Toxics

5 pages, 180 KB

Open AccessEditorial

Occurrence, Accumulation, and Impacts of Environmental Pollutants in Aquatic Systems

by Hongbin Lu, Zhuowei Zhang and Fanhao Song

Toxics 2025, 13(11), 994; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13110994 - 19 Nov 2025

In response to the growing concerns of environmental pollution and its ecological impacts, this collection of research focuses on the monitoring, behavior, and remediation of various contaminants in aquatic systems [...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Occurrence, Accumulation, and Impacts of Environmental Pollutants in Aquatic Systems)

13 pages, 852 KB

Open AccessArticle

Aryl Hydrocarbon Receptor-Mediated Disruption of Intestinal Epithelial Barrier Integrity by Dioxin Isomers

by Hideki Kakutani and Teruyuki Nakao

Toxics 2025, 13(11), 993; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13110993 - 18 Nov 2025

Abstract

The intestinal epithelium constitutes a critical barrier that protects the host from luminal toxins. Persistent organic pollutants (POPs), including dioxins and dioxin-like polychlorinated biphenyls, are ubiquitous aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR) ligands. However, their effects on intestinal barrier integrity remain poorly understood. We examined [...] Read more.

The intestinal epithelium constitutes a critical barrier that protects the host from luminal toxins. Persistent organic pollutants (POPs), including dioxins and dioxin-like polychlorinated biphenyls, are ubiquitous aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR) ligands. However, their effects on intestinal barrier integrity remain poorly understood. We examined representative POPs in vitro (using human Caco-2 monolayers) and in vivo (using a mouse jejunal loop model). Measurements of transepithelial electrical resistance, fluorescein isothiocyanate–dextran permeability, and cytotoxicity revealed that 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD) impaired barrier function at non-cytotoxic concentrations. This effect was accompanied by increased ethoxyresorufin-O-deethylase activity and subsequently reversed by the AhR antagonist CH223191, indicating AhR dependence. Mechanistically, TCDD suppressed claudin-1, claudin-4, and zonula occludens-1 expression while upregulating the transcription factor Slug, consistent with junctional remodeling. In vivo, TCDD enhanced systemic dextran leakage and reduced claudin-4 expression in jejunal epithelia. These findings identify intestinal barrier disruption as a sensitive toxicological endpoint of POP exposure and provide mechanistic insight into the link between environmental pollutants and gastrointestinal dysfunction. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) Hazards and Challenges)

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18 pages, 954 KB

Open AccessArticle

Potential Toxicological Risk Associated with the Oral Use of Colloidal Silver Dietary Supplements

by Oana Catalina Bute, Anca-Irina Gheboianu, Bogdan Trica and Ana-Maria Hossu

Toxics 2025, 13(11), 992; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13110992 - 18 Nov 2025

Abstract

The increasing availability of colloidal silver dietary supplements raises important concerns regarding their safety when used for oral consumption. This study presents the physicochemical characterization of a commercial colloidal silver solution with a high concentration (1000 mg/L), stabilized with pectin in distilled water. [...] Read more.

The increasing availability of colloidal silver dietary supplements raises important concerns regarding their safety when used for oral consumption. This study presents the physicochemical characterization of a commercial colloidal silver solution with a high concentration (1000 mg/L), stabilized with pectin in distilled water. The characterization was performed using UV-VIS, XRD, and TEM. The manufacturer did not provide information regarding nanoparticle size or recommended duration of use. The 1000 mg/L sample was also compared with a standard colloidal silver solution provided by Sigma Aldrich to validate nanoparticle size, stability, and spectral profiles. In addition, a comparative theoretical analysis was conducted on other commercially available products containing colloidal silver at concentrations of 15, 30, 55, 80, and 125 mg/L, based solely on the recommended daily intake and the oral reference dose of 0.005 mg/kg/day established by the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). Although no in vivo or in vitro toxicity tests were performed, the results indicate a potential toxicological risk due to estimated intake levels that may exceed safety thresholds, particularly in high-concentration products with insufficient labelling or unclear usage guidelines. These findings emphasize the need for stricter regulatory measures and greater public awareness regarding the internal use of colloidal silver supplements. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Health Risk Evaluation of Hazardous Substances in Food)

19 pages, 4675 KB

Open AccessArticle

Maternal Exposure to 2,4-Di-tert-butylphenol During Pregnancy in a Mouse Model Leads to Abnormal Development of the Urinary System in Offspring

by Yuanyan Jiang, Ningli Ye, Minghui Yu, Haixin Ju, Chunyan Wang, Hengmin Wang, Jiaojiao Liu, Qian Shen and Hong Xu

Toxics 2025, 13(11), 991; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13110991 - 18 Nov 2025

Abstract

The occurrence of congenital anomalies of the kidney and urinary tract (CAKUT) is influenced by intrauterine environmental factors, and maternal exposure to endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs) during pregnancy may affect the kidney development of offspring. 2,4-Di-tert-butylphenol (2,4-DTBP) is a high-production volume chemical classified as [...] Read more.

