poisoning: Toxins from Plants or Feed)

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