The occurrence of congenital anomalies of the kidney and urinary tract (CAKUT) is influenced by intrauterine environmental factors, and maternal exposure to endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs) during pregnancy may affect the kidney development of offspring. 2,4-Di-tert-butylphenol (2,4-DTBP) is a high-production volume chemical classified as an EDC, which has been detected in humans and has been found to increase mortality and malformation rates in zebrafish embryos. Its effects on mammalian development are still unknown. In this study, a maternal mouse model exposed to 2,4-DTBP throughout pregnancy was established by gavage. The overall conditions of the maternal mice and their offspring were observed, and the concentrations of 2,4-DTBP in maternal serum and offspring tissues were measured using liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry. Exposure to 2,4-DTBP of 75 µg/g·day during pregnancy markedly reduced the early pregnancy rate in mice to 41.75% (95% CI: 33.53–49.97%; n = 139), compared to 82.29% (95% CI: 74.18–90.39%; n = 85) in the controls (p < 0.0001), with a relative risk (RR) of 0.51 (95% CI: 0.41–0.63). 2,4-DTBP could accumulate in maternal mice and be transferred to embryos and internal organs of the offspring, and is associated with the elevated risk of CAKUT in the offspring, primarily manifesting as hydronephrosis/ureteral dilation. The CAKUT rate of DTBP-75 group is 33.59% (95% CI: 17.62–49.56%; N = 9, n = 56), compared to 11.85% (95% CI: 2.43–21.28%; N = 9, n = 67) in the controls (p = 0.02), RR = 2.53 (95% CI: 1.18–5.42). These findings enhance the understanding of the health risks posed by 2,4-DTBP and provide a theoretical basis for environmental monitoring in public health. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Pregnancy and Lactation Period Exposure to Environmental Toxicants and the Effects on Maternal and Child Health)

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12 pages, 769 KB

Open AccessArticle

Investigation of Oxidative DNA Damage Levels in Urine of Healthcare Workers Exposed to Ionizing Radiation

by Ayşegül Yurt, Ayşe Coşkun Beyan, Gamze Tuna, Yaşar Aysun Manisalıgil, Sabriye Özcan and Hande Oğuzhan

Toxics 2025, 13(11), 990; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13110990 - 17 Nov 2025

Abstract

This study aimed to assess oxidative DNA damage products in healthcare workers who are directly exposed to or use ionizing radiation in their work. In the study, three groups were defined based on the probability of radiation exposure, ranging from the highest-risk group [...] Read more.

This study aimed to assess oxidative DNA damage products in healthcare workers who are directly exposed to or use ionizing radiation in their work. In the study, three groups were defined based on the probability of radiation exposure, ranging from the highest-risk group to the lowest, with the fourth group designated as the control group. First, a questionnaire was administered to the participants, and then their first morning urine samples were taken to detect oxidative DNA damage markers. According to the Kruskal-Wallis test results among the four groups in our study, statistically significant differences were found only in terms of age, height, and weight (p values = 0.011, 0.038, and 0.003, respectively). However, it was observed that there was no significant relationship between the oxidative DNA damage parameters 8-hydroxy-2′-deoxyguanosine (8-OH-dG), and 8,5′-cyclo-2′-deoxyadenosines (S- and R-cdA) in relation to radiation exposure, with p-values of 0.132, 0.179, and 0.611, respectively. The study’s results revealed that exposure to ionizing radiation did not cause a significant increase in urinary oxidative DNA damage markers. This outcome may be associated with the effective use of personal protective equipment and strict adherence to radiation safety protocols among healthcare workers. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biomarkers of Oxidative Stress from Environmental and Occupational Exposure: Implications for Health Risk Assessment)

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20 pages, 6347 KB

Open AccessArticle

Integrated Transcriptomic and Physiological and Biochemical Analysis Revealed Response Mechanism of Rice (Oryza sativa L.) to Methylmercury Toxicity Stress

by Lin Liu, Kang Wang, Shuiting Long, Wentao Li, Adili Batuer, Lei Wang, Tinjia Ma, Xiaohang Xu, Longchao Liang, Md. Habibullah-Al-Mamun and Guangle Qiu

Toxics 2025, 13(11), 989; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13110989 - 17 Nov 2025

Abstract

Methylmercury (MeHg), a pervasive environmental contaminant, poses significant human health risks due to its bioaccumulation in food chain, particularly through rice, a dietary staple for billions of people. Although extensive research has been conducted on the environmental cycling and health impacts of MeHg [...] Read more.

Methylmercury (MeHg), a pervasive environmental contaminant, poses significant human health risks due to its bioaccumulation in food chain, particularly through rice, a dietary staple for billions of people. Although extensive research has been conducted on the environmental cycling and health impacts of MeHg on rice, limited attention has been given to understanding the molecular and physiological responses to MeHg stress, which is crucial for elucidating the mechanisms of detoxification and adaptation. Herein, we conducted pot experiments of rice with varying MeHg concentrations of soil, followed by high-throughput sequencing and assessment of physiological and biochemical responses in order to evaluate the impacts of MeHg exposure on rice growth, stress tolerance, and underlying molecular mechanisms. The results showed that significant increases in root-to-stem translocation of MeHg occurred, further inducing oxidative stress, as evidenced by alterations in antioxidant enzyme activities (CAT, POD, and SOD), proline (PRO) content, and chlorophyll levels, resulting in cellular damage and stunted plant growth. Transcriptome analysis identified differentially expressed miRNAs (DE-miRNAs) in rice roots associated with metabolic regulation, signal transduction, biosynthesis, and plant–pathogen interactions. Notably, genes involved in starch and sucrose metabolism, the Target of Rapamycin (TOR) signaling pathways, and phenylpropanoid biosynthesis were found to be key in rice’s response to MeHg toxicity. Protein–protein interaction (PPI) and miRNA–target gene analyses further highlighted genes encoding jasmonic acid-amido synthetase and FERONIA-like receptors as potential candidates for detoxification mechanisms. This study contributes to building the molecular regulation network and physiological underpinnings of rice’s response to MeHg stress, providing insights into potential targets for genetic improvement to enhance rice’s resilience to MeHg toxicity. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Ecotoxicology)

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20 pages, 661 KB

Open AccessArticle

Work as a Predictor of Ethylenethiourea (ETU) Exposure During Pregnancy Among Participants Enrolled in the SEMILLA Birth Cohort Study

by Alexis J. Handal, Fadya Orozco, Stephanie Montenegro, Nataly Cadena, Fabián Muñoz, Eileen Ramírez del Rio and Niko Kaciroti

Toxics 2025, 13(11), 988; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13110988 - 17 Nov 2025

Abstract

Background. Ethylenebisdithiocarbamates, widely used in floriculture, degrade into ethylenethiourea (ETU), a teratogen. The SEMILLA study investigates prenatal ETU exposure and infant health in Ecuador’s flower-growing region. This analysis examines whether prenatal ETU metabolite levels differ by work sector and whether maternal urinary ETU [...] Read more.

Background. Ethylenebisdithiocarbamates, widely used in floriculture, degrade into ethylenethiourea (ETU), a teratogen. The SEMILLA study investigates prenatal ETU exposure and infant health in Ecuador’s flower-growing region. This analysis examines whether prenatal ETU metabolite levels differ by work sector and whether maternal urinary ETU increases with longer work hours. Methods. Participants (agricultural workers, non-agricultural workers, and non-workers) provided baseline urine samples, which were processed and stored for ETU analysis. Surveys captured ETU exposure predictors. Regression models assessed associations between work sector, weekly work hours, and urinary ETU levels (specific gravity-corrected), controlling for key covariates. Results. The sample includes 111 agricultural workers (92% floriculture), 149 non-agricultural workers, and 149 non-workers. At baseline, maternal age averaged 27 years (SD = 5.8) and gestational age 15 weeks (SD = 3.2). Urinary ETU_SG levels were elevated across the sample (geometric mean: 3.38 µg/L). Agricultural workers had significantly higher ETU_SG levels than others (5.61 vs. 3.07 and 2.57 µg/L; p < 0.001). Among agricultural workers, ETU_SG levels increased with weekly hours (B = 0.288, p = 0.001). Conclusions. Agricultural work strongly predicts higher prenatal ETU exposure, with evidence of a dose–response relationship. Research on prenatal fungicide exposure and infant health among pregnant workers is limited. Findings highlight the need for targeted interventions to protect pregnant workers and infant health. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biological Effects and Mechanisms of Environmental Endocrine Disruptors)

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15 pages, 2230 KB

Open AccessArticle

Effects of Decabromodiphenyl Ether (BDE209) Exposure on Toxicity and Oxidative Stress of Beas-2B Cells

by Yanan Zhang, Ziyu Xiao, Pu Mao, Fengrui Yang, Yingdi Ma, Bensen Xian, Mingming Fu and Guiying Li

Toxics 2025, 13(11), 987; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13110987 - 16 Nov 2025

Abstract

Decabromodiphenyl ether (BDE209) has been widely used because of its excellent flame-retardant properties and ability. On the one hand, many studies have shown that the presence of BDE209 can potentially threaten human health and the environment. The production and processing of products containing [...] Read more.

Decabromodiphenyl ether (BDE209) has been widely used because of its excellent flame-retardant properties and ability. On the one hand, many studies have shown that the presence of BDE209 can potentially threaten human health and the environment. The production and processing of products containing BDE209 is prohibited except for special applications in China. On the other hand, the study of BDE209 on respiratory cells is not yet fully understood. Consequently, this study aims to investigate the mechanisms of toxic damage and oxidative stress induced by BDE209 exposure in lung epithelial Beas-2B cells. The proliferation of Beas-2B cells under BDE209 exposure was first analyzed by using a real-time label-free cell analyzer (RTCA). Then the cells’ morphological changes were observed using laser confocal microscopy. Subsequently, the effects of BDE209 exposure alone, combined exposure to N-acetylcysteine (NAC) and BDE209, on reactive oxygen species (ROS) levels and antioxidant defense-related factors in Beas-2B cells were analyzed separately. The results show that BDE209 exposure induces the proliferation of Beas-2B cells with a dose-dependent increase in inhibition. Microscopic observation of Beas-2B cells reveals significant damage and death. The levels of ROS are significantly increased (p < 0.01), the contents of superoxide dismutase (SOD) and malondialdehyde (MDA) are increased, the contents of catalase (CAT) are decreased, and the activities of glutathione peroxidase (GPX) are first decreased and then increased. However, under the co-exposure of NAC and BDE209, ROS levels are significantly reduced (p < 0.01), MDA contents decrease, and SOD activities increase. In summary, BDE209 exposure leads to inhibition of Beas-2B cell proliferation, cellular morphology damage, increased ROS levels, and disturbances in antioxidant defense-related factors. The cells showed toxic damage and oxidative stress. In contrast, NAC can suppress ROS levels, enhance SOD activity, and inhibit GPX activity, thereby alleviating BDE209-induced cellular damage. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Emerging Contaminants)

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15 pages, 5898 KB

Open AccessArticle

A GC-MS Database of Nitrogen-Rich Volatile Compounds

by Anastasia Yu. Sholokhova, Svetlana A. Borovikova, Dmitry S. Kosyakov and Dmitriy D. Matyushin

Toxics 2025, 13(11), 986; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13110986 - 16 Nov 2025

Abstract

Unsymmetrical dimethylhydrazine (UDMH) was previously used as a rocket propellant in launch vehicles. During the operation and accidents of launch vehicles, hundreds of tons of UDMH were released. While these launch vehicles are gradually being phased out, UDMH continues to be used in [...] Read more.

Unsymmetrical dimethylhydrazine (UDMH) was previously used as a rocket propellant in launch vehicles. During the operation and accidents of launch vehicles, hundreds of tons of UDMH were released. While these launch vehicles are gradually being phased out, UDMH continues to be used in space technology and other industries. When released into the environment, UDMH forms numerous transformation products. Several dozen have been reliably identified, and hundreds are believed to exist, many of which are highly toxic and quite persistent in the environment. Gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC-MS) is one of the primary methods for identifying these compounds. Library searches using mass spectra and retention indices are often used. However, UDMH transformation products are highly specific—they are organic compounds, typically aromatic heterocycles, with unusually high nitrogen content. Such compounds are poorly represented in GC-MS databases, while existing data are often of poor quality and were obtained back in the 1980s. A database of such compounds was presented, containing information on retention indices for non-polar (5%-phenylpolydimethylsiloxane) and polar (polyethylene glycol) stationary phases, as well as electron ionization mass spectra (70 eV) for 104 nitrogen-containing compounds: derivatives of triazoles, pyrazoles, imidazoles, pyridines, diazines, and triazines, as well as amides and other compounds. Many of the compounds presented in the database are proven UDMH transformation products, while many of the other compounds are probable. Derivatives of triazoles and triazines are also used as pesticides, and our database can be useful in detecting their derivatives. The database is free and available online. Full article

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20 pages, 25859 KB

Open AccessArticle

Improved Assessment and Prediction of Groundwater Drinking Quality Integrating Game Theory and Machine Learning in the Nyangchu River Basin, Southwestern Qinghai–Tibet Plateau

by Xun Huang, Xiyong Wu, Weiting Liu, Denghui Wei, Ying Wang, Hua Wu, Yangshuang Wang, Boyi Zhu, Qili Hu, Yunhui Zhang and Wei Wang

Toxics 2025, 13(11), 985; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13110985 - 16 Nov 2025

Abstract

To address the limitations of traditional groundwater quality assessment and prediction methods, this study integrates game theory and machine learning to investigate the drinking quality of groundwater in the southwestern Qinghai–Tibet Plateau. The results showed that the groundwater in the study area is [...] Read more.

To address the limitations of traditional groundwater quality assessment and prediction methods, this study integrates game theory and machine learning to investigate the drinking quality of groundwater in the southwestern Qinghai–Tibet Plateau. The results showed that the groundwater in the study area is generally weakly alkaline (mean pH: 8.08) and dominated by freshwater (mean TDS: 302.58 mg/L), with hardness levels mostly ranging from soft to medium. Major cations follow the concentration order: Ca²⁺ > Na⁺ > Mg²⁺ > K⁺; anions are in the sequence of HCO₃⁻ > SO₄²⁻ > Cl⁻. The hydrochemical type is mainly Ca-HCO₃. A few samples exceed the limit values specified in the Groundwater Quality Standard. Through multivariate statistical analysis, ion ratio analysis, and saturation index calculations, water-rock interaction is identified as the primary factor influencing groundwater chemistry. It consists of carbonate dissolution and silicate weathering, accompanied by cation exchange. The water quality index improved based on game theory, integrated subjective weights (from analytic hierarchy process) and objective weights (from entropy-weighted method), shows that the overall groundwater quality in the study area is good: 95.97% of the samples are high-quality water (WQI ≤ 50), more than 99% of the samples have a WQI < 150, which is suitable as drinking water sources; only 0.81% of the samples are of extremely poor quality, presumably related to local pollution. Linear regression achieved the best performance (R² = 0.99, RMSE≈0.00) with strong stability, followed by support vector machines (test R² = 0.98), while the extreme gradient boosting model showed overfitting. This study provides a scientific basis for groundwater management in river basins. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Water-Soil Pollution Control and Environmental Management)

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15 pages, 1543 KB

Open AccessArticle

Distribution, Sources, and Risks of Heavy Metal Contamination in Farmland Soils Surrounding Typical Industrial Areas of South Shanxi Province, China

by Ying Zhao, Yirong Ren and Fei Wang

Toxics 2025, 13(11), 984; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13110984 - 16 Nov 2025

Abstract

This research investigated the characteristics and risks associated with heavy metal contamination in farmland soils surrounding an industrial aggregation area in Yuncheng City, southern Shanxi Province. It analyzed the concentrations and spatial accumulation patterns of eight heavy metal elements, employed principal component analysis [...] Read more.

This research investigated the characteristics and risks associated with heavy metal contamination in farmland soils surrounding an industrial aggregation area in Yuncheng City, southern Shanxi Province. It analyzed the concentrations and spatial accumulation patterns of eight heavy metal elements, employed principal component analysis (PCA) to identify sources, and assessed both the ecological and health risks. The results revealed the following: (1) The mean concentrations of Pb, Cd, As, Hg, Cr, Zn, Cu, and Ni in the study area were 26.1, 0.29, 13.4, 0.05, 61.4, 72.94, 27.15, and 32.33 mg·kg⁻¹, respectively. These concentrations were elevated above local background levels but remained within Chinese regulatory thresholds for agricultural soil. According to the geoaccumulation index, only Cd was classified as slightly polluted, while the other elements were essentially uncontaminated. The Nemerow comprehensive pollution index indicated light pollution. The potential ecological risk index identified Cd and Hg as the primary contributors to ecological risk, indicating moderate contamination. (2) Source apportionment results revealed that As, Cr, and Ni originated from industrial–natural sources; Cd, Zn, and Cu were linked to industrial production; and Pb and Hg were attributed to mining and traffic sources. (3) Health risk assessments suggested that non-carcinogenic risks for adults and children (0.28 and 0.51, respectively) were within safe limits. However, the carcinogenic risk for children (1.02 × 10⁻⁴) exceeded the acceptable threshold, while the level for adults (4.67 × 10⁻⁵) remained acceptable. This study provides a scientific basis for preventing, controlling and remediating local heavy metal contamination in soil. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Pollutants in Soil and Groundwater, Effects and Strategies for Comprehensive Risk Assessment)

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16 pages, 1874 KB

Open AccessArticle

Association of Prenatal Ozone Exposure with Fetal Growth and Birth Outcomes: Roles of Maternal Inflammation and Metabolic Dysregulation

by Zexin Yu, Chunyan Wang, Yueyi Lv, Mengjun Chang, Hao Wang, Yunyun Du, Xianjia Li, Jin Ji and Suzhen Guan

Toxics 2025, 13(11), 983; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13110983 - 15 Nov 2025

Abstract

Prenatal ozone (O₃) exposure may trigger systemic inflammation and oxidative stress. These effects could contribute to adverse pregnancy outcomes. We conducted a prospective cohort study involving 235 pregnant women in Ningxia, China. Maternal O₃ exposure during pregnancy and prior to [...] Read more.

Prenatal ozone (O₃) exposure may trigger systemic inflammation and oxidative stress. These effects could contribute to adverse pregnancy outcomes. We conducted a prospective cohort study involving 235 pregnant women in Ningxia, China. Maternal O₃ exposure during pregnancy and prior to conception was assessed using high-resolution spatiotemporal models. Multivariable logistic and linear regression analyses were employed to evaluate the associations between O₃ exposure and adverse pregnancy outcomes. Mediation and interaction models were further applied to examine the potential modifying roles of gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) and inflammatory biomarkers. In multivariable analyses adjusted for maternal and environmental covariates, higher prenatal O₃ exposure was significantly associated with an increased risk of preterm birth (PTB) (OR = 1.24, 95% CI: 1.05~1.45, p = 0.010) and low birth weight (LBW) (OR = 1.29, 95% CI: 1.09~1.54, p = 0.004). Similarly, elevated maternal SAA and CRP levels were positively associated with these adverse pregnancy outcomes (p < 0.05). Notably, higher TNF-α levels were inversely associated with the risks of PTB (OR = 0.15, 95% CI: 0.03~0.85, p = 0.032) and LBW (OR = 0.05, 95% CI: 0.01~0.39, p = 0.005). IL-17A levels were inversely associated with neonatal length-for-age Z scores (β = −0.28, 95% CI: −0.55~−0.01, p = 0.043). Our findings suggest that prenatal O₃ exposure is associated with increased risks of PTB and LBW. Alterations in systemic inflammatory markers and metabolic dysfunction during pregnancy were related to adverse pregnancy outcomes and fetal growth deficits, but they did not mediate these associations, with O₃ remaining an independent predictor after adjustment. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Air Pollution and Health)

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14 pages, 2132 KB

Open AccessArticle

Construction and Application of Indirect Competitive Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay for Acetamiprid in Traditional Chinese Medicine

by Tingting Zhou, Biao Zhang, Xuan Xie, Yuanxi Liu, Hailiang Li, Hongyu Jin, Yongqiang Lin, Feng Wei and Ying Wang

Toxics 2025, 13(11), 982; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13110982 - 15 Nov 2025

Abstract

The contamination of traditional Chinese medicines (TCMs) with neonicotinoid pesticides, notably acetamiprid (ACE), poses a significant challenge to product safety. Conventional detection methods are often hampered by operational complexity, prolonged analysis times, and dependence on sophisticated instrumentation, rendering them impractical for rapid on-site [...] Read more.

The contamination of traditional Chinese medicines (TCMs) with neonicotinoid pesticides, notably acetamiprid (ACE), poses a significant challenge to product safety. Conventional detection methods are often hampered by operational complexity, prolonged analysis times, and dependence on sophisticated instrumentation, rendering them impractical for rapid on-site screening. To address these limitations, an indirect competitive enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ic-ELISA) was developed for the efficient quantification of ACE residue in TCM matrices. A monoclonal antibody-based ic-ELISA was developed through the synthesis of an ACE antigen. Critical assay parameters—including coated antigen concentration, antibody dilution ratio, and blocking buffer composition—were systematically optimized. The validated protocol was subsequently applied to ACE detection in five representative TCMs. The sensitivity (IC₅₀), limit of detection (IC₁₅), and detection range (IC₂₀-IC₈₀) of the developed ic-ELISA for ACE were 13.61 ng/mL, 0.50 ng/mL, and 1.00–150.99 ng/mL, respectively. The ic-ELISA demonstrated good stability and specificity, with cross-reactivity for ACE analogs all below 1.5%. Additionally, the ic-ELISA for ACE achieved recoveries of 86.87–104.80% in spiked TCM samples (Lonicerae Japonicae Flos, Lycii Fructus, Bulbus Lilii, Citri Reticulatae Pericarpium, and Jasminum sambae Flos), with relative standard deviations (RSDs) of 3.33–12.05%. The recovery rate of ic-ELISA was verified to be in good consistency with that of high-performance liquid chromatography (86.09–102.10%), indicating that ic-ELISA has acceptable accuracy and precision. This approach is simple and sensitive, making it suitable for the rapid quantitative detection of ACE residues in TCM products. It also provides technical references for the development of ic-ELISA for other small-molecule contaminants. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Harmful Substances and Safety Evaluation of Herbal Medicines)

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16 pages, 2494 KB

Open AccessArticle

Beta-Blockers as Potential Adjuvants in Melanoma Treatment

by Laura Rama, Mónica Almeida, Jiya Jose, Maria de Lourdes Pereira and Miguel Oliveira

Toxics 2025, 13(11), 981; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13110981 - 14 Nov 2025

Abstract

Melanoma, in advanced stages, is the most invasive type of skin cancer, with currently available treatments showing limited efficiency. The number of melanoma cancer cases is expected to increase in the coming years, emphasizing the need for more efficient therapeutic strategies. The present [...] Read more.

Melanoma, in advanced stages, is the most invasive type of skin cancer, with currently available treatments showing limited efficiency. The number of melanoma cancer cases is expected to increase in the coming years, emphasizing the need for more efficient therapeutic strategies. The present study aimed to evaluate the potential of β-blockers, commonly used to treat cardiac conditions, to be repurposed for the treatment of melanoma. The effects of non-selective β-blockers (carvedilol and propranolol), β1 selective blockers (atenolol and metoprolol) and antineoplastics drugs (cisplatin and 5-fluorouracil) on the A375 melanoma cell line were studied, individually and in combined exposures, by assessing cell viability over a 72 h period. The 72 h half-maximal inhibitory concentrations (IC₅₀s) determined for A375 cells allow the ranking of toxicity as: cisplatin (2.46 (1.87–3.38) μM) > 5-fluorouracil (4.77 (4.48–5.07) μM) > carvedilol (16.91 (15.47–18.99) μM) > propranolol (58.03 (57.08–59.11) μM) > atenolol and metoprolol (β1 selective blockers that exhibited no significant effect on the cell’s viability). The effects of combined exposures were also studied. Metoprolol and carvedilol exhibited synergistic interactions with cisplatin at specific concentrations. Overall, the data highlight the concentration-dependent nature of mixture effects and support the potential application of β-blockers melanoma treatment. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Drugs Toxicity)

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21 pages, 1879 KB

Open AccessArticle

Hetero-Aggregation of Nanoplastics with Freshwater Algae and the Toxicological Consequences: The Role of Extracellular Polymeric Substances

by Jiannan Ding, Jiaxin Yang, Xiaojun Song, Shuo Liu, Zhenguo Wang and Hua Zou

Toxics 2025, 13(11), 980; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13110980 - 14 Nov 2025

Abstract

The presence of nanoplastics (NPs) in freshwater environments has received increasing attention in recent years. However, the hetero-aggregation behaviors of NPs with the co-existing algae and the influence on NP toxicity, especially the potential role of extracellular polymeric substances (EPS) during the entire [...] Read more.

The presence of nanoplastics (NPs) in freshwater environments has received increasing attention in recent years. However, the hetero-aggregation behaviors of NPs with the co-existing algae and the influence on NP toxicity, especially the potential role of extracellular polymeric substances (EPS) during the entire process, are poorly understood. In this study, the hetero-aggregations of polystyrene (PS) and polylactic acid (PLA) NPs with Chlorella vulgaris, along with their toxicological consequences, were investigated in EPS-containing and EPS-free conditions. The results in the 12 h settling experiments showed that the ΔOD_reduced values ranged from 0.33 to 0.74, and the PS NPs exhibited higher aggregation efficiency with algae than the PLA NPs, which was inconsistent with previous microplastic studies and the Derjaguin–Landau–Verwey–Overbeek calculations. This can be attributed to the unique properties of NPs and the mediating effects of tightly bound and loosely bound EPS during the formation of stable heteropolymers. In the 96 h toxicological experiments, various endpoints for algal growth inhibition, pigment synthesis disturbance, cell membrane damage, and oxidative stress were measured. Both the ΔOD_reduced values and integrated biomarker responses were positively associated with membrane damage and superoxide dismutase activity, demonstrating a view that the hetero-aggregation behavior could affect the membrane integrity and oxidative stress of algal cells, and exacerbate the toxicity of NPs on algae. The present study underscores the material-specific uniqueness of NPs in interactions with freshwater algae. Further studies are needed to broaden our knowledge of the hetero-aggregation behaviors and toxicological effects of NPs. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Monitoring, Transformation and Ecological Risk Assessment of Pharmaceuticals and Personal Care Products in Aquatic Environments)

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16 pages, 1486 KB

Open AccessArticle

Aquatic Toxicity of Antibiotics Ciprofloxacin and Sulfamethoxazole: Significant Impact on Early Life Stages of Crustaceans, a Marine Diatom, and a Freshwater Plant

by Edoardo Pietropoli, Rebecca Zgheib, Marco Selmo, Giacomo Melotto, Rosa Maria Lopparelli, Lorena Lucatello, Marianna Pauletto and Marco De Liguoro

Toxics 2025, 13(11), 979; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13110979 - 14 Nov 2025

Abstract

The occurrence of antibiotic residues in the environment is of concern not only because of their contribution to the spread of bacterial resistance, but also due to their possible toxicity to non-target organisms. In this study, the aquatic environmental toxicity of ciprofloxacin (CIP) [...] Read more.

The occurrence of antibiotic residues in the environment is of concern not only because of their contribution to the spread of bacterial resistance, but also due to their possible toxicity to non-target organisms. In this study, the aquatic environmental toxicity of ciprofloxacin (CIP) and sulfamethoxazole (SMX) was assessed in the following model organisms: Daphnia magna and Artemia salina (embryonic and immobilisation test with a 10-d follow-up), Phaeodactylum tricornutum (algal growth inhibition test), and Spirodela polyrhiza (duckweed growth inhibition test). Results showed that among the two saltwater organisms, A. salina was insensitive to both antibiotics, whilst P. tricornutum responded only to SMX with an EC₅₀ of 2.7 mg L⁻¹. In freshwater species, D. magna embryos were more sensitive than juveniles to SMX (EC₅₀ 53.8 and 439.2 mg L⁻¹, respectively), whereas the opposite trend was observed for CIP (EC₅₀ 95.9 and 15 mg L⁻¹, respectively). S. polyrhiza confirmed the remarkable sensitivity of aquatic plants to fluoroquinolones, with EC₅₀ values between 0.28 and 0.34 mg L⁻¹ depending on the endpoint considered. Notably, this species was also more sensitive to SMX than expected, with EC₅₀ values between 1.5 and 2.5 mg L⁻¹, which are an order of magnitude lower than those typically obtained with Lemna spp. exposed to sulphonamides. Considering the high environmental input of these antibiotics from both human and veterinary treatments, adverse effects on aquatic plants cannot be excluded, potentially leading to ecosystem-level consequences. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Pharmaceutical Pollutants: Environmental Fate, Risk Assessment and Sustainable Solutions)

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27 pages, 9778 KB

Open AccessArticle

Gut–Liver Axis Mediates the Combined Hepatointestinal Toxicity of Triclosan and Polystyrene Microplastics in Mice: Implications for Human Co-Exposure Risks

by Huijuan Liu, Jie Zhou, Zhifei Cheng, Wenhao Liu and Jiao Xie

Toxics 2025, 13(11), 977; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13110977 - 14 Nov 2025

Abstract

As two representative environmental contaminants, the individual toxic effects of microplastics and triclosan have been extensively studied; however, systematic evidence regarding their combined toxicity in mammals and the underlying mechanisms remains lacking. In this study, mice were orally exposed to triclosan (TCS) or/and [...] Read more.

As two representative environmental contaminants, the individual toxic effects of microplastics and triclosan have been extensively studied; however, systematic evidence regarding their combined toxicity in mammals and the underlying mechanisms remains lacking. In this study, mice were orally exposed to triclosan (TCS) or/and polystyrene microplastics (PS), and their toxicity to intestine and liver was evaluated through histopathological examination, biochemical assays, and 16S rRNA sequencing. Results demonstrated that co-exposure to TCS and PS elicited markedly aggravated toxicological effects compared to individual exposures. Histopathological evaluation revealed exacerbated tissue damage, with histological scores substantially higher in co-exposed mice (colon: 7.27; liver: 5.0) than in PS-alone (colon: 6.07; liver: 3.0) or TCS-alone (colon: 3.0; liver: 0.7) groups. Quantitative Integrated Biomarker Response (IBR) analysis confirmed this potential additive or synergistic interaction: co-exposure not only dramatically elevated colonic oxidative stress (R_IB = 12.30 vs. 5.88 in PS and 0.23 in TCS groups) but also exacerbated inflammatory responses (R_IB = 11.69 vs. 3.52 in PS and 0 in TCS). Hepatic assessment demonstrated the most severe compromise in liver function and oxidative homeostasis following co-exposure (R_IB = 16.48), markedly exceeding the effects of individual PS (4.75) or TCS (0.43) exposure. In-depth exploration found that co-exposure to TCS and PS significantly disrupted gut microbiota homeostasis, characterized by enrichment of opportunistic pathogens and depletion of short-chain fatty acid-producing bacteria; these alterations were not only correlated with intestinal barrier impairment but also exacerbated gut–liver axis dysregulation. Together, the findings not only highlight the synergistic toxicity of triclosan and polystyrene microplastics in mice but also identify the gut–liver axis as a mediator of this effect, thereby providing novel evidence for health risk assessment and underscoring a potential concern for human health under co-exposure. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Exposome Analysis and Risk Assessment)

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19 pages, 4277 KB

Open AccessArticle

Spatiotemporal Trends and Drivers of PM_2.5 Concentrations in Shandong Province from 2014 to 2023 Under Socioeconomic Transition

by Shuaisen Qiao, Qingchun Guo, Zhenfang He, Genyue Feng, Zhaosheng Wang and Xinzhou Li

Toxics 2025, 13(11), 978; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13110978 - 13 Nov 2025

Abstract

China’s rapid economic growth since its reform and opening-up has come at the cost of worsening atmospheric pollution. This study investigates the spatiotemporal evolution and driving mechanisms of PM_2.5 concentrations in Shandong province, a key industrial region, during 2014–2023, using comprehensive air [...] Read more.

China’s rapid economic growth since its reform and opening-up has come at the cost of worsening atmospheric pollution. This study investigates the spatiotemporal evolution and driving mechanisms of PM_2.5 concentrations in Shandong province, a key industrial region, during 2014–2023, using comprehensive air quality monitoring, meteorological observations, and socioeconomic datasets. Through spatial analysis and geodetector methods, we identify that (1) The annual PM_2.5 concentration decreases significantly by 50.9%; spatially, heterogeneity is observed with the western urban agglomeration experiencing more severe pollution, while the eastern coastal urban agglomeration exhibits better air quality. (2) Gravity model analysis shows that the centroids of PM_2.5 pollution undergo distinct migration phases. (3) PM_2.5 levels show a distinct seasonal pattern, peaking in winter at a level 143.7% higher than the summer average. (4) The meteorological driving factors are primarily air temperature (r = 0.511) and wind speed (r = −0.487), while the socioeconomic factors are tertiary industry production (r = −0.971), particulate matter emissions (r = 0.956), and sulfur dioxide emissions (r = 0.938). Concurrently, the combined effect of tertiary industry production and PM emissions account for 99.5% of PM_2.5 variability. Notably, we validate an Environmental Kuznets Curve relationship (R² = 0.805) between economic development and air quality improvement, demonstrating that clean production policy integration can reconcile environmental and economic objectives. These findings provide empirical evidence supporting circular economy strategies for air pollution mitigation in industrializing regions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Interventions, Practices, and Policies to Reduce Particulate Matter Air Pollution Exposure and Health Outcomes)

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5 pages, 151 KB

Open AccessEditorial

Multiple Effects, Pathways, and Potential Health Risks from Environmental Microplastic Exposure

by Lei Su

Toxics 2025, 13(11), 976; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13110976 - 13 Nov 2025

Abstract

After nearly two decades of extensive research, microplastics (MPs) have been documented in virtually all ecosystems and across diverse environmental compartments [...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Environmental Exposure to Microplastics: Effects on Animals and Human Health)

